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The following HTML text is provided to enhance online readability. Many aspects of typography translate only awkwardly to HTML. Please use the page image as the authoritative form to ensure accuracy. CSM Climate System Model CTM Chemical transport model Direct forcing Climate forcing that directly effects the radiative budget of the Earth’s climate system. For example, this perturbation may be due to a change in concentration of the radiatively active gases, a change in solar radiation reaching the Earth, or changes in surface albedo. Radiative forcing is reported in the climate change scientific literature as a change in energy flux at the tropopause, calculated in units of watts per square meter (W m−2); model calculations typically report values in which the stratosphere was allowed to adjust thermally to the forcing under an assumption of fixed stratospheric dynamics. DSCOVR Deep Space Climate Observatory DVI Dust veil index EBM Energy Balance Model ECHAM GCM based on European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasting forecast models, modified and extended in Hamburg ECMWF European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts EDGAR Emissions Database for Global Atmospheric Research Efficacy The ratio of the climate sensitivity parameter λ for a given forcing agent to λ for a doubling of CO2 ENSO El Niño/Southern Oscillation EOS Earth Observing System ERBE Earth Radiation Budget Experiment ERBS Earth Radiation Budget Satellite Evapotranspiration The combined processes, including physical evaporation and transpiration, through which water is transferred to the atmosphere from open water and ice surfaces, bare soil, and vegetation that make up the Earth’s surface. Over bare soils or the ocean, only physical evaporation occurs. FN Freezing nuclei GCM General circulation model GCR Galactic cosmic rays GDP Gross domestic product
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. The efficacy E is then used to define an effective forcing Fe = f E.