Reduce ischemia

• Antivasospasm agents

• Protein kinase inhibitors

• Steroids

• Prevent disruption to the blood-spinal cord barrier

• Mild to moderate regional hypothermia

Reduce calcium influx

• Blockers of ion channels or exchangers

Reduce edema and formation of free radicals

• Antioxidant enzymes, including free-radical scavengers (e.g., superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, catalase, and melatonin)

• Inhibitors of nitric oxide synthase

Control inflammation or enhance protective immunity

• Steroids and other anti-inflammatories (e.g., COX-2 inhibitors and anti-inflammatory cytokines)

• Activated macrophages and monocytes

• Inhibitors of immune cell infiltration of the CNS

• Antibodies against integrin on the vascular surface to prevent egress of neutrophils

Reduce tissue loss

• Cell transplantation (e.g., Schwann cells and olfactory ensheathing cells)

• Increase intercellular cyclic AMP levels