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The following HTML text is provided to enhance online readability. Many aspects of typography translate only awkwardly to HTML. Please use the page image as the authoritative form to ensure accuracy. Assessment biomarker applications, 77–79 of complications of spinal cord injury, 76 experimental models, 65 of functional outcomes of spinal cord injury, 74–76 imaging technologies, 83–88 injury classification, 32–36 injury outcomes, 260–267 pain, 53 recommendations for research, 89 standardization of outcome measures, 168–172, 178–179 technical development, 64 Astrocytes, 37 in glial scarring, 43 Atrophy, muscle, 112 Autonomic dysreflexia, 105 Autonomic nervous system motor function and, 48 Axon anatomy and function, 31 embryonic development, 130 spinal cord pathophysiology, 43 Axonal regrowth, 3 animal models, 65–66, 70, 71–73 barriers to, strategies to remove, 127–129 cell transplantation to promote, 132, 135–136 combination therapies to promote, 140–141 environmental conditions for, 45–46, 129 gene therapies to improve, 130–132 glial scarring in inhibition of, 43–45, 127 guidance, 129–130 in vitro studies, 65 macrophage therapy to improve, 123 molecular processes, 65 muscle spasticity and, 52 neurotrophic factors to promote, 135 pain outcomes and, 101–102 research needs, 58 research recommendations, 4, 8, 143 restoration of impulse conduction, 133–134 spontaneous healing, 47 strategies for promoting, 129 synaptic connections, 129 tissue scaffolding to promote, 132 Axon anatomy and function, 31 embryonic development, 130 spinal cord pathophysiology, 43 B Baclofen, 102 Basal ganglia, 48 Basso, Beattie, and Bresnahan (BBB) scale, 74–76, 260 Basso Mouse Scale (BMS), 74–76, 260–261 applications, 77–79 current technology, 77 future prospects for research, 81–83 in imaging technologies, 85–87 Bladder function, 105 anatomy, 55 outcomes by level of injury, 16, 18 therapeutic interventions, 103–104, 110–111 types of dysfunction, 103 Blood pressure, spinal cord injury and, 39 Body weight support training, 108–110 Bone disorders, 107 outcomes by level of injury, 16, 18 pathophysiology, 56–57 Brain-derived neurotrophic factor, 126 Brain stem, motor function, 48 Bryon Reisch Paralysis Foundation, 191 Buoniconti Fund to Cure Paralysis, 191 C C fibers, 56 Calcium, intracellular, 126 in apoptosis, 42–43 in spinal cord injury pathophysiology, 41
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