6
Summary
The purpose of this report was to review published material in order to identify trends relevant to the deterioration of drinking water quality in water supply distribution systems and to identify and prioritize issues of greatest concern. The trends relevant to the deterioration of drinking water quality in distribution systems include:
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Aging distribution systems. Increasing numbers of main breaks and pipe replacement activities are a possibility as systems age, depending on the pipe materials and linings used, the water quality, and system operation and maintenance practices.
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Decreasing numbers of waterborne outbreaks reported per year since 1982, but an increasing percentage attributable to distribution system issues. This trend is probably is related to better treatment of surface water.
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Increasing host susceptibility to infection and disease in the U.S. population. This trend is caused by aging of the U. S. population, the increase in the incidence of AIDS, and the increasing use of immunosuppressive therapy.
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Increasing use of bottled water and point of use treatment devices. This trend suggests that exposure to tap water on a per capita basis may be decreasing. However, it should be kept in mind that point-of-use devices can support microbial regrowth.
The issues from the nine EPA white papers have been prioritized using categories of highest, medium, and lower priority. Also, several significant issues that were overlooked in previous reports have been identified by the committee and added. The highest priority issues are those that have a recognized health risk based on clear epidemiological and surveillance data.
Cross connections and backflow. Cross connections and backflow events are ranked as the highest priority because of the long history of recognized health risks posed by cross connections, the clear epidemiological and surveillance data implicating these events with outbreaks or sporadic cases of waterborne disease, and the availability of proven technologies to prevent cross connections.
Contamination during installation, rehabilitation, and repair of water mains and appurtenances. Chemical and microbial contamination of distribution system mate-
rials and drinking water during mains breaks and during the installation, rehabilitation, and repair of water mains and appurtenances is a high priority issue because there have been many documented instances of significant health impacts from drinking water contamination associated with pipe failures and maintenance activities.
Improperly maintained and operated distribution system storage facilities. Several documented waterborne disease outbreaks and the potential for contamination due to the large number of these facilities makes this a high priority distribution system water quality maintenance and protection issue.
Control of water quality in premise plumbing. Virtually every problem identified in potable water transmission systems can also occur in premise plumbing, and some are magnified because of premise plumbing characteristics and the way in which water is used in residences. Health risks associated with premise plumbing are hard to assess because the majority of health problems are likely to be sporadic, unreported cases of waterborne disease that affect single households. Waterborne disease outbreaks due to premise plumbing failures in residential buildings have been documented.
Distribution system operator training. Training of drinking water distribution system operators traditionally has focused on issues related to the mechanical aspects of water delivery (pumps and valves) and safety. System operators are also responsible for ensuring that conveyance of the water does not allow degradation of water quality, and it is important that they receive adequate training to meet this responsibility.
Medium priority issues are those where existing data suggest that the health risks are low or limited to sensitive populations. Issues where there were insufficient data to determine the magnitude of the health risk were also classified as medium priority.
Biofilm Growth. Although biofilms are widespread in distribution systems, the public health risk from this source of exposure appears to be limited to opportunistic pathogens that may cause disease in the immunocompromised population. Some data suggest that biofilms may protect microbial pathogens from disinfection, but there are few studies directly linking health effects to biofilms.
Loss of Disinfectant Residual. The loss of disinfectant residual caused by increased water age and nitrification is considered a medium priority concern because it is an indirect health impact that compromises the biological integrity of the system and promotes microbial regrowth.
Intrusion. Intrusion from pressure transients is a subset of the cross-connection and backflow issue. It has associated health risks, and is therefore an important distribution system water quality maintenance and protection issue. There are insufficient data to indicate whether it is a substantial health risk, however.
Lower priority issues are those that are already covered by current regulations, well-managed in the majority of water distribution systems, and are unlikely to pose a health risk.
Other Effects of Water Age. The quality of distributed water, in particular water age, also has indirect effects such as (1) DBP formation in distribution systems with increasing water age that might cause the MCLs for these substances to be exceeded and (2) enhanced corrosion and the release of metals from corrosion scales. DBPs and common corrosion products are covered by the D/DBPR and the LCR, respectively.
Nitrification. Nitrification that results in (1) the formation of nitrite and nitrate in quantities that cause the MCLs for these substances to be exceeded or (2) the release of excessive concentrations of metal ions should be avoided. However, the formation of nitrate and nitrite is considered a relatively low risk for distribution systems compared to the other concerns mentioned in this report.
Permeation. Permeation of chemicals through plastic pipe can occur, but the potential health impacts are low and distribution systems can best be protected through measures that minimize the conditions under which permeation can occur.
Leaching. Excessive leaching of organic substances from pipe materials, linings, joining and sealing materials, coatings, and cement mortar pipe have occasionally been noted in the literature. Leaching is a relatively low priority relative to other distribution system problems and can be controlled by regulating the materials that are used in distribution and premise plumbing systems, by specifying the water chemistry that must be used if certain materials are to be employed, and by appropriate monitoring requirements.
Post-precipitation. An additional issue of lower priority is the control of post-precipitation, which causes an increase in pipe roughness and a decrease in effective pipe diameter, resulting in loss of hydraulic capacity accompanied by an increase in the energy required to distribute water, in the production of biofilms, and in the deterioration of tap water’s aesthetic quality.
Deteriorating infrastructure was not included as one of the issues that the committee prioritized because it is the ultimate cause of many of the other events that are discussed in this report, such as:
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water main breaks and contamination that results during their repair,
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contamination from decaying storage structures and their inadequate maintenance,
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intrusion and water loss,
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occurrence of excessive biofilms and nitrification,
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system design and operation practices that cause the water quality to degrade, and
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excessive deposits from corrosion and post-precipitation.
Solutions to problems caused by deteriorating infrastructure are thus expected to be applicable to most of the problems already discussed in this report. It should be noted that the rate of degradation of distribution system materials will vary from system to system depending on water quality and system operation and maintenance practices, such that the relationship between the age of a given system, its state of deterioration, and risk cannot be easily predicted. Confronting deteriorating infrastructure requires good asset management, including procedures to monitor and assess the condition of the distribution system and water quality changes that occur during distribution. Furthermore, appropriate maintenance, repair, and replacement should be carried out as needed, and operating and capital budgets should be available to finance this work.
