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Below are the first 10 and last 10 pages of uncorrected machine-read text (when available) of this chapter, followed by the top 30 algorithmically extracted key phrases from the chapter as a whole.
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OCR for page 57
4
Research Program Alternatives
The main part of this chapter is an examination of
several program options for interdisciplinary research in
mathematics and science education, and their strengths
and weaknesses, in light of the evidence and analysis
presented in Chapter 3. The review of program options
preceded by a brief disco sion of a few dimensions that
must be considered in any program planning process, and
it is followed by a few words on the need for long-range
planning. Throughout this chapter three groups of sci-
entists and educators are envisioned as participants in
the research: (1) natural scientists and mathematicians;
(2) social and behavioral scientists, researchers in
mathematics and science education, and other education
researchers; and (3) school administrators and teachers.
PROGRAM DIMENSIONS
The committee's assessment of existing examples of
interdisciplinary research and the needs for interdis-
ciplinary research in science and mathematics education
indicate that a sponsoring agency should carefully con-
sider a variety of options for research programs. Dif-
ferent program structures and objec~ci~res are likely to
lead to different kinds of participation as well as
different program outcomes. Three mayor dimensions of
program differences need to be considered in program
planning: size and time scale, strategy for involvement,
and leadership.
57
OCR for page 58
58
Size and Time Scale of Program
The resources likely to be available will affect allot
only the overall scale of the program but also ache probe
able size of individual research projects and grand.
For examples successful interdisciplinary research has
been conducted in large research centers, each in~rol~ring
many scientists from a single institution as well as scio
enlists and educators or clinicians on a full- or pert °
time basis from across the country Successful interdis-
eiplinary research has also been fostered through fellow-
ships awarded to individuals and through small grants
supporting only two in~restigatorso see, for example, ache
joint NSF/NTE program involving cognitive and natural
seientists9 and the resulting projects (described in
National Science Foundation, 1981) .
With respect to time scale, short- term and long- term
are often, but not necessarily, commensurate with small
and large. lotus, a program of modesty grants to small
teens of investigators can be expected to yield results
in basic knowledge or application relatively soon (Na-
tional Science Foundation, 1981:196-198), as can a large
ir~vestment irt a development project for which the basic
research base exists (e.g., the Manhattan ProJect)O But
small~scale invesmen~cs in training can be expected to
have long-term pay-off, and the large ir~vestment neces-
sary to create and sustain research and development
centers obviously represents a long-&cerm strategy, even
though shore term as well as long-term results can be
expected. Agencies sometimes favor programs of small
awards because they are more flexible with respect to
budgetary fluctuations than are programs that require
large~scale investments over a period of years. Program
flexibility, however, can turn into program instability,
causing the loss of outstanding investigators.
Strategy for Involvement
One type of s~crategy for in~cerdisciplinary collabo-
ration is for the agency carefully to define the problems
in science and mathematics education that are to be ad-
dressed and then request proposals for carrying out the
works A different strategy is for the agency to identify
eminent scientists and educators who are interested in
pursuing interdisciplinary research in science and mathe-
maties education and then allow them to define the nature
OCR for page 59
s9
of the problem(~), develop a plan for research, and lead
the research with agency support. A third strategy is to
offer inducements to promising young investigators (e.g.,
through specially designed research grants or fellow-
ships) to work in interdisciplinary settings. For any
given program idea, the agency has to decide on the most
appropriate strategy for involving scientists and edu-
cators .
Leadership
A sponsoring agency has to determine how the leaders
who are essential for interdisciplinary projects will be
provided. A sponsoring agency and its officials might
take a strong role in generating interest and ir~volvement
from the scientific community, as was the case in the
curriculum projects of the 1960s. Alternatively,, pro-
grams might give incentives to universities to organize
and marriage interdisciplinary research proje~ts9 as is
done in NSF's Materials Science Program. Another pos-
sibility is to ask professional scientific or educational
organizations to take the lead in planning and developing
interdisciplinary research projects. It should be noted
again that assurance of at least some stability in pro-
gram priorities and funding as well as some autonomy for
project leaders will help to attract outstanding sci-
entists and educators to interdisciplinary research.
PROGRAM OPTIONS
Considering these three dimensions of program plan-
ning for interdisciplinary research and using the analy-
ses presented in the preceding chapters, the committee
has endeavored to relate several program options to the
mayor factors that affect and are affected by interdisci-
plinary research. In Figure 1, ache options are listed in
the first column, and the factors identified in the com-
mittee' s analyses as related to successful intardisciplin-
ary research are displayed horizontally. Each program
option is discussed below, together with the factors most
strongly associated with it, as indicated by the aster-
isks in Figure I.
OCR for page 60
60
_ _.
~0
*
~ .
or
~ ~1
MU
ID
a;
~! ~] i] !~]
_
fi
ID
_
OCR for page 61
61
Interdisciplinary Research Centers
A large - scale program option for a sponsoring agency
is support of one or a few interdisciplinary research
centers. This model has been used to encourage research
institutions to plan and organize interdisciplinary re-
search programs. According to a recent study by the U.S.
General Accounting Office (1986), scientists who are in
research centers are involved in more cross-disciplinary
research than colleagues who are in regular academic
departments .
Research centers can be planned by the sponsoring
agency to address specific problems, as is the case for
the centers recently funded by the Department of Educa-
tion, or interdisciplinary research centers can be orga-
nized to give institutions flexibility in defining re-
search problems and planning interdisciplinary research.
For example, the NSF-supported Materials Research Labora-
tories and new Engineering Research Centers are funded
through block grants in order to encourage universities
and research institutions to organize programs of re-
search involving several disciplines. If a center is
large, it can also be asked to address systemically
related problems in order to counteract the proven
ineffectiveness of dealing with any educational problem
in isolation.
The conditions that are likely to be positively af-
[ected by the creation of research centers are shown in
Figure 1. First, the possibility of an interdisciplinary
center could stimulate research universities to provide
leadership for interdisciplinary work on science and
mathematics education. lathe examples cited above document
that block grants can help develop institutional leader-
ship .
Second, appropriate management incentives for foster -
ing interdisciplinary te^'In.n can be specified in agency
grant requirements. lithe requirements can also specify
the kinds of disciplines and specialists that are desir-
able in the projects, such as physical or life scien-
~cists, mathematicians, science educators, cognitive scien
discs, and school administrators or teachers. Grant
requirements, however, cannot ensure ache caliber of sci-
entists or educators that apply, though grant selection
can do so if there are enough applicants . Conversely,
inappropriate management strategies can discourage partic-
ipation by scientists and educators: for instance, a
sponsoring agency's methods of soliciting proposals and
OCR for page 62
62
oversight of projects can act as an incentive or disin°
centive for interdisciplinary work. The mounts of paper-
work, bureaucratic monitoring, and reporting that are
required were cited as important factors in the outcomes
of previous interdisciplinary projects (see Chapter 3~0
Bird, the commitment of adequate resources is a
ma; or advantage of the research center option. A funded
center allows both par~cicipants and institutions to cost
on a sufficient level of support for a multiple°year
effort to build and maintain effective ten for carrying
out substantial projected An important factor in Pretoria
ous successful interdisciplinary projects was just such a
margin of financial support so that the host institution
could attract outstanding ir~divid~ls' develop collabora-
tive working relations, and carry projects to fruition.
An additional dividend is that such centers cast provide
support for Junior faculty until they can build a track
record and then obtain funds on their own, thus expanding
the field. For example, materials science has largely
evolved as a recognized interdisciplinary field through
the long support of the Materials Research Laboratories.
Institutional support in the £o~ of rewards and recog-
nition for interdisciplinary activity, which has been
very important in earlier projects,, is also facilitated
by stable funding. Institutions are lithely to be more
willing to pro~ride greater professional rewards for
interdisciplinary research in the context of a funded
research center. Thus' the research center option can
increase the in~rol~rement of disciplinary scientists and
educators and encourage peer recognition for interdis-
ciplinary work, which in tub` can reinforce long°term
institutional support.
Fourth, coordination of project components and activi°
ties and regular communication among participants from
different disciplinary backgrounds are possible ire ret
search centers,, though not without explicit mechanisms.
Research centers can provide the opportunity for prox-
imity in physical location as well as funding for meet-
ingot and seminars that increase cross-disciplinary com-
munication. lathe sharing of equipment (~0 go, computers
arid software that funding of broad projects often en-
~cails also is a significant source of eollegialltye A
full - time pro] act leader is panic] cularly important for
coordination and communication, and a center is likely to
have a full- tin leader. It is slot possible deco predict,
however, whether a research center will facilitate good
communica~cions and coordination between scientists and
OCR for page 63
63
educators. Crossing institutional barriers is partic-
ularly difficult, especially if centers are located on
university campuses where school administrators and
teachers are not likely to be viewed as having equal
status with researchers.
Last, product orientation, for example, getting out
research results, developing improved teaching methods,
or creating better curricula, may be a positive result of
the research center option, particularly if the center
has some specific problem-solving missions defined from
the outset. A funding agency can have an important role
in establishing a product orientation, as with the cur-
riculum projects of the 1960s, but it has to avoid over-
management that decreases the flexibility of a center.
What kinds of problems of science and mathematics
education could most a~rantageo~ly be addressed through
research centers? Drawing on the needs outlined in
Chapter 2, likely areas include:
a
o
o
o research and development on the content of
science and mathematics curricula;
analyses of the role of school and classroom
contexts in shaping mathematics and science
curricula and instruction;
development of new testing approaches and
methodologies; and
research on how prospective and practicing
teachers develop knowledge and understanding of
subject matter and associated improvement of
preservice and inservice education.
For each of scheme areas, centers should be charged
with carrying out research, development, and--most
important--application is a variety of educational
settings. The work should be organized around problems,
development of solutions, and the application and imple-
mentation of solutions, not around broad-based research
questions. As a strategy for encouraging fresh ~riew-
points, a center might offer temporary appointments for 1
to 3 years. Consideration should also be given to creat-
ing some centers based on linkages to the areas of prac-
tice, egg., schools, state agencies, university services,
textbook publishers, etc. , rather than trying to develop
the linkages as a consequences of what is produced.
OCR for page 64
64
Recruitment of Top Scientists and Educators
A second large-scale option for a sponsoring agency
is a program that concentrates on recruiting eminent dive
ciplinary scientists, education researchers, and practi-
tioners. This kind of model was used by NSF in the cur-
riculum projects of the 1960s (described in Chapter 3~.
The curriculum projects were initiated jointly by promi-
nent scientists and the NSF staff after after ~satis-
factory curricula were identified to be a major problem
in mathematics and science education. As the reform
movement gained momentum, more top scientists and mathe-
maticians were recruited to participate in curriculum
development. The scientists and mathematicians designed
the projects, recruited others including outstanding
teachers, and led the development process.
Strong leadership by a sponsoring agency is always
likely to be an important factor in encouraging eminent
scientists and educators to become project 1eadersO Em-
phasis needs to be placed on giving leading researchers
scholars, and practitioners a wide degree of flexibility
and discretion in order to encourage their participa-
tion. Given a fixed amount of program resources' this
strategy is likely to result in ~ smaller nether of
projects being funded than would be the ease for a less
proactive grants program, since eminent participants will
expect (and can obtain for other activities) appropriate
resources to plan and carry out their ideas.
If the strategy is successful, it is likely to im-
prove the climate for interdisciplinary research because
of the participation of highly regarded individuals O
Resource commitment and in8ti=tiO~1 support also are
likely to be positively affected by recruitment of top
scientists and educators. However', other Biceps are
needed to ensure successful interdisciplinary activity in
science and mathematics education through this Tracery.
~ potential problem with this model is in gaining a
balance in the qualifications and status of scientists
and educators9 particularly since scientists have not
usually had high regard for educators. Problems of eom-
mur~ica~cion and coordination among project participants
may be further accentuated if Ache participants from the
various disciplines and specialties do not have respect
for the expertise or views of others in the interdis-
ciplinary team. This situation can result in domination
by one perspective, a criticism sometimes made of the
1960s curriculum projects.
OCR for page 65
as
A recruitment strategy might be considered for the
following types of activities identified as needs in
Chapter 2:
o development of new theories of instruction in
science and mathematics that incorporate recent
knowledge about reasoning in these fields;
o uses of new instructional technologies for improv-
ing the organization of schools and classrooms
for teaching mathematics or science;
o development of new testing approaches and method-
ologies; and
o change in the content of science and mathematics
curricula that takes account of new knowledge and
procedures in a discipline, new instructional
technologies, and new knowledge about the devel-
opment of student cognitive skills.
Campaigns to Increase Awareness
A third large- scale program option for 8 sponsoring
agency is to develop a campaign to increase the awareness
of scientists and educators of the need for interdisci~
plinary research. Much attention has been driven to such
indi cators of the inadequate quality of precollege sci-
ence and mathematics education as declines in course
enrollments, achievement test scores, and competent
teachers. Many scientists and educators are fully aware
of these indicators and have some interest in the associ
ated problems. Not many, however, are aware that the com-
plexity of most of these problems calls for an interdisci-
plinary approach, nor do they have any reason or incen-
tives for participating in interdisciplinary research.
An agency could develop a program to explain the nature
of the problems in more detail and outline the con~cribu-
tions that could be made toward developing answers O A
variation would be a targeted campaign aimed at scien-
tists and educators previously identified as having a
strong interest in science and mathematics education.
Such a campaign could involve professional scientific and
educational organizations and societies through confer-
ences, publications, and networks. Most important it
could provide support for dissemination and application
of successful examples of interdisciplinary research ~ n
science and mathematics education. Such demonstrations,
and perhaps the publication of some serious histories of
OCR for page 66
66
successful efforts, are needed to provide evidence of the
value of interdisciplinary ac~civity for improving educa°
tion. The suggested program, through emphasizing the im-
portance and effecti~renass of interdisciplinary research,
would improve the clients for increased involvement of
talented scientists and educators.
Areas likely to benefit most from such a strategy
include:
o
o
o
o
reformula~cion of the conic of precollege sci-
ence and mathematics curricula based on new Knowles
edges concepts, and procedures in Ache relevant
disciplines;
development of educational software in specific
subject areas;
research on teachers' understanding of ache con-
cepts and processes of a discipline and how it is
acquired;
analyses and development of effective methods for
teaching reasoning in specific disciplines to
student witch different aptitude and character-
istics .
Demonstration Schools and Classrooms
A meti~m-scale program option is support of demonstra-
tion schools and classrooms. Existing schools and class-
rooms could serve as hosts for interdisciplinary research
and teaching projects in science and mathematics educa-
tionO This option could be viewed as having similar
objectives and participants as the interdisciplinary
research centers but, instead of the University campus,
the school would be the host institution and th@ class"
room the locus of the activity.
Although such projects would be oriented toward
application--demonstration teaching, ongoing assessment,
and local curriculum improvement--they could also gener-
ate new theory and models for research. An objective of
these projects would be deco ozone research frost university
campier to schools and classrooms so as deco take ad~ran-
~cage of the rich experience base of teachers. In this
model' researchers with combined science and education
backgrounds might have a role similar to clinicians or
research professors in teaching hospitals coerced to
medical schools. The schools and classroom, while a
OCR for page 67
67
source of data for research, would also be a source of
ideas and new approaches to research.
his program option is apt deco foster several condi-
tions related to effective interdisciplinary research.
Leadership and involvement of school administrators and
teachers would be more likely than with any of ache other
options, but successful involvement would require that
school administrators and teachers have time away from
other responsibilities to participate in the project.
The strategy would be particularly useful for interdisci-
plinary projects centered on understanding education
practice in schools and classrooms. As with research
centers, ache sponsoring agency could specify the expected
products of the demonstration, or the grant could be more
open-ended, with participants defining goals and out-
comes .
Agency support for demonstration schools would need
to provide adequate resources for involving scientists
and researchers from a cooperating university as well as
participants from the school. Interdisciplinary projects
in demonstration schools--like the research centers°-
could be an effective way to develop coordination and
communication hong participants. Lee locus of the
project in a school could have the advantage of lowering
the status and authority barrier between scientists and
educators. This kind of project could lead to strong
support from cooperating institutions, but it would
probably need careful planning and development, in the
early stages especially, so that participants would
indeed gain recognition for their work and products O
The areas that might benefit most from demonstration
schools and classrooms are issues involving learning
context, which include:
o teaching reasoning in specific subject areas;
o assessing the-effec~cs of new technologies on
organizational change in schools;
o studies on the importance of learning contexts
for curriculum and instructional methods;
o developing effective models for learning groups
and activi~cy°based instruction; and
o pro; acts that involve com~unit~r organizations and
institutions in Improving student learning.
OCR for page 68
68
Institutional Incentive Grand
Institutional grants represent another medium°scale
program option for encouraging interdisciplinary re-
searchO The specific research problem or topic can be
selected by the applying institution or -the sponsoring
agency. lathe funding level is considerably more modest
than that required to support a research center
An existing morel tor tn18 option is the Materials
Research Group (MRG) grants recently begun by NSF. Five
MRG grants were folded in fiscal 1986 9 each for about
$1.5 million for 3 years. The grants are designed as
intermediate projects between individual investigator
grants and the Materials Research Laboratories O A goal
of the program is to involve new institutions in multi-
disciplinary materials science researehO Each institu-
tion must propose a project that involves a number of
investigators from different disciplines.
Institutional incentive grants for interdisciplinary
research in science and mathematics education would hare
many of the positive elements of the research centers,
bloc each project would involve less funding commitment by
an agency. Like research centers, institutional &rants
would provide incentives for universities and other insti-
tutions to take the lead in developing interdisciplinary
teams. They may encourage institutions to provide more
rewards and recognition for interdisciplinary activi`*cy in
education than has been typical in the past. Art incen
A ~
tire grants program would provide a sponsoring agency
with a means of ensuring that funded projects have inter-
disciplinary participa~cion and a product orientation that
is consistent with the purposes of the ageney'~ programs
_
-
In order to encourage scientists to participate in
such a grant program, an agency could identify and pub-
licize its interest in interdisciplinary research prob-
le'es that have theoretical or application linkages to
existing disciplinary research. For example, research-
ers working on the psychology of motivation might be
attracted to working on ache problem of declining enroll
meets in science and mathematics at the high school
level. Identifying potential interdisciplinary research
problems would involve scientists and educators through
linkages to their existing interests and work. This
approach might help dispel the belief that researchers
are necessarily changing their field of research when
they work on educational problems.
-
OCR for page 69
69
Several areas seem promising for institutional
incentive grants:
o educational software for science and mathematics;
o teacher knowledge and unders~canding of subject
matcher and strategies for improving teaching;
a- effective models for activity-based learning
groups and laboratory instruction;
o effects of home and school environments on
learning;
o pro] ects that involve community organizations and
institutions in improving stuten~c learning.
Problem- Spec if lo Grants
A program option possible even under stringent budget
constraints consists of grants awarded ~ ointly to two or
more investigators to conduct interdisciplinary research
on a specified problem. The projects can be closely
coupled to priorities that are set by the agency. Where
can be several grand relates to one problem area--as
exemplified by the joint NSF-NIE grants of several years
ago to support research on cognitive development and
learning--or several different problem areas can be iden-
t~fied for which proposals are invited. An agency could
provide for several kinds of grace categories for spe-
cific kinds of disciplinary collaborations, for example,
in physical or life science and cognitive science9 in
mathematics and curriculum research, or in laboratory-
based instruction in science and developmental psychol
Ogy O
This program option counts mainly on agency design to
develop interdisciplinary research teams. The program is
likely to attract interest from researchers who are
already working on similar research problems, while
adding the dimension of interdisciplinary collaboration.
Such an approach may be most fruitful when a clearly
defined problem exists that should be addressed through
interdisciplinary research. It also may be a way of
encouraging researchers to team up with practitioners in
investigating and improving current practices in schools
or in testing experimental materials or instructional
methods. Since each grant would be defined by a problem,
quite specific products (research papers, reports on
improved practices) could be expected.
OCR for page 70
70
In~cerdisciplinary research conducted under a problems
specific grants program could address several areas O
o the effects of learning contexts on curriculum
Assad instructional o`ethod~;
0 effective olodels for 1earnislg groups in science
labora~cories and other acti~rity°based ins~crucQ
tion;
o development of educational software for -science
and mathematics; and
o evaluation of the effects of new instructional
t@chr~ologies on change in mathe~cics arid science
education.
Fellowships and Grants for Scientists and Educators
Another small-acale option that can be adjusted to
match available resources is a program of small fellow-
Ships OF grapes. Such a progras' allows young scientists
and educator who may have ideas and interests but have
not as yet established ~che~el~res in specific research in
a discipline to become in~roived in interdisciplinary re-
search. ~ variant is to offer fellowships to established
professionals to acquire the tools of another special~cy
in order to conduct interdisciplinary research. For
examples NSF's program of postdoctoral fellowships in
plant biology, run by the Divisions of Molecular Bio-
sciences arid Cellular Biosciences, awards 20 2-year
fellowships for approximately $25,000 per year to new
Ph O D O ~ floor related fields who propose a research pro] act
in plant biology. During the period of their fellowship,
they are expected to acquire the knowledge and tools
necessary to continue interdisciplinary work.
This program option offers incentives for involving a
new cohort of scientists and educators in interdisciplin-
ary work. It can be Nan as ~ separate program or built
into some of the large scale options, such as the center
model . It is a long- range strategy that is flexible and
carries low risks. This program option can also be used
for grants to established professionals to develop lead-
ers of interdisciplinary research in education. The
grants might vary in duration from 1 to 5 years.
This program option offers a wide variety of in~cer-
disciplinary research possibilities in science and ma~che-
ma~cics education, including:
OCR for page 71
71
o new Ph.D.s in scientific fields could do research
relating to education, such as development and
testing of curriculum and instructional tech-
nlques for educating prospective and in-service
teachers in specific scientific or mathematical
concepts or skills;
o Ph.D.s in psychology could test theory and prac-
tice for assessing student learning in science or
mathematics;
o established scientists, teachers, social scien-
tists, administrators, education researchers, and
curriculum writers court work as part of an inter-
disciplinary ten, receiving grants for 50 to 7S
percent of their salary, to work in a variety of
organizations, including the interdisciplinary
centers, demonstration schools, and institutional
projects discussed above.
LONG-RANGE PlANNING
Any particular collection of programs, no matter how
well designed initially or funded, needs to be examined
periodically. As the experience of the last 30 years
demonstrates, reform in mathematics and science education
will not be lasting if it is based solely on responses to
intermittently perceived crises. The National Science
Foundation (1983) stated the following objective for
current reform effort:
The improvement and support of elementary and sec-
ondary school systems throughout America so that, by
the year 1995, they will provide all the nation's
youth with a level of education in mathematics,
science and technology, as measured by achievement
scores and participation levels (as well as other
non-subjective criteria), that is not only the
highest quail q attained anywhere in the world but
also reflects the particular and peculiar needs of
our nation.
To obtain this ambitious objec~cive, education
research programs should:
o be serial and systematic;
o hairs well-defined intermediate goals;
o make effective use of existing facili~cies and
programs;
o be specific in their plans of action;
OCR for page 72
72
inclutd reasonable time limits;
o include ~ verification or assessment scheme; arid
o Minoan stability and comaitomn~c at least until
the intermediate goals have been a~ctained.
In order to dLe~relop Ache appropriate goals and sub-
goala, specific plan of action, verification schemes,
and needed staying power, an agency need to design a
multitiered procedure that will accumulate a synthesis of
specialized expertise,, perspec~ci~res, priorities 9 and capa-
bili~ciesO At every stage of design, verifications and
review, a wide variety of experts should be involved in
formulating objectives and outlines for alternatives O
For the improvement of curricula and instruction, for
example, plating and review should bring together ex-
perts in the subject utter, cognitive science, teaching
and learning research, computer applications, and text-
book developo~ent,, school administrators, teachers9 stu-
d@nts, faculty fro. institutions of higher education who
teach lower-division courses, and employers from indu~-
try; and social scientists familiar with implementation
problema9 developers, and individuals in Ache bwls~ess of
working with teachers and schools. Review Assad redesign
should continue as the development of a-lterna~cives pro-
gresses so as to provide a bait is mechanism for con-
tinuing improvement of mathematice9 science, and tech°
ROIO~ shroud interdiscipli~ research.
Representative terms from entire chapter:
sponsoring agency
