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5
What Actions Should America Take
in K–12 Science and Mathematics
Education to Remain Prosperous
in the 21st Century?
10,000 TEACHERS, 10 MILLION MINDS
Recommendation A: Increase America’s talent pool by vastly
improving K–12 science and mathematics education.
The US system of public education must lay the foundation for devel-
oping a workforce that is literate in mathematics and science, among other
subjects. It is the creative intellectual energy of our workforce that will
drive successful innovation and create jobs for all citizens.
In 1944, during the final phases of a global war, President Franklin D.
Roosevelt asked Vannevar Bush, his White House director of scientific re-
search, to study areas of public policy having to do with science. The presi-
dent observed, “New frontiers of the mind are before us, and if they are
pioneered with the same vision, boldness and drive with which we have
waged this war, we can create a fuller and more fruitful employment and a
fuller and more fruitful life.” In the intervening years, our country appears
to have lost sight of the importance of scientific literacy for our citizens, and
it has become increasingly reliant on international students and workers to
fuel our knowledge economy.
The lack of a natural constituency for science causes short- and long-
term damage. Without basic scientific literacy, adults cannot participate
effectively in a world increasingly shaped by science and technology. With-
out a flourishing scientific and engineering community, young people are
not motivated to dream of “what can be,” and they will have no motivation
to become the next generation of scientists and engineers who can address
persistent national problems, including national and homeland security,
112
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113
WHAT ACTIONS SHOULD AMERICA TAKE IN K–12 EDUCATION?
healthcare, the provision of energy, the preservation of the environment,
and the growth of the economy, including the creation of jobs.
Laying a foundation for a scientifically literate workforce begins with
developing outstanding K–12 teachers in science and mathematics.1 A highly
qualified corps of teachers is a critical component of the No Child Left
Behind initiative.2 Improvements in student achievement are solidly linked
to teacher excellence, the hallmarks of which are thorough knowledge of
content, solid pedagogical skills, motivational abilities, and career-long op-
portunities for continuing education.3 Excellent teachers inspire young
people to develop analytical and problem-solving skills, the ability to inter-
pret information and communicate what they learn, and ultimately to mas-
ter conceptual understanding. Simply stated, teachers are the key to im-
proving student performance.
Today there is such a shortage of highly qualified K–12 teachers that
many of the nation’s 15,000 school districts4 have hired uncertified or
underqualified teachers. Moreover, middle and high school mathematics
and science teachers are more likely than not to teach outside their own
fields of study (Table 5-1). A US high school student has a 70% likelihood
of being taught English by a teacher with a degree in English but about a
40% chance of studying chemistry with a teacher who was a chemistry
major.
These problems are compounded by chronic shortages in the teaching
workforce. About two-thirds of the nation’s K–12 teachers are expected to
retire or leave the profession over the coming decade, so the nation’s schools
will need to fill between 1.7 million and 2.7 million positions5 during that
1See, for example, The Glenn Commission. Before It’s Too Late: A Report to the Nation
from the National Commission on Mathematics and Science Teaching for the 21st Century.
Washington, DC: US Department of Education, 2000.
2No Child Left Behind Act of 2001. Pub. L. No. 107-110, signed by President George W.
Bush on January 8, 2001, 107th Congress.
3National Research Council. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of
Mathematics and Science in U.S. Schools. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 2002.
4National Center for Education Statistic. 2006. “Public Elementary and Secondary Stu-
dents, Staff, Schools, and School Districts: School Year 2003–04.” Available at: http://
nces.ed.gov/pubs2006/2006307.pdf.
5National Center for Education Statistics. Predicting the Need for Newly Hired Teachers in
the United States to 2008-09. NCES 1999-026. Washington, DC: US Government Printing
Office, 1999. Available at: http://nces.ed.gov/pubs99/1999026.pdf. According to the Bureau
of Labor Statistics, job opportunities for K–12 teachers over the next 10 years will vary from
good to excellent, depending on the locality, grade level, and subject taught. Most job open-
ings will be attributable to the expected retirement of a large number of teachers. In addition,
relatively high rates of turnover, especially among beginning teachers employed in poor, urban
schools, also will lead to numerous job openings for teachers. Competition for qualified teach-
ers among some localities will likely continue, with schools luring teachers from other states
and districts with bonuses and higher pay. See http://stats.bls.gov/oco/ocos069.htm#emply.
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114 RISING ABOVE THE GATHERING STORM
TABLE 5-1 Students in US Public Schools Taught by Teachers
with No Major or Certification in the Subject Taught, 1999-2000
Discipline Grades 5–8 Grades 9–12
English 58% 30%
Mathematics 69% 31%
Physical science 93% 63%
Biology–life sciences — 45%
Chemistry — 61%
Physics — 67%
Physical education 19% 19%
SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics. Qualifications of the Public
School Teacher Workforce: Prevalence of Out-of-Field Teaching 1987-1988 to 1999-
2000. Washington, DC: US Department of Education, 2003.
period, about 200,000 of them in secondary science and mathematics class-
rooms.6
We need to recruit, educate, and retain excellent K–12 teachers who
fundamentally understand biology, chemistry, physics, engineering, and
mathematics. The critical lack of technically trained people in the United
States can be traced directly to poor K–12 mathematics and science instruc-
tion. Few factors are more important than this if the United States is to
compete successfully in the 21st century.
The Committee on Prospering in the 21st Century recommends a package
of K–12 programs that is based on tested models, including financial incentives
for teachers and students and high standards for, and measurable achievement
by, teachers, students, and administrators. The programs will create broad-
based academic leadership for K–12 mathematics and science, and they will
provide for rigorous curricula. Support for the action items in this recommen-
dation should have the highest priority for the federal government as it ad-
dresses America’s ability to compete for quality jobs in the future.
The strengths of the proposed actions derive from their focus on teach-
ers—those who are entering the profession and those who currently teach
science and mathematics—and on the students they will teach. The recom-
mendations cover the spectrum of K–12 teachers, and several programs are
recommended to tailor education for different populations. Each recom-
mendation has specific, measurable objectives. At the same time, we must
emphasize the need for research and evaluation to serve as a foundation for
6National Research Council. Attracting Science and Mathematics PhDs to Secondary School
Education. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 2000. Available at: http://www.
nap.edu/catalog/9955.html.
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115
WHAT ACTIONS SHOULD AMERICA TAKE IN K–12 EDUCATION?
change in K–12 mathematics and science education. In particular, a better
understanding of what actions can be taken to excite children about sci-
ence, mathematics, and technology would be useful in designing future edu-
cational programs.
The first two action items focus on K–12 teacher education and profes-
sional development. They are designed to give new K–12 science, math-
ematics, and technology teachers a solid science, mathematics, and technol-
ogy foundation; provide continuing professional development for current
teachers and for those entering the profession from technology-sector jobs
so they gain mastery in science and mathematics and the means to teach
those subjects; and provide continuing education for current teachers in
grades 6–12 so they can teach vertically aligned advanced science and math-
ematics courses.7 One fortunate spinoff of enhanced education of K–12
teachers is that salaries—in many school districts—are tied to teacher edu-
cational achievements.
ACTION A-1: 10,000 TEACHERS FOR 10 MILLION MINDS
Annually recruit 10,000 science and mathematics teachers by awarding
4-year scholarships and thereby educating 10 million minds. Our public
education system must attract at least 10,000 of our best college graduates
to the teaching profession each year. A competitive federal scholarship pro-
gram will allow bright, motivated students to earn bachelors’ degrees in
science, engineering, and mathematics with concurrent certification as K–
12 mathematics and science teachers.
Students could enter the program at any of several points and would
receive annual scholarships of up to $20,000 per year for tuition and quali-
fied educational expenses. Awards would be given on the basis of academic
merit.8 Each scholarship would carry a 5-year postgraduate commitment to
teach in a public school.9
7“Vertically aligned curricula” use sequenced materials over several years. An example is
pre-algebra followed by algebra, geometry, trigonometry, pre-calculus, and calculus. The sys-
tematic approach to education reform emphasizes that teachers, school and district adminis-
trative personnel, and parents work together to align their efforts. See, for example, Southwest
Education Development Laboratory. “Alignment in SEDL’s Working Systemically Model,
2004 Progress Report to Schools and Districts.” Available at: http://www.sedl.org/rel/
resources/ws-report-summary04.pdf.
8Teacher education programs would be 4 years in duration with multiple entry points. A first-
year student entering the program would be eligible for a 4-year scholarship, while students
entering in their second or later undergraduate years would be eligible for fewer years of support.
9If the scholarship recipients do not fulfill the 5-year service requirement, they would be
obligated to repay a prorated portion of their scholarship.
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116 RISING ABOVE THE GATHERING STORM
To provide the highest quality education for students who want to be-
come teachers, it is important to award competitive matching grants of $1
million per year, to be matched on a one-for-one basis, for 5 years to help
100 universities and colleges establish integrated 4-year undergraduate
programs that lead to bachelors’ degrees in physical and life sciences, math-
ematics, computer science, and engineering with teacher certification.10 To
qualify, science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) depart-
ments would collaborate with colleges of education to develop teacher
education and certification programs with in-depth content education and
subject-specific education in pedagogy. STEM departments also would of-
fer high-quality research experiences and thorough training in the use of
educational technologies. Colleges or universities without education depart-
ments or schools could collaborate with such departments in nearby col-
leges or universities.
A well-prepared corps of teachers is central to the development of
a literate student population.11 The National Center for Teaching and
America’s Future unequivocally shows the positive effect of better teaching
on student achievement.12 The Center for the Study of Teaching13 reported
that the most consistent and powerful predictor of student achievement in
science and mathematics was the presence of teachers who were fully certi-
fied and had at least a bachelor’s degree in the subjects taught. Teachers
with content expertise, like experts in all fields, understand the structure of
their disciplines and have cognitive “roadmaps” for the work they assign,
the assessments they use to gauge student progress, and the questions they
ask in the classroom.14 The investment in educating those teachers is money
well spent because they are likely to prepare internationally competitive
students.
10The institutional awards would be matching grants awarded competitively to applicants
who had identified partners, such as universities, industries, or philanthropic foundations, to
contribute additional resources. Public-public and public-private consortia would be encour-
aged. Institutions that demonstrate success would be eligible for competitive renewals.
11National Research Council. Attracting PhDs to K–12 Education: A Demonstration Pro-
gram for Science, Mathematics, and Technology. Washington, DC: The National Academies
Press, 2002.
12National Center for Teaching and America’s Future. Doing What Matters Most: Teaching
for America’s Future. New York: NCTAF, 1996. See also H. C. Hill, B. Rowan, and D. L. Ball.
“Effects of Teachers’ Mathematical Knowledge for Teaching on Student Achievement.” Ameri-
can Educational Research Journal 42(2)(2005):371-406.
13L. Darling-Hammond. Teacher Quality and Student Achievement: A Review of State Policy
Evidence. New York: Center for the Study of Teaching and Policy, 1999. Available at: http://
depts.washington.edu/ctpmail/Publications/PDF_versions/LDH_1999.pdf.
14National Research Council. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School:
Expanded Edition. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 2000. Available at: http://
books.nap.edu/catalog/6160.html.
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117
WHAT ACTIONS SHOULD AMERICA TAKE IN K–12 EDUCATION?
Some of the nation’s top research universities are leading the way to
prepare a cadre of highly skilled teachers. Two in particular have developed
innovative programs that combine undergraduate degrees in science, tech-
nology, engineering, or mathematics with pedagogy education and teacher
certification.
UTeach, a program in the College of Natural Sciences, headed by the
Dean of Natural Sciences at the University of Texas (UT) at Austin, recruits
from among the 25% of undergraduate science and mathematics students
who express a serious desire to teach. As a result of this program, UT-
Austin has been able to increase the number of science and math teachers it
graduates who have both degrees in a science or mathematics as well as
teacher certification.
Program enrollees have SAT scores above the average for the uni-
versity’s College of Natural Sciences, have higher grade point averages, and
are retained in the degree program at more than twice the rate of other
students in that college (Figure 5-1). UTeach has a 26% minority enroll-
ment, compared with 16% universitywide.
Each year the program graduates about 70 students who have teaching
certification and bachelors’ degrees in chemistry, physics, computer science,
biology, or mathematics. Students receive strong practical education and
continuing mentoring, especially in the critical first few years in the class-
room, as that increases effectiveness and promotes professional retention as
teachers. As also shown in Figure 5-1, UTeach graduates have deep disci-
plinary grounding, they know how to engage students in scientific inquiry,
and they know how to use new technology to improve student achieve-
ment. The UTeach experience shows that an effective scholarship program
must be coupled with a teacher education program that is interesting and
attractive to students. The program’s most effective tools are the field expe-
rience courses for first-year students and the use of master teachers as their
supervisors.
Starting with the current academic year, the 10-campus University of
California (UC) system offers its California Teach program, which, by 2010,
should graduate a thousand highly qualified science and mathematics teach-
ers each year.15 California Teach provides every STEM student in the uni-
versity with an opportunity to complete the STEM major and pedagogical
training in a 4-year program. Early in the program, students work as paid
classroom assistants in elementary and middle schools, supervised by men-
tor teachers. Students enroll in seminars taught by master teachers and par-
ticipate in 10-week summer institutes to help them develop methods for
15Even more teachers may come from a similar program being conducted by the California
state university system.
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118 RISING ABOVE THE GATHERING STORM
Percent of UTeach Students Recommended
70
Certification in Math and Science
60
for Secondary School Teacher
50 Science
Math
40
30
20
10
0
1995- 1997- 1999- 2001- 2003- 2005-
1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006
3.1
640
620
3.05
Average Math
600
Mean GPA
SAT II
3
580
560
2.95
540
2.9
520
500
2.85
UTeach Natural Sciences
UTeach Natural Sciences
24
70
22
60
Percent Retention
Percent Minority
20
50
Students
18
40
16
30 14
20 12
10
10
UTeach Natural UT-Austin
0 Sciences
UTeach Natural Sciences
Minority = non-Caucasian, non-foreign, non-asian
FIGURE 5-1 UTeach minority enrollment, quality of undergraduate students in the
certification recommendations program, student retention, and performance com-
pared with all students in the UT-Austin College of Natural Sciences.
SOURCE: Information based on e-mail from M. Marder of UTeach to D. Stine dated
February 2, 2006.
teaching in a specific discipline. Students from throughout the university
system in the California Teach program who satisfactorily complete their
courses through the junior year participate in subject-area institutes. UC-
San Diego, for example, might host a high school chemistry institute that
would be open to students and faculty from all campuses.
At each institute, students and faculty (those from UC, those who are
visiting, and master secondary school teachers) collaborate to develop case
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119
WHAT ACTIONS SHOULD AMERICA TAKE IN K–12 EDUCATION?
study videos of teaching methods and approaches that will be archived by
the University of California television system for use by students and fac-
ulty in subsequent institutes and by teachers in the field. Students develop
the portfolios that eventually will be required of teachers to become certi-
fied by a national board. Students who complete the institutes receive
$5,000 scholarships.
Both the UTeach and California Teach programs provide a continuum
of pre- and in-service teacher education and professional development and
established cohorts and relationships that are crucial for retaining the most
talented individuals in the profession. California Teach also will provide
the nation with a large-scale experiment to show which elements of teacher
preparation are most effective. Replicating the strong points of such pro-
grams around the country will transform the quality of our science and
mathematics teaching.16
ACTION A-2: A QUARTER OF A MILLION TEACHERS
INSPIRING YOUNG MINDS EVERY DAY
Strengthen the skills of 250,000 teachers through training and educa-
tion programs at summer institutes, in master’s programs, and in Advanced
Placement (AP) and International Baccalaureate (IB) training programs.
Excellent professional development models exist to strengthen the skills of
the 250,000 current mathematics and science teachers, but they reach too
few in the profession. The four-part program recommended by the commit-
tee consists of (1) summer institutes, (2) master’s degree programs in sci-
ence and mathematics, (3) training for advanced placement and Interna-
tional Baccalaureate teachers, and (4) development of a voluntary national
K–12 science and mathematics curriculum.
We need to reach all K–12 science and mathematics teachers and pro-
vide them with high-quality continuing professional development opportu-
nities—specifically those that emphasize rigorous content education. High-
quality, content-driven professional development has a significant effect on
student performance, particularly when augmented with classroom prac-
tice, year-long mentoring, and high-quality curricular materials.17
16The National Academies has also published a report on demonstration programs for PhD
K–12 teacher programs: National Research Council. Attracting PhDs to K–12 Education: A
Demonstration Program for Science, Mathematics, and Technology. Washington, DC: The
National Academies Press, 2002.
17D. K. Cohen and H. C. Hill. “Instructional Policy and Classroom Performance: The Math-
ematics Reform in California.” Teachers College Record 102(2)(2000):294-343; W. H.
Schmidt, C. McKnight, R. T. Houang, and D. E. Wiley. “The Heinz 57 Curriculum: When
More May Be Less.” Paper presented at the 2005 annual meeting of the American Education
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120 RISING ABOVE THE GATHERING STORM
About 10% of the nation’s 3 million K–12 teachers provide instruction
in science and mathematics in middle and high schools.18 The No Child
Left Behind Act requires all of them to participate regularly in professional
development, and in most states professional development already is re-
quired to maintain teaching credentials. Funding for continuing education
now comes from the No Child Left Behind appropriation and from the
states.
As the number of programs has ballooned, many teachers report that
they are “buried in opportunities” for continuing education. They also com-
plain that it is difficult to know which programs are worthwhile and which
are irrelevant and disconnected. The object of this implementation action is
to identify outstanding programs that improve content knowledge and peda-
gogical skills, especially for those who enter the profession from other ca-
reers. Over 5 years, these programs could reach all teachers of middle and
high school mathematics and science. Furthermore, as these teachers be-
come more qualified, they can be provided increased financial rewards with-
out confronting the historical culture that largely dismisses the concept of
pay-for-performance.
Action A-2 Part 1: Summer Institutes
In the first implementation action, the committee recommends a sum-
mer education program for 50,000 classroom teachers each year. Matching
grants would be provided on a one-for-one basis to state and regional sum-
mer institutes to develop and provide 1- to 2-week sessions. The expected
federal investment per participant is about $1,200 per week, excluding par-
ticipant stipends, which would be covered by local school districts.
Summer institutes for secondary school teachers of science and math-
ematics have existed in various forms at least since the 1950s, often with
corporate sponsors.19 The National Science Foundation (NSF) started fund-
ing teacher institutes in 1953, when shortages of adequately trained person-
Research Association, Montreal, Quebec; National Research Council. Educating Teachers of
Science, Mathematics, and Technology: New Practices for a New Millennium. Washington,
DC: National Academy Press, 2001; National Research Council. Improving Teacher Prepara-
tion and Credentialing Consistent with the National Science Education Standards: Report of a
Symposium. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1997.
18In 1999-2000, the latest year for which we have figures, of the total number of public
K–12 teachers, 191,000 taught science (including biology, physics, and chemistry) and 160,000
taught mathematics.
19Summer institutes at Union College in Schenectady and at the Case Institute of Technol-
ogy in Cleveland were supported by the General Electric Company, institutes at the University
of Minnesota were supported by the Ford Foundation, and institutes at the University of
Tennessee were supported by the Martin Marietta Corporation.
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121
WHAT ACTIONS SHOULD AMERICA TAKE IN K–12 EDUCATION?
nel in scientific and technical fields became increasingly evident.20 In 2004,
the NSF Math and Science Partnership began making awards under a new
program, Teacher Institutes for the 21st Century.21
There is a particularly strong need for elementary and middle school
teachers to have a deeper education in science and mathematics.22 Many
school children are systematically discouraged from learning science and
mathematics because of their teachers’ lack of preparation, or in some cases,
because of their teachers’ disdain for science and mathematics. In many
school systems, no science at all is taught before middle school.
Teachers who are not required to teach science have little reason to
increase their knowledge and skills through professional development. No
Child Left Behind requirements, however, will expand testing to the sci-
ences in 2007. Elementary school teachers thus need training now in many
areas of science; they need to see the relationships between mathematics
and the sciences; and, most important if they are to excite young minds,
they need the ability to integrate information across disciplines. In short,
all teachers need to be scientifically literate and preferably excited about
science.
The Merck Institute for Science Education (MISE)23 is an in-service
professional development program for K–6 teachers established in 1993
with a 10-year commitment from Merck & Company. An intensive 3-year
course combines multiple-year summer institutes in inquiry-based science
instruction that is tied to state and national standards with in-classroom
follow-up and reinforcement from September to June. MISE also provides
curriculum materials and training in their use. The current participants are
K–6 teachers in New Jersey and Pennsylvania public schools. In all, about
4,000 teachers have participated in the program. Analysis by an external
evaluator indicates that students of teachers who participated in MISE pro-
20Funding for institutes for the continuing education of high school science teachers began
to decline in number in the late 1960s, when the shortages of technical personnel including
science teachers, began to decline. After a leveling period during the 1970s, National Science
Foundation support for teacher institutes was discontinued in 1982. Support for the teacher
institute programs was resumed the following year following several national reports detailing
the severe problems facing science teaching and with growing recognition of the shortage of
qualified science teachers.
21These awards are directed to disciplinary faculty of higher education institutions to work
with experienced teachers of mathematics and the sciences to deepen teachers’ content knowl-
edge and instructional skills so they may become school-based intellectual leaders in their
fields.
22National Research Council. Science for All Children: A Guide to Improving Elementary
Science Education in Your School District. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1997.
23“Merck Institute for Science Education (MISE).” Available at: http://www.mise.org/mise/
index.jsp.
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122 RISING ABOVE THE GATHERING STORM
fessional development programs for at least 3 years substantially outper-
formed those whose teachers participated for a year or less.24
Local MISE programs have made science a priority in each district. New
science frameworks and instructional materials developed by MISE have been
adopted by all of the participating districts. Added benefits are seen in im-
provements in hiring and recruitment of teachers and administrators, in-
creased expenditures for instructional materials, changes in how teachers are
observed and evaluated in the classroom, augmented instructional support
services, development of new districtwide science assessments, and the lever-
aging of significant additional external resources for science education pro-
grams. MISE also has helped to lead the way in the creation of statewide
science content standards and professional development standards.
Similar to MISE in its focus on K–6 science education is the Washing-
ton State Leadership and Assistance for Science Education Reform (LASER)
program,25 which began in 1999 with a strategic planning institute to coor-
dinate standards, curricula, and evaluation. Six more institutes have con-
vened since then, and now 131 school districts, enrolling more than 60% of
Washington’s students, are at various stages of implementing an inquiry-
based science program.26
In 2005, achievement in the 5th-grade science portion of the Washing-
ton Assessment of Student Learning (WASL) was measured and correlated
with teacher participation in LASER. Primary among the findings was a
significant relationship between professional development among teachers
and the percentage of students meeting the science standard on the 2004
test (Figure 5-2). LASER teachers’ classroom practices changed incremen-
tally until they had more than 80 hours of professional development; at that
point, more dramatic shifts to inquiry-based methods were observed.
24Consortium for Policy Research in Education. 2002. A Report on the Eighth Year of the
Merck Institute for Science Education. Philadelphia, PA: CPRE, University of Pennsylvania,
2002. Available at: http://www.mise.org/pdf/cpre2000_2001.pdf. When MISE was created in
1995, there were no districtwide or state assessments in science in Pennsylvania or New Jersey,
where MISE programs were based. The absence of assessment often meant that less attention
was given to science in elementary classrooms, and it meant that there was no easy way to
measure the impact of MISE’s work on student learning. MISE has been exploring the use of
performance tasks for districtwide assessment. For the past two years, performance tasks drawn
from the Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) have been administered
in grades 3 and 7 in all four districts. This has been a collaborative project involving MISE
staff, central office staff, and many interested teachers.
25“Washington State Leadership and Assistance for Science Education Reform (LASER)
Program.” Available at: http://www.wastatelaser.org.
26“Inquiry” is a set of interrelated processes by which scientists and students pose questions
about the natural world and investigate knowledge. Using an inquiry-based approach students
learn science in a way that reflects how science actually works. See National Research Council.
National Science Education Standards. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1995.
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125
WHAT ACTIONS SHOULD AMERICA TAKE IN K–12 EDUCATION?
To implement this action, the committee recommends that the federal
government provide 100 to 125 academic research universities (2 or more
per state) the ability to offer four to five programs in mathematics, biology,
chemistry, physics, engineering, computer science, or integrated science for
a total of 500 competitive institutional grants nationwide. The programs
would focus on content education and pedagogy and would each provide
in-classroom training and continuous evaluation for approximately 20 in-
service middle and high school teachers and career changers.30
The program’s master teachers31 would provide leadership in their own
districts for all the programs included in this recommendation. They would
be mentors for new college graduates teaching in their schools and for the
many very able current teachers who would welcome the opportunity to
upgrade their skills through summer institutes or education to become AP
or IB teachers or pre-AP–IB teachers. Teachers who complete the program
would receive federally funded incentive stipends of $10,000 annually for
up to 5 years provided that they remain in the classroom and engage in
teaching leadership activities.32 Once the 5-year limit has been reached,
teachers can pursue national certification for which many states offer a
financial bonus.
Students learn best from teachers who have strong content knowledge
and pedagogical skills.33 Unfortunately, it is uncertain what science and
mathematics preparation, beyond the basics, is the best training for teach-
ers. Nonetheless, it is known that teachers need to stay current with their
disciplines. Master’s degree programs, particularly those emphasizing con-
tent knowledge, keep teachers updated and provide working teachers the
skills to teach for the future.
The Science Teacher Institute in the University of Pennsylvania’s School
of Arts and Sciences and Graduate School of Education34 is a rigorous pro-
30An example of such a program is Math for America’s Newton fellowship program in New
York City. In this 5-year program, new and mid-career scientists, engineers, and mathematics
receive a stipend to pursue a master’s level teaching program, obtain a teaching certificate,
begin teaching, and are mentored, coached, and provided support as they begin their teaching
career. See http://www.mathforamerica.org.
31This program may be even more effective if such master teachers would be nationally
board certified, and would then become a national pool of teacher leaders.
32Such master teachers should also be eligible for some release time from classroom teaching
to engage in leadership activities.
33National Research Council. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of
Mathematics and Science in U.S. Schools. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 2002;
M. Cochran-Smith and K. M. Zeichner. Studying Teacher Education. Washington, DC: Ameri-
can Educational Research Association, 2005; M. Allen. 2003. Eight Questions on Teacher
Preparation: What Does the Research Say? Washington, DC: Education Commission of the
States, 2003. Available at: http://www.ecs.org/tpreport/.
34“Science Teacher Institute.” Available at: http://www.sas.upenn.edu/PennSTI/.
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126 RISING ABOVE THE GATHERING STORM
gram that trains middle and high school science teachers. Eighty percent of
the education is in a participant’s scientific discipline and 20% percent is in
pedagogy, emphasizing the secondary-classroom applications of inquiry-
based instruction. At the end of 2 years (three summers and alternate Satur-
days during the school year), teachers graduate with master’s of science
degrees in chemistry education or integrated science education. Those teach-
ers have demonstrated a major influence in their schools.35 They mentor
other teachers, update the schools’ curricula, and recruit students into de-
manding science courses. They are the “teachers of teachers” who provide
the academic leadership so urgently needed in school districts across the
country.
An additional 50,000 of those truly outstanding teachers could inspire
and support students and other teachers to work harder at mathematics
and science. Our recommendation would provide the funding and structure
to reach about one-sixth of the nation’s science and mathematics teachers—
about three teachers in each of the more than 15,000 school districts in the
nation.
Action A-2 Part 3: Advanced Placement, International Baccalaureate,
and Pre-AP/IB Education
The third implementation action for the K–12 educational recommen-
dation is a program to train an additional 70,000 AP and IB teachers and
80,000 pre-AP/IB teachers of mathematics and science (at present, the AP
program serves many more students than does the IB program). Teachers
from schools where there are few or no AP or IB courses would receive
priority for this program. The model for this recommendation is the Col-
lege Board’s AP program, which has wide acceptance in secondary and
higher education. It also could be implemented in schools certified by the
International Baccalaureate Organization. So long as they demonstrate sat-
isfactory performance, AP and IB teachers would receive incentives to at-
tend professional development seminars and to tutor and prepare students
outside regular classroom hours. Under the proposed program, their de-
velopment fees would be paid, and they would receive a bonus for each
student who passed an AP or IB examination in mathematics or science.
Implementation in each state would require the creation of a non-profit
organization staffed by talented master teachers who would help local
schools manage the program and enforce high standards.
35C. Blasie and G. Palladino. “Implementing the Professional Development Standards: A
Research Department’s Innovative Masters Degree Program for High School Chemistry Teach-
ers.” Journal of Chemical Education 82(4)(2005):567-570.
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127
WHAT ACTIONS SHOULD AMERICA TAKE IN K–12 EDUCATION?
The model for this recommendation is the Dallas-based AP Incentive
Program (APIP),36 which offers financial incentives to prepare teachers to
teach demanding courses to ever-increasing numbers of secondary school
students. To serve as large a percentage of students as possible, APIP has
been coupled with a pre-AP program, Laying the Foundation, which be-
gins in the 6th grade to help students prepare for 11th-and 12th-grade AP
and IB examinations. Teachers use vertically aligned lessons based on na-
tional standards and final, comprehensive end-of-course examinations to
measure mastery of essential concepts. The process continues through
middle and high schools to ensure that graduating seniors are prepared
for college work.
The foundation for each program is intensive, 4-year professional de-
velopment, focused on content, delivered by the College Board and by
master teachers in local school districts. Assuming satisfactory perfor-
mance, AP/IB teachers can, under the proposed program, receive annual
incentive payments of $1,800 and pre-AP teachers receive annual incen-
tive payments of $1,000. AP/IB teachers also receive a $100 bonus for
each student who passes an AP examination in mathematics or science.
Pre-AP teachers receive a $25 bonus for each students who passes the end-
of-course examination.
To reach currently underserved areas or populations of students with
specific learning needs, it might be useful to consider implementing online
learning. The University of California College Prep program (UCCP) makes
AP courses available to students who enroll individually or as part of a
school group. In either case, they have online access to teachers and tutors.
The more than 5,000 students currently enrolled are taught by certified
teachers and tutored by paid university undergraduates and graduate
students.
36APIP is part of a statewide initiative to raise educational standards. See Texas Education
Agency. Advanced Placement and International Baccalaureate Examination Results in Texas,
2001-2002. Doc. No. GE03 601 08. Austin, TX: TEA, 2003. In 2001, the Texas Legislature
enacted the Gold Performance Acknowledgement (GPA) system to acknowledge districts and
campuses for high performance on indicators not used to determine accountability ratings
(TEC, §39.0721, 2001). Included is an AP/IB indicator that measures the percentage of non-
special-education students who take an AP or IB examination and the combined percentage of
non-special-education examinees at or above the criterion score on at least one AP or IB
examination (TEC §39.0721, 2001). The percentage of examinations with high scores on AP
or IB was kept as a report-only performance indicator (TEA, 2002). GPA acknowledgment is
given when non-special-education 11th- and 12th-graders take at least one AP or IB examina-
tion, represent 15% or more of the non-special-education in 11th- and 12th-grade students,
and 50% or more of those examinees have at least one score of 3 or above on an AP examina-
tion or 4 or above on an IB examination.
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128 RISING ABOVE THE GATHERING STORM
Action A-2 Part 4: K–12 Curricular Materials Modeled on
World-Class Standards
The fourth part of the K–12 recommendation asks the Department of
Education to convene a national panel to collect K–12 science and math-
ematics teaching materials that have been proven effective or develop new
ones where no effective models exist. All materials would be made available
online, free of charge, as a voluntary national curriculum that would pro-
vide an effective high standard for K–12 teachers.
High-quality teaching is grounded in careful vertical alignment of cur-
ricula, assessments, and student achievement standards. Efforts to directly
evaluate curricular quality have often foundered in the past,37 but the need
still exists. Excellent resources for the development of K–12 science, tech-
nology, and mathematics curricular materials include the National Science
Education Standards,38 Project 2061,39 and numerous Web-based compen-
dia, including the National Science Digital Library.40 Gateway to Educa-
tional Materials (GEM), sponsored by the US Department of Education, is
a collaborative effort to collect materials and provide them free to educa-
tors. The GEM Web site offers more than 20,000 educational resources,
catalogued by type and grade level. Although GEM can be cumbersome to
use, it has been lauded as an exemplary effort. GEM also has made it clear
that teacher education programs need to add a technology component.41
Project Lead the Way (PLTW) is a national program with partners in
public schools, colleges and universities, and the private sector.42 The project
37Math and Science Expert Panel. Exemplary Promising Mathematics Programs. Washing-
ton, DC: US Department of Education, 1999; National Research Council. On Evaluating
Curricular Effectiveness: Judging the Quality of K–12 Mathematics Evaluations. Washington,
DC: The National Academies Press, 2004.
38National Research Council. National Science Education Standards. Washington, DC:
National Academy Press, 1996; National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. Principles and
Standards for School Mathematics. Washington, DC: NCTM, 2000. Available at: http://
standards.nctm.org.
39Project 2061, sponsored by the American Association for the Advancement of Science, is
an initiative to reform K–12 education nationwide so that all high school graduates are science
literate. In the first stage of its work, Project 2061 published Science for All Americans, which
outlines what all students should know and be able to do in science, mathematics, and technol-
ogy after 13 years of schooling. See F. J. Rutherford and A. Ahlgren. Science for All Ameri-
cans. Washington, DC: AAAS, October 1990. Available at: http://www.project2061.org/
default_flash.htm.
40The “National Digital Science Library.” See: http://nsdl.org.
41For example, see M. A. Fitzgerald and J. McClendon. 2002. “The Gateway to Educational
Materials: An Evaluation Study, Year 3.” A technical report submitted to the US Department
of Education, October 10, 2002. Available at: http://www.geminfo.org/Evaluation/Fitzgerald_
02.10.pdf.
42PLTW is now offered in 45 states and the District of Columbia. See http://www.pltw.org/
aindex.htm.
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129
WHAT ACTIONS SHOULD AMERICA TAKE IN K–12 EDUCATION?
has developed a 4-year sequence of courses that, when combined with col-
lege preparatory mathematics and science, introduces students to the scope,
rigor, and discipline of engineering and engineering technology. PLTW also
has developed a middle school technology curriculum, Gateway to Tech-
nology. Students participating in PLTW courses are better prepared for col-
lege engineering programs than those exposed only to the more traditional
curricula.
Comprehensive teacher education is a critical component of PLTW, and
the curriculum uses cutting-edge technology and software that require spe-
cialized education. Continuing education supports teachers as they imple-
ment the program and provides for continuous improvement of skills.
ACTION A-3: ENLARGE THE PIPELINE
Enlarge the pipeline of students who are prepared to enter college and
graduate with a degree in science, engineering, or mathematics by increas-
ing the number of students who pass AP and IB science and mathematics
courses. The competitiveness of US knowledge industries will be purchased
largely in the K–12 classroom: We must invest in our students’ mathematics
and science education. A new generation of bright, well-trained scientists
and engineers will transform our future only if we begin in the 6th grade to
significantly enlarge the pipeline and prepare students to engage in advanced
coursework in mathematics and science.
The “other side” of the classroom equation, of course, is the students,43
our innovators of the future.44 Despite expressing an interest in the sub-
jects, many US students avoid rigorous high school work in mathematics
and science.45 All US students should be held to high expectations, and
rigorous coursework should be available to all students. Particular atten-
tion should be paid to increasing the participation of those students in
groups that are underrepresented in science, technology, and mathematics
education, training, and employment.
The first goal of the proposed action is to have 1,500,000 students
taking at least one AP or IB mathematics or science examination by 2010,
an increase to 23% from 6.5% of juniors and seniors who took at least one
AP or IB mathematics or science examination in 2004. We also must in-
43National Research Council. Engaging Schools: Fostering High-School Students’ Motiva-
tion to Learn. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2004.
44K. Hunter. “Education Key to Jobs, Microsoft CEO Says.” Stateline.org, August 17, 2005.
45T. Lewin. Many Going to College Are Not Ready, Report Says. New York Times, August
17, 2005. Among those who took the 2005 American College Testing (ACT), only 51%
achieved the benchmark in reading, 26% in science, and 41% in mathematics; the figure for
English was 68%.
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130 RISING ABOVE THE GATHERING STORM
crease the number of students who pass those examinations from 230,000
in 2004 to at least 700,000 by 2010. AP and IB programs would be volun-
tary and open to all and would give students a head start by providing them
with college-level courses taught by outstanding high school teachers.46 The
result will be better prepared undergraduates who will have a better chance
of completing their bachelor’s degrees in science, engineering, and math-
ematics.47 Table 5-2 shows that a student who passes an AP examination
has a better chance overall—regardless of ethnicity—of completing a
bachelor’s degree within 6 years. Students would be eligible for a 50%
examination fee rebate and a $100 mini-scholarship for each passing score
on an AP or IB mathematics or science examination.
This action is built on standards, testing, and incentives to achieve ex-
cellence in science and mathematics. The APIP program has been successful
across gender, ethnicity, and economic groups. The program proposed
herein would give students the further background they need to study sci-
ence, engineering, and mathematics as undergraduates.
Such advanced coursework can provide the foundation for students to be
internationally competitive in the fields of focus. For example, US students
who passed AP calculus in 2000 were administered the 1995 Trends in Inter-
national Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) test.48 Their scores were
significantly higher than the average 1995 US score, and they were higher
46One researcher estimates that each year 25,000 interested and adequately prepared stu-
dents in the United States are told they cannot take AP or IB courses. He further speculates that
another 75,000 or more students who could do well elect not to take them because no one
encourages them to do so. See J. Mathews. Class Struggle: What’s Wrong (and Right) with
America’s Best Public High Schools. New York: Times Books, 1998. Limiting access to ad-
vanced study occurs in all kinds of educational settings, including the most competitive high
schools in America—schools with adequate resources, qualified teachers, and well-prepared
students. Those schools, while typically advocating college preparation for everyone, create
layers of curricular differentiation, such that only a select group of students are allowed en-
trance into certain AP and honors courses; other students are placed in less vigorous courses.
See P. Attewell. “The Winner Take-All High School: Organizational Adaptations to Educa-
tional Stratification.” Sociology of Education 74(4)(2001):267-296. For a larger discussion of
access to advanced coursework, see National Research Council. 2002. Learning and Under-
standing: Improving Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science in U.S. Schools. Washing-
ton, DC: National Academy Press, 2002.
47Academic opportunities such as AP and IB programs benefit students in several ways.
High school students who participate in AP and IB courses and associated examinations are
exposed to college-level academic content and are challenged to complete more rigorous
coursework. Students with qualifying examination scores are provided the opportunity to earn
college credit or advanced placement, depending on the college or university they attend. Texas
Education Agency. Advanced Placement and International Baccalaureate Examination Result
in Texas 2003-2004. Document no. GE05 601 11. Austin, TX, 2005. P. 6.
48See Chapter 3 or Appendix D for more detailed discussion of the exam. Available at: http://
nces.ed.gov/timss/.
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131
WHAT ACTIONS SHOULD AMERICA TAKE IN K–12 EDUCATION?
TABLE 5-2 Six-Year Graduation Rate of Students Who Passed AP
Examinations and Students Who Did Not Take AP Examinations
Ethnicity Passed AP Examination Did Not Take AP Examination
White 72% 30%
Hispanic 62% 15%
Blacks 60% 17%
NOTES: Data are for all students graduating from Texas public high schools in 1998 and
enrolling in a Texas public college or university (88,961 students). AP examinations were
given in the core subjects of English, mathematics, science, and social studies to students in
grades 10–12. The percentage shown is the proportion of students who obtained bachelor’s
degrees or higher within 6 years of secondary-school graduation.
SOURCE: National Center for Educational Accountability at: http://www.nc4ea.org.
than the 1995 average scores of the students from all 14 participating coun-
tries. Similarly, US students who passed AP physics in 2000 outperformed the
1995 US national TIMSS average and exceeded the 1995 scores for all par-
ticipating countries except Norway (Table 5-3). It is clear that engaging K–12
students in challenging courses taught by qualified teachers will enhance their
educational experiences and may increase the number of students who enter
college and complete higher education degrees.
Data from the Texas APIP demonstrate that combining incentives and
teacher education can increase student participation (Figure 5-3), and APIP
has increased academic performance for minority students in high school.
The Dallas school district is the nation’s 12th largest. It has a 93% minority
enrollment, and 81% of its students come from low-income households.
Yet Dallas students achieve outstanding AP results. African American and
Hispanic students pass AP examinations in mathematics, science, and En-
glish at a rate four times higher than the national average for minority
students, and female students pass the examinations at twice the national
rate.49
EFFECTIVE CONTINUING PROGRAMS
The committee proposed expansion of two additional approaches to
improving K–12 science and mathematics education that are already in use:
• Statewide Specialty High Schools. An effective way to increase stu-
dent achievement in science and mathematics is to provide an intensive
49Passing rate is calculated as number of students passing exam per 1,000 junior and senior
high school students in the Dallas Independent School District compared with all of Texas and
all of the United States.
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132 RISING ABOVE THE GATHERING STORM
TABLE 5-3 Achievement of US AP Calculus and Physics Students Who
Participated in the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study
(TIMSS) in 2000 Compared with Average International Scores from 1995
Mathematics Physics
Average Average
Score Score
US AP calculus students scoring Norway 581
3, 4, or 5 596
US AP physics students
US AP calculus students 573 scoring 3, 4, or 5 577
France 557 Sweden 573
Russian Federation 542 Russian Federation 545
Switzerland 533 US AP physics students 529
Australia 525 Germany 522
Cyprus 518 Australia 518
Lithuania 516 International Average 501
Greece 513 Cyprus 494
Sweden 512 Latvia 488
Canada 509 Switzerland 488
International Average 501 Greece 486
Italy 474 Canada 485
Czech Republic 469 France 466
Germany 465 Czech Republic 451
United States 442 Austria 435
Austria 436 United States 423
NOTE: Advanced placement scores on a 5-point scale; 3 is considered a passing score by the
College Board, the organization that administers the courses, and colleges and universities
generally require a score of 3, 4, or 5 to qualify for course credit.
SOURCE: E. J. Gonzalez, K. M. O’Connor, and J. A. Miles. How Well Do Advanced Placement
Students Perform on the TIMSS Advanced Mathematics and Physics Tests? International Study
Center, Lynch School of Education, Boston College, June 2001. Available at: http://www.timss.org.
learning experience for high-performing students.50 These schools immerse
students in high-quality science and mathematics education, serve as testing
grounds for curricula and materials, provide in-classroom educational op-
portunities for K–12 teachers, and have the resources and staff for summer
programs to introduce students to science and mathematics. One model is
the North Carolina School of Science and Mathematics (NCSSM), which
opened in 1980. NCSSM enrolls juniors and seniors from most of North
Carolina’s 100 counties. NCSSM’s unique living and learning experience
50K. Powell. “Science Education: Hothouse High.” Nature 435(June 16, 2005):874-875.
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WHAT ACTIONS SHOULD AMERICA TAKE IN K–12 EDUCATION?
3,567
3,500 3,304
2,900
3,000
2,710
Number of AP Exams Taken
2,572
2,527
2,500 First Year of
2,178 2,191
AP Incentive
Program
2,000 1,832
1,500
1,130
1,000
379
500 321 283
263
0
1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
FIGURE 5-3 The number of AP examinations in mathematics, science, and English
taken in APIP schools in the Dallas Independent School District (DISD). The number
of AP examinations taken has increased more than 9-fold over 10 years.
SOURCE: Advanced Placement Strategies. 2005. The 2004 results are based on
updated data received from the Dallas Independent School District for AP examina-
tions in mathematics, science, and English.
made it the model for 16 similar schools around the world. It is the first
school of its kind in the nation—a public, residential high school where
students study a specialized science and mathematics curriculum. At
NCSSM, teachers come for a “sabbatical year,” and the school has a struc-
ture and the personnel it needs to offer summer institutes for outstanding
students.
• Inquiry-Based Learning. Summer research programs stimulate stu-
dent interest and achievement in science, mathematics, and technology. Pro-
grams that involve several institutions or public–private partnerships should
be encouraged, as should those designed to stimulate low-income and mi-
nority student participation.
CONCLUSION
Public education is potentially our country’s most valuable asset, yet
our system has too long ignored the development of critical teaching and
workforce skills.
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134 RISING ABOVE THE GATHERING STORM
BOX 5-1
Another Point of View: K–12 Education
Some of those who provided comments to the committee questioned
the ability of K–12 reform based on the existing US educational model to
produce effective, long-lasting improvements in the way our children
learn. The United States currently spends more per student than all but
one other country (Switzerland),a but it is losing ground in educational
performance. Its relatively low student achievement through high school
clearly shows that the system is inefficient, and dedicating additional fund-
ing to this system is not a guarantee of success. In fact, the biggest
concerns involve disparate quality among K–12 institutions and the diffi-
culty of measuring success.
Some question whether K–12 education in the United States really
suffers from low student achievement. International comparisons might
serve merely to highlight the huge funding inequities among US school
districts.b American scholastic achievement, unlike that in most other
Western nations, varies widely from school to school and even from state
to state. Eighth graders in high-achieving states score even in mathemat-
ics with students in the highest-achieving foreign countries. Some in other
states score, on the average, about even with schoolchildren in scarcely
developed nations. In the United States, many more suburban school
districts can provide smaller classes, better-paid teachers, and more com-
puters than can the schools for most urban and rural children. The under-
privileged groups struggle with gross overcrowding, decayed buildings,
and inadequate funding even for basic instruction. Standardized test
scores generally reflect the disparate distribution of resources.
The committee has examined a number of educational programs that
have been demonstrated to work, identified core program components—
strong content knowledge, practical pedagogical training, ongoing
mentoring and education, and incentives—and recommended that programs
be implemented as one would implement a research program: with built-in
benchmarks, evaluations, and ongoing education—with the expectation that
no one program will fit every situation.
Thorough education in science, mathematics, and technology will start
students on the path to high-technology jobs in our knowledge economy.
To develop an innovative workforce, we must begin now to improve public
education in science and mathematics.51
51For another point of view on K–12 education reform, see Box 5-1.
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WHAT ACTIONS SHOULD AMERICA TAKE IN K–12 EDUCATION?
Some commentators also argue that in industrialized countries there
is no correlation between school achievement and economic success but
that educational reforms often are the least controversial way of planning
social improvement.c School changes are less threatening than are di-
rect structural changes, which can involve confronting the whole organi-
zation of industry and government. Reforming education, it is claimed, is
easier and less expensive than examining and correcting the societal
problems that affect our schools directly—economic weaknesses, wealth
and income inequality, an aging population, the prevalence of violence
and drug abuse, and the restructuring of work.
Because there is not a well-developed literature on the effectiveness
of K–12 learning and teaching interventions, it is challenging to recom-
mend programs with high confidence. For example, some have argued
that the International Baccalaureate program has established neither
teacher qualifications nor standards for faculties and that the Advanced
Placement curriculum needs better quality control.d Others have sug-
gested that summer teacher-education programs are merely vehicles for
textbook companies; others argue that any teacher-education programis
worthless unless there is a strong in-classroom, continuing mentoring
component.
aOrganisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Education at a Glance 2005.
Paris: OECD, 2005. Available at: http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/41/13/35341210.pdf.
bD. C. Berliner and B. J. Biddle. The Manufactured Crisis: Myths, Fraud, and the Attack on
America’s Public Schools. New York: Addison-Wesley, 1995.
cIbid.
dNational Research Council. Learning and Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of
Mathematics and Science in U.S. Schools. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 2002.
Virtually all quality jobs in the global economy will require certain
mathematical and scientific skills. The committee’s objectives are to ensure
that all students will gain these necessary skills and have the opportunity to
become part of a cadre of world-class scientists and engineers who can
create the new products that will in turn broadly enhance the nation’s stan-
dard of living. In short, our goal in producing highly qualified scientists and
engineers is to ensure that, through their innovativeness, high-quality jobs
are available to all Americans.
When fully implemented, the committee’s recommendations will pro-
duce the academic achievement in science, mathematics, and technology
that every student should exhibit and will afford numerous opportunities
for further learning. Excellent teachers, increasing numbers of students
meeting high academic standards, and measurable results will become the
academic reality.
Representative terms from entire chapter:
research instrumentation
