|
Items in cart [1] |
Questions? Call 888-624-8373 |
| Copyright © 2009. National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Terms of Use and Privacy Statement |
Below are the first 10 and last 10 pages of uncorrected machine-read text (when available) of this chapter, followed by the top 30 algorithmically extracted key phrases from the chapter as a whole.
Intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text on the opening pages of each chapter.
Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages.
Do not use for reproduction, copying, pasting, or reading; exclusively for search engines.
OCR for page 325
Attracting the Most Able US Students
to Science and Engineering
SUMMARY
The world economy is growing rapidly in fields that require science,
engineering, and technologic skills. The United States can remain a leader in
science and engineering (S&E) only with a well-educated and effectively
trained population. The most innovative S&E work is done by a relatively
small number of especially talented, knowledgeable, and accomplished in-
dividuals. Because of the importance of S&E to our nation, attracting and
retaining individuals capable of such achievements ought to be a goal of
federal policy.
It follows that a key component of national and economic security
policy must be US S&E students. The United States has relied on drawing
the best and brightest from an international talent pool. However, recent
events have led some to be concerned that the United States cannot rely on
a steady flow of international students. Furthermore, as other developed
countries encourage international students to come to their countries and
developing countries enhance their postsecondary educational capacity,
there is increased competition for the best students, which could further
reduce the flow of international students to the United States. Therefore,
any policies aimed at encouraging student interest in S&E must have a
significant component that focuses on domestic talent.
This paper summarizes findings and recommendations from a variety of recently published
reports and papers as input to the deliberations of the Committee on Prospering in the Global
Economy of the 21st Century. Statements in this paper should not be seen as the conclusions of
the National Academies or the committee.
325
OCR for page 326
326 RISING ABOVE THE GATHERING STORM
Fundamentally, policy levers designed to influence the number of US
S&E workers fall into two categories: supply-side and demand-side. Among
supply-side issues are K–12 science, mathematics and technology teaching,
undergraduate S&E educational experience, graduate training experience,
opportunity costs compared with those of other fields and professions, and
length of postdoctoral training period. On the demand side are funding for
research and availability of research jobs, both of which are powerfully
influenced by public policies and by public and private expenditures on
research and development.
Past reports have identified a number of options the federal govern-
ment could take to influence the education and career decisions of top US
students, including the following:
• Double the number of magnet high schools specializing in science,
technology, engineering, and mathematics from approximately 100 to 200
over the next 10 years.
• Support competitive undergraduate scholarships for students inter-
ested in science, mathematics, and engineering.
• Provide scholarships to all qualified students majoring in science or
mathematics at a 4-year college who have an economic need and who main-
tain high levels of academic achievement.
• Provide at least 5,000 portable graduate fellowships, each with a
duration of up to 5 years, for training in emerging fields, to encourage US
students to pursue S&E graduate studies.
• Provide graduate student stipends competitive with opportunities in
other venues.
• Support a significant number of selective research assistant profes-
sorships in the natural sciences and engineering open to postdoctoral schol-
ars who are US citizens or permanent residents.
• Partner with industry to sponsor a series of public-service announce-
ments exalting science and technology careers.
GETTING AN EARLY START: K–12 S&E PROGRAMS
One proven way of fostering students’ interest in science and technol-
ogy is through magnet high schools that emphasize those subjects. There
are approximately 100 such schools in the United States, and studies have
shown that graduates from these schools are more likely to study science,
mathematics, or engineering in college and enter those fields during their
careers.1 It is not known, however, whether these students would have had
similar career trajectories even if they had not attended magnet schools.
1K. Powell. “HothoUSe High,” Nature 435(2005):874-875.
OCR for page 327
327
APPENDIX D
During the undergraduate years, involvement in research projects and
the guidance of experienced mentors are powerful means of retaining stu-
dents in S&E.2 Mentors can provide advice, encouragement, and informa-
tion about people and issues in a particular field. An early exposure to
research can demonstrate to students the kinds of opportunities they will
encounter if they pursue research careers.
TRENDS IN UNDERGRADUATE AND GRADUATE
STUDENT INTEREST IN S&E
When one examines the issue, it becomes clear that there is a great deal
of domestic student interest in undergraduate S&E programs. About 30%
of students entering college in the United States (of whom over 95% are US
citizens or permanent residents) intend to major in S&E fields. This propor-
tion has remained fairly constant over the last 20 years. However, a consid-
erable gap exists between freshman intentions and successful degree comple-
tion. Undergraduate S&E programs report the lowest retention rate among
all academic disciplines. A National Center for Educational Statistics
(NCES) longitudinal study of first-year S&E students in 1990 found that
fewer than 50% of undergraduate students entering college declaring a S&E
major had completed S&E degrees within 5 years.3 Indeed, approximately
50% of such undergraduate students changed their major field within the
first 2 years.4 Undergraduates who opt out of S&E programs are among the
most highly qualified college entrants.5 They are also disproportionately
women and nonwhite students, indicating that many potential entrants are
discouraged before they can join the S&E workforce.6
2R. F. Subotnik, K. M. Stone, and C. Steiner. “Lost Generation of Elite Talent in Science.”
Journal of Secondary Gifted Education 13(2001):33-43.
3L. K. Berkner, S. Cuccaro-Alamin, and A. C. McCormick. Descriptive Summary of 1989-
1990 Beginning Postsecondary Students: 5 Years Later with an Essay on Postsecondary Per-
sistence and Attainment. NCES 96155. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Sta-
tistics, 1996.
4T. Smith. The Retention and Graduation Rates of 1993-1999 Entering Science, Mathemat-
ics, Engineering, and Technology Majors in 175 Colleges and Universities. Norman, OK:
Center for Institutional Data Exchange and Analysis (C-IDEA), University of Oklahamo, 2001.
5S. Tobias. They’re Not Dumb, They’re Different. Stalking the Second Tier. Tucson, AZ:
Research Corporation, 1990; E. Seymour and N. Hewitt. Talking About Leaving: Why Un-
dergraduates Leave the Sciences. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1997; M. W. Ohland, G.
Zhang, B. Thorndyke, and T. J. Anderson. “Grade-Point Average, Changes of Major, and
Majors Selected by Students Leaving Engineering.” 34th ASEE/IEEE Frontiers in Education
Conference, 2004. Session T1G:12-17.
6M. F. Fox and P. Stephan. “Careers of Young Scientists: Preferences, Prospects, and Reality
by Gender and Field.” Social Studies of Science 31(2001):109-122; D. L. Tan. Majors in Sci-
ence, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics: Gender and Ethnic Differences in Persis-
OCR for page 328
328 RISING ABOVE THE GATHERING STORM
Graduate enrollment in S&E programs has been a relatively level 22-
26% of total enrollments since 1993 (see Figures TS-1A, B, C, and D and
TS-2). Growth in the number of S&E doctorates awarded is due primarily
to the increased numbers of international students but also to the increasing
participation of women and underrepresented minority groups.7 If the pri-
mary objective of the US S&E enterprise is to maintain excellence, a major
challenge is to determine how to continue to attract the best international
students and at the same time encourage the best domestic students to enter
S&E undergraduate and graduate programs.
DECISION POINTS AND DISINCENTIVES
There are inherent disincentives that push students away from S&E
programs and careers. These disincentives fall into three broad categories:
curriculum, economics, and environment. Undergraduate attrition may be
due partly to a disconnect between the culture and curricula in high schools
compared with those at colleges and universities.8 For example, poor math-
ematics preparation in high school may underlie attrition in undergraduate
physics programs. Underrepresented groups such as Blacks and American
Indians, who are educated disproportionately in underserved communities,
are on the whole less well prepared for college.9 These types of problems
suggest transitional programs to bridge the gap between high school and
college, but the value of such strategies has not been compared with those
at other levels in the educational system.
Higher education is costly, and employment opportunities fluctuate.
Whether a student perceives that a degree will lead to a viable career is a
major factor determining choice of field.10 This is illustrated particularly
tence and Graduation. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma, 2002. Available at: http://
www.ou.edu/education/csar/literature/tan_paper3.pdf; Building Engineering and Science Tal-
ent (BEST). The Talent Imperative: Diversifying America’s S&E Workforce. San Diego: BEST,
2004; G. D. Heyman, B. Martyna, and S. Bhatia. “Gender and Achievement-Related Beliefs
Among Engineering Students.” Journal of Women and Minorities in S&E 8(2002):33-45.
7National Science Foundation. Graduate Enrollment Increases in S&E Fields, Especially in
Engineering and Computer Sciences. NSF 03-315. Arlington, VA: National Science Founda-
tion, 2003.
8A. Venezia, M. W. Kirst, and A. L. Antonio. Betraying the College Dream: How Discon-
nected K–12 and Postsecondary Education Systems Undermine Student Aspirations. Stanford,
CA: The Bridge Project, Stanford University, 2003. Available at: http://www.stanford.edu/
group/bridgeproject/betrayingthecollegedream.pdf.
9E. Babco. Trends in African American and Native American Participants in STEM Higher
Education. Washington, DC: Commission on Professionals in Science and Technology, 2002.
10C. T. Clotfeltner, R. G. Ehrenberg, M. Getz, and J. J. Siegfried. Economic Challenges in
Higher Education. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1991; M. S. Teitelbaum. “Do We
Need More Scientists?” The Public Interest 153(2003):40-53.
OCR for page 329
329
APPENDIX D
450,000
Bachelor’s
Number of Students or Degrees
400,000 Degrees
Conferred
350,000
Master’s
300,000
Degrees
Conferred
250,000
First-Year
200,000
Graduate
150,000 Students
100,000 PhD
Degrees
50,000
Conferred
0
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
FIGURE TS-1A Number of first-year graduate students and number of S&E degrees
conferred, by degree type, 1992-2001.
SOURCE: Data on first-year graduates are from National Science Foundation. Survey
of Graduate Student and Postdoctorates in Science and Engineering. NSF 03-320.
Arlington, VA: National Science Foundation, 2003. Degree data from National
Science Foundation. Science and Engineering Degrees: 1966-2001. NSF 04-311.
Arlington, VA: National Science Foundation, 2003.
60,000
Engineering
Master’s Degrees Awarded
50,000
Physical
40,000 Sciences
30,000 Mathematics
and Computer
20,000 Science
10,000
Life Sciences
0
Social and
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
00
01
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
Behavioral
Sciences
FIGURE TS-1B Number of S&E master’s degrees awarded, by field, 1985-2001.
SOURCE: National Science Foundation. Science and Engineering Degrees: 1966-
2001. NSF 04-311. Arlington, VA: National Science Foundation, 2003.
well in engineering: undergraduate student decisions to major in particular
fields vary depending on business cycles.
Research indicates that large schools, which often foster a competitive
“weeding out” environment, have a much higher attrition rate than smaller
schools. This environment can be compounded by the culture of specific
OCR for page 330
330 RISING ABOVE THE GATHERING STORM
Engineering
35,000
First-Year Graduate Enrollment
Physical
30,000
Sciences
25,000
Math and
20,000
Computer
Science
15,000
10,000 Life
Sciences
5,000
Social and
0
5 7 9 1 3 5 7 9 1 Behavioral
98 98 98 99 99 99 99 99 00
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 Sciences
FIGURE TS-1C Number of first-year S&E graduate enrollments, by field, 1985-
2001.
SOURCE: Data on first-year graduates are from National Science Foundation. Survey
of Graduate Student and Postdoctorates in Science and Engineering. NSF 03-320.
Arlington, VA: National Science Foundation, 2003.
fields. Some researchers argue that a key factor in stemming attrition is
feeling connected to the intellectual and social life of the college.11 Another
researcher writes of three types of university cultures—the elite (scientific
excellence), the pluralist (research, teaching, and service), and the com-
munitarian (citizenship)—each carrying its own set of values and signals,
some of which are competing.12 Departments, colleges and universities, and
professional societies each have a role in providing a high-quality, engaging
learning environment.
After a student’s determination of an undergraduate major or concen-
tration, another key transition point is a decision to enter and complete
graduate training.13 Major factors to consider include time to degree and
economics.14 Unclear job prospects and lost earning potential are major
11V. Tinto. Leaving College: Rethinking the CaUSes and Curses of Student Attrition. Chi-
cago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1993; J. M. Braxton. Reworking the Student Departure
Puzzle. Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Press, 2000.
12M. F. Fox and P. Stephan. “Careers of Young Scientists: Preferences, Prospects, and Real-
ity by Gender and Field.” Social Studies of Science 31(2001):109-122.
13A. Lu. The Decision Cycle for People Going to Graduate School. Stamford, CT: Peterson’s
Thomson Learning, 2002.
14NAS/NAE/IOM. Reshaping the Graduate Education of Scientists and Engineers. Wash-
ington, DC: National Academy Press, 1995.
OCR for page 331
All Science and Engineering
Engineering
35,000
7,000
Engineering-
30,000 All S&E-Total
6,000 Total
25,000 5,000
20,000 4,000
All S&E-US
15,000 3,000 Engineering-
Citizens and
US Citizens
10,000 2,000
Permanent
and
Doctorates Awarded
5,000 Residents 1,000
Doctorates Awarded
Permanent
Residents
0
0
85 85 87 89 91 93 95 97 99 01 03
87 989 991 993 995 997 999 001 003
19 19 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20
Physical Sciences Mathematics and Computer Science
Physical
6000 2500 Math and CS -
Sciences-
Total
5000 Total 2000
4000
1500
3000
Physical Math and CS -
1000
Sciences-US
2000 US Citizens
Citizens and and
500
Doctorates Awarded
1000 Permanent
Doctorates Awarded
Permanent
Residents
0 Residents
0
5 7 9 1 3 5 7 9 1 3
85 87 989 991 993 995 997 999 001 003
98 98 98 99 99 99 99 99 00 00
19 19 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2
Social Sciences
Life Sciences
9,000
9,000 Social and
8,000
8,000 Behavioral
Life Sciences-
7,000 Sciences-Total
Total
7,000
6,000
6,000
5,000
5,000
Social and
4,000 4,000 Behavioral
Life Sciences-
3,000 3,000 Sciences-US
US Citizens
2,000 Citizens and
2,000
and Permanent
Doctorates Awarded
Doctorates Awarded
Permanent
1,000 Residents 1,000
Residents
0 0
85 87 89 91 93 95 97 99 01 03 85 87 89 91 93 95 97 99 01 03
19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20
FIGURE TS-1D Number of doctorates awarded, by field and citizenship, 1985-2003. US citizens and permanent residents earn on
average about 60-70% of S&E doctoral degrees; about 80% in life sciences and social sciences, 60% in physical sciences, and 50% in
engineering and mathematics and computer sciences.
SOURCE: National Science Foundation. Survey of Earned Doctorates. Arlington, VA: National Science Foundation, 2005.
331
OCR for page 332
332 RISING ABOVE THE GATHERING STORM
70
Percent of Total Degrees Awarded
60
50
Bachelor’s
40
Master’s
30
PhD
20
10
0
65 70 75 80 85 90 95 00 05
19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20
FIGURE TS-2 Percent of total degrees awarded which are S&E degrees, by degree
type: 1966 to 2001. Most US doctorate degrees are awarded in S&E fields.
SOURCE: Based on National Science Foundation. Science and Engineering Degrees:
1966-2001. NSF 04-311. Arlington, VA: National Science Foundation, 2003. Table
1. Data from National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary
Education Data System. Completions Survey and National Science Foundation/
Division of Science Resources Statistics Survey of Earned Doctorates.
disincentives for many considering an advanced S&E degree.15 An issue
raised in several studies on doctoral education is that prospective students
are underinformed. A large, cross-disciplinary, multi-institutional survey
on the experiences of doctoral students indicated that students entering
doctoral programs entered their programs “without having a good idea of
the time, money, clarity of purpose, and perseverance that doctoral educa-
tion entails.”16 The burden of being informed does not rest solely on the
prospective student. While professional schools make a point to inform
prospective students of the salary and employment levels of graduates, it
15R. Freeman, E. Weinstein, E. Marincola, J. Rosenbaum, and F. Solomon. “CAREERS:
Competition and Careers in Biosciences.” Science 294(5550)(2001):2293-2294; W. Butz, G.
A. Bloom, M. E. Gross, T. K. Kelly, A. Kofner, and H. E. Rippen. Is There a Shortage of
Scientists and Engineers?: How Would We Know? IP-241-OSTP. Santa Monica, CA: RAND
Corporation, 2003. Available at: http://www.rand.org/publications/IP/IP241/IP241.pdf; M. S.
Teitelbaum. “Do We Need More Scientists?” The Public Interest 153(2003):40-53.
16C. M. Golde and T. M. Dore. At Cross Purposes: What the Experiences of Doctoral
Students Reveal About Doctoral Education. Philadelphia, PA: A Report Prepared for The Pew
Charitable Trusts, 2001.
OCR for page 333
333
APPENDIX D
appears that S&E graduate programs rarely make such information
available.17
Career Prospects in S&E
Students considering research careers can face daunting prospects.
Graduate and postdoctoral training may take over a decade, usually with
low pay and few benefits. Most researchers do not become full-fledged mem-
bers of the profession until their mid-30s or later—an especially onerous
burden for those who are trying to balance the demands of work and family.
Even at the end of this long training period, many do not find the jobs
for which they have been trained. The stagnation of funding for the physi-
cal sciences, mathematics, engineering, and the social sciences over the last
decade has led to fewer academic faculty positions in these fields. Even in
expanding fields, such as the biosciences, the number of permanent aca-
demic research and teaching positions has not kept up with the growing
number of students who are entering these fields. As a result, more and
more researchers languish in temporary positions.18 The fastest-growing
employment category since the early 1980s has been “other academic ap-
pointments,” which is currently increasing at about 4.9% annually.19 These
jobs are essentially holding positions filled by young researchers coming
from postdoctoral positions who would like to join an academic faculty on
a tenure track and are willing to wait. It is an increasingly long wait as
institutions are decreasing the number of faculty appointments to decrease
the long-term commitments that they entail. From 1993 to 2001, the num-
ber of biomedical tenure-track appointments increased by 13.8%, while
those for nontenure-track faculty increased by 45.1% and other appoint-
ments by 38.9% (see Figures TS-3A and B).
In fields outside the life sciences, most doctorates go on to careers in
industry or government (see Figures TS-4A and B). Increasingly, these sec-
tors are providing research opportunities for the best students. At the same
time that biotechnology firms are gearing up their R&D operations, top
industrial research laboratories, such as Bell Labs and Xerox PARC are
17P. Romer. Should the Government Subsidize Supply or Demand in the Market for Scien-
tists and Engineers? Working Paper 7723. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau for Economic
Research, 2000. Available at: http://www.nber.org/papers/w7723/; National Research Coun-
cil. Trends in the Early Careers of Life Scientists. Washington, DC: National Academy Press,
1998.
18National Research Council. Trends in the Early Careers of Life Scientists. Washington,
DC: National Academy Press, 1998.
19National Research Council. Advancing the Nation’s Health Needs. Washington, DC: The
National Academies Press, 2005.
OCR for page 334
334 RISING ABOVE THE GATHERING STORM
120,000
Total Employed
100,000 in S&E
Number Employed
Total Academics
80,000
Industry
60,000
Government
40,000
Other Sector
20,000
0
73
77
81
85
89
93
97
01
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
FIGURE TS-3A Number of biomedical jobs, by sector, 1973-2001.
SOURCE: National Research Council. Advancing the Nation’s Health Needs. Wash-
ington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2005. Appendix E.
70,000
Number Employed in Academe
Total Academics
60,000
50,000 Tenured Faculty
40,000
Tenure Track
30,000
Other Academic
20,000
Academic
10,000
Postdoctorates
0
73
77
81
85
89
93
97
01
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
FIGURE TS-3B Number of biomedical academic jobs, by tenure-track status, 1973-
2001.
SOURCE: National Research Council. Advancing the Nation’s Health Needs. Wash-
ington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2005. Appendix E.
OCR for page 335
335
APPENDIX D
Employment Status of All S&E Doctorates
300,000
Doctorates Employed in Sector 250,000
Academic
200,000 Industry
Government
150,000
Other Sectors
100,000
50,000
0
73
77
81
85
89
93
97
01
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
Percent of S&E Doctorates Employed per Sector
70
Doctorates Employed in Sector
60 Academic
50
Industry
40
Government
30
Other
20
Sectors
10
0
73
77
81
85
89
93
97
01
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
FIGURE TS-4A Number and percentage of S&E doctorates employed, by sector,
1973-2001.
SOURCE: National Science Foundation. Survey of Doctoral Recipients 2003. Arling-
ton, VA: National Science Foundation, 2005.
closing down, leaving physical-science graduates with few options. Increas-
ingly, mathematics and computer-science graduates are turning to finance
and Wall Street. Given these shifts in workforce opportunities, top US stu-
dents may consider options other than S&E very attractive. Careers in such
professions as law, medicine, business, and health services require less train-
ing, offer more secure job prospects, and have much higher lifetime earning
potential (see Tables TS-1A and B).
INTEREST IN RESEARCH CAREERS BY TOP STUDENTS
TRACKS JOB MARKET
The current contrast between these options and research is influencing
career decisions. According to available sources of data, accomplished US
OCR for page 336
336 RISING ABOVE THE GATHERING STORM
70
60
50
Academia
Percent
40
Industry
30
Government
20
10
0
s
s
es
es
gy
es
s
g
ce
ic
ce
in
nc
nc
lo
nc
at
er
en
en
ho
m
ie
ie
ie
ne
i
ci
Sc
he
Sc
Sc
Sc
yc
gi
rS
Ps
at
En
al
lth
fe
al
te
M
ci
ic
Li
ea
pu
So
ys
H
om
Ph
C
FIGURE TS-4B Work sector of PhDs by field, 2001.
SOURCE: National Science Foundation. Survey of Doctoral Recipients 2003. Arling-
ton, VA: National Science Foundation, 2005.
students are increasingly turning away from S&E, especially during their
undergraduate years.20 In the 1990s, surveys of science majors from top
universities showed a striking decline of interest in S&E careers. Between
1984 and 1998, the percentage of college seniors planning to go to graduate
school in the next fall in S&E fields dropped from 17 to 12%. Among those
students with A or A- grade-point averages, the declines were comparably
steep—from 25 to 18%.21
Between 1992 and 2000, the number of college seniors who scored
highly on the Graduate Record Examination (GRE) and indicated that they
intended to study S&E in graduate school fell by 8%. The number of these
top students planning to go to graduate school in fields other than S&E
grew by 7% (Figure TS-5). The greatest declines were in engineering (25%)
and mathematics (19%). Among top GRE scorers, however, enrollment in
biological sciences programs showed a 59% gain. When it came to careers
outside S&E, the researchers found that the fields attracting the largest
growth in top GRE scorers were short training programs in health profes-
20W. Zumeta and J. S. Raveling. “Attracting the Best and the Brightest.” Issues in Science
and Technology (Winter 2002):36-40.
21E. I. Holmstrom, C. D. Gaddy, V. V. Van Horne, and C. M. Zimmerman. Best and Bright-
est: Education and Career Paths of Top S&E Students. Washington, DC: Commission on
Professionals in Science and Technology, 1997.
OCR for page 337
337
APPENDIX D
sions, such as physical therapy, speech and language pathology, and public
health—drawing 88% more top scorers in 2000 than in 1992.
Where are top students going if not into S&E? The top US students do
not appear to be headed in large numbers into law school or medical school,
where enrollments have been flat or declining. But more do seem to be
attracted to graduate business schools, where the number of MBAs awarded
annually grew by nearly one-third during the 1990s. During this period,
many S&E undergraduate students also may have entered directly into the
workforce after graduating, attracted in part by the booming economy. As
the economy slowed in the early part of this decade, some of these students
may have returned to graduate school, and more undergraduates may have
opted to continue their studies.22
Indeed, 1999 appears to have been the nadir for student interest in S&E
graduate study. The economy’s recent slump has prompted growing num-
bers of top US college graduates to attend graduate school, new data show,
sharply reversing course from the late 1990s, when more of the brightest
young Americans headed for quicker-payoff careers in business and health.
By 2001, with fewer high-technology jobs beckoning, the share of top US
citizen scorers (above 750) on the GRE quantitative scale heading to grad-
uate school in the natural sciences and engineering increased by about
31% compared with 1998, after having declined by 21% in the previous
6 years.23 This recent increase is comparable with the 29% gain in the
number of all score levels of examinees who intended to enroll in graduate
school in S&E. And the total number of GRE examinees increased by 9%
between 1998 and 2001, suggesting that more students in a variety of fields
were preparing for graduate school.
Enrollments of International Students24
As the number of US students studying S&E in graduate schools has
dropped, these schools and employers of scientists and engineers have com-
pensated by enrolling and employing more students and trained personnel
from other countries. In 2003, foreign students earned 38% of doctorates
22W. Zumeta and J. S. Raveling. The Best and the Brightest for Science: Is There a Problem
Here? In M. P. Feldman and A. N. Link, eds. Innovation Policy in the Knowledge-Based
Economy. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2001. Pp. 121-161.
23W. Zumeta and J. S. Raveling. “The Market for Ph.D. Scientists: Discouraging the Best
and Brightest? Discouraging All?” AAAS Symposium, February 16, 2004. Press release avail-
able at: http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2004-02/uow-rsl021304.php.
24See also the International Students Issue Brief elsewhere in this report.
OCR for page 338
338 RISING ABOVE THE GATHERING STORM
TABLE TS-1A Median PhD Salaries of Engineering and Science
Graduates, by Occupation and Field of Doctorate in 1997
Occupation
All Sectors University
Economics $75,000 55,000
Computer Science 75,000 56,000
Engineering 73,000 65,000
Physical Science 65,000 52,000
Biological Sciences 56,000 40,000
S&E PhDs in Management, Median Net Income. MDs 92,000 85,000
Field
All Sectors University
Economics $69,000 62,000
Computer Science 72,000 57,000
Engineering 75,000 68,000
Physical Science 70,000 54,300
Biological Sciences 60,000 53,000
SOURCE: R. B. Freeman, E. Weinstein, E. Marincola, J. Rosenbaum, and F. Solomon. Careers
and Rewards in Bio Sciences: The Disconnect Between Scientific Progress and Career Progres-
sion. Bethesda, MD: American Society for Cell Biology, 2001. Available at: http://
www.ascb.org/publications/competition.html.
in S&E, including 59% of engineering doctorates.25 In 2000, foreign-born
professionals occupied 22% of all US S&E jobs, up from 14% just 10 years
before.
But relying on foreign sources of students and research professionals is
risky. As systems of higher education and research continue to develop in
other countries, it is likely that fewer scientists and engineers will want to
come to the United States to study or work. Security concerns also have led
to a drop in applications to US graduate programs from international stu-
dents. Over time, multinational firms may decide simply to locate their
R&D facilities overseas, closer to their sources of scientists and engineers.
25The National Academies. Policy Implications of International Graduate Students and Post-
doctoral Scholars in the United States. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2005.
OCR for page 339
339
APPENDIX D
TABLE TS-1B Bioscience Salary Case Study on Lifetime Income
Disadvantage
Lifetime earnings for most doctorates are lower than in other high-level careers, particularly
for bioscientists, who are paid less than other highly educated workers at any given level of job
experience and who take longer to obtain full-time jobs. The two factors cumulate to a huge
lifetime economic disadvantage—on the order of $400,000 in earnings compared with high-
paying PhD fields, such as engineering, which also require many years of preparation but in
which graduates do not in general delay entry into the job market to take postdoctoral postions.
This is equivalent to a salary disadvantage of ~$25,000 per year for every year of working life.
Medicine, which has a similar career as the biosciences because of residency in hospitals after
completion of training, has about twice the lifetime income.
The economic disadvantage is greater when we compare bioscience with professions that
require less preparatory training. Consider, for example, a person who has just graduated
from a 2-year MBA program in 2000, earning $77,000 in base salary and $12,560 in signing
bonus (without stock options). A bioscience PhD who completed postdoctoratal training might
earn $50,000 as a starting assistant professor. But the MBA graduate would have spent 2 years
in school compared with the 10-12 years that students spend as graduate students and
postdoctoral fellows. The salary differential cumulates to a lifetime difference in earnings,
exclusive of stock options, conservatively estimated at $1 million discounted at 3%—compa-
rable with $62,000 per year of working life. Add in the options and bonuses that managers
get, and this differential could easily double.
SOURCE: Based on Freeman et al., 2001.
Finally, an overreliance on foreign-born scientists and engineers may have
the subtle effect of discouraging US students from entering these fields, both
because of cultural differences they might encounter during their education
(about 20% of the faculty members in S&E were not born in the United
States26) and because of a downward pressure on wages caused by an abun-
dance of international scientists and engineers eager to work in this country.
Possible federal actions include the following:
• Double the number of magnet high schools specializing in science,
technology, engineering, and mathematics from approximately 100 to 200
over the next 10 years. Federal support for these schools would send a
powerful message to the entire K–12 system about the importance of sci-
ence and technology.
• Sponsor regional, national, and international meetings and competi-
tions for high-school students and undergraduates interested in science,
26National Science Board. Science and Engineering Indicators 2004. NSB 04-01. Arlington,
VA: National Science Foundation, 2004.
OCR for page 340
340 RISING ABOVE THE GATHERING STORM
1992 1995 1998 2000
5,000
4,500
4,000
3,500
Number of US Citizens
3,000
2,500
2,000
1,500
1,000
500
0
Physical
Engineering Mathematics Biological
Computer
Sciences
Sciences
Science
FIGURE TS-5 Number of US citizen GRE examinees scoring over 750 on the
quantitative scale by intended S&E field, 1992, 1995, 1998, and 2000.
SOURCE: W. Zumeta and J. Raveling. “The Best and Brightest: Is There a Problem
Here?” 2002. Available at: http://www.cpst.org/BBIssues.pdf.
mathematics, and engineering. Extracurricular activities and interactions
with established scientists, mathematicians, and engineers can be powerful
motivating forces for students interested in these subjects.
• Partner with industry to sponsor a series of public-service announce-
ments exalting S&E careers.27
• Provide scholarships to all qualified students majoring in science or
mathematics at 4-year colleges who have an economic need and who main-
tain high levels of academic achievement.28 Financial assistance also should
be provided to 2-year colleges and to students at those institutions to pre-
27American Electronics Association. Losing the Competitive Challenge? Washington, DC,
2005.
28Council on Competitiveness. Innovate America. Washington, DC: Council on Competi-
tiveness, 2004.
OCR for page 341
341
APPENDIX D
pare for careers in S&E and to transfer to 4-year programs. Tax credits
could be provided to companies or individuals who contribute to scholar-
ship funds for S&E students.
• Provide at least 5,000 portable graduate fellowships, each with a
duration of up to 5 years, for training in emerging fields.29
• Support prestigious fellowships for graduate study in S&E at US
universities that would inspire the best US students in these fields. Though
these grants should be linked to the student and therefore portable, an insti-
tutional component of each grant would spur competition for these stu-
dents among institutions.
• Provide graduate-student stipends competitive with opportunities in
other venues.30
• Substantially increase the number of undergraduate and graduate
S&E students drawn from the “underrepresented majority.”31 Today,
women, Blacks, Hispanics, American Indians, and persons with disabilities
make up two-thirds of the US workforce but only 25% of the technical
workforce.
• Support a significant number of selective research assistant profes-
sorships in the natural sciences and engineering at universities.32 These
would be highly competitive positions open to postdoctoral scholars who
are US citizens or permanent residents. They would provide young and
creative scholars with opportunities to pursue research of their own choos-
ing even if they cannot secure positions at research institutions. This would
expand the pool of good jobs in S&E in a way that would be expected to
affect young people who are trying to decide whether to go to graduate
school.
• Develop prizes for research goals of particular national interest, such
as curing AIDS or going into space cheaply. Such prizes can provide flex-
ibility for the researchers striving to achieve them and inspire and educate
the public in current research interests.33
29Ibid.
30National Science Board, 2003.
31BuildingEngineering & Science Talent. The Talent Imperative, San Diego: BEST, 2004.
32W. Zumeta and J. S. Raveling. “Attracting the Best and the Brightest.” Issues in Science
and Technology (Winter 2002):36-40.
33National Academy of Engineering. Concerning Federally Sponsored Inducement Prizes in
Engineering and Science. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1999.
