Index
A
AARP. See American Association of Retired Persons
Ability to change, without any form of professional assistance, 37
Abortion, 220
Accommodation, 187
Action
attitudes guiding, 46
consequences of, 137
likelihood of taking, 134n
Activity restriction, 26
Adaptation, 24
Adult developmental psychology, recent developments in, 12
Adulthood, 20
Advance directives, 34
Affect, role in self-regulation, 43
Affective disorders, major, 23
Affective forecasting, 62–63
Affective heuristics, 3
Affective neural systems, 60–61
Age, protective factor in etiology of mental health disorders, 29
Age differences in self-regulation, 38–39
Age discrimination, consequences of, 87
Age distribution by population, 10–11
Age identity and self-concept, 86–87
Age-related decline, beliefs about, 80
Age stigma from the perceiver’s perspective, 175–186
attitudes and stereotypes, 175–180
behavior toward older adults, 180–184
emerging themes and directions for future research, 184–186
Age stigma from the perspective of older adults, 186–197
consequences of exposure to ageist stereotypes, 190–191
coping with a negative age identity, 191–196
emerging themes and directions for future research, 196–197
identity and self-concept, 186–188
implications of self-stereotyping, 189
Ageism, 4
consequences of, 197
coping in the face of, 198
multiple dynamics of, 198
Ageist views, of patients in a medical setting, 82
Aging
influences on course of, 24
and prefrontal decline, 151–152
uneasiness about, 9
Aging and social engagement, 69–72
mental stimulation and cognitive aging, 71–72
neurocognitive function and cognition, 70–71
Aging societies, future of, 13
Agreeableness, 22
Alzheimer’s disease, 68, 75, 77
America
the “aging of,” 1
well-being of, 250
American Association of Retired Persons (AARP), 163–164
American Psychological Association, 249
Anger, and risk aversion, 152
Anti-Semitism, 235
Antonucci, Toni, 25
Art of Asking Questions, The, 233
Attenuation, of question order effects, 220–221
Attitude change processes, thoughtful or automatic, 47–49
Attitude reports, 220–225
negative, 24
question order effects decreasing with aging, 220–221
response order effects increasing with age, 221–225
strong and positive, 24
Attitudes, 175–180
automatic, 52
guiding people’s decisions and actions, 46
implicit or unconscious, 179–180
toward different older adult subtypes, 176
toward the future, 60
Attitudes toward body image, racial and ethnic differences in, 32
Authoritarian Personality, The, 235
Automatic attitudes, 52
Automatic biases, challenging, 90
Automatic evaluations, 85
B
Bandura, Albert, 23
Beatles, 9
Behavior.
See also Addictive behaviors
genetic explanations for, 21
importance of context in maintaining, 41
key to all aging scenarios, 13
neuroscience studying its relation to the brain, 37
prediction of, 210
Behavior-based research, 3
Behavior change, sustaining, 134–138
Behavior toward older adults, 180–184
interventions, 183–184
patronizing versus accommodating speech, 181–183
Behavioral and Social Research Program, 2, 11, 16, 247
Behavioral forecasting measures, 62
Behavioral frequency reports, 225–227
response alternatives, 226–227
subjective theories, 225–226
Behavioral observations, 83–84
Behavioral practices, 5
Behavioral science, recent developments in, 12
Beliefs, 21
about age-related decline, 80
about aging, 89
about memory loss, 30
acquired, 23
self-efficacy, 44
Binge eating, 42
Blood-oxygen-level-dependent (BOLD) signals, 240
Body image, racial and ethnic differences in attitudes toward, 32
BOLD. See Blood-oxygen-level-dependent signals
Boomer generation, 9
Brain imaging methods, 241
C
Cantril, Hadley, 233
Capabilities for deciding, 56–59
individual, 56–58
meta-awareness, 58–59
Cellular senescence, 21
Center for Scientific Review, 249
Change.
See also Ability to change;
Life change
external sources of, 36
initiating and maintaining, 39–41, 50–51
involving novelty, 41
measurement of over time, 17
need for, 34
older people’s unique motives for, 35
readiness to make, 122–139
Changing implicit and explicit attitudes, 51–52
Choices
intertemporal, 60
made earlier in life, consequences of, 55
“tyranny” of, 54
Cognitive deficits, age-related, 82
Cognitive function
documented declines in, 88
engagement as augmenting, 77
preserving good, 68
Cognitive impairments, 138
Cognitive neuroscience, 39
of aging, 146
Cognitive science, recent developments in, 12
Cognitive tests, 73
Cognitive training, 71
Cognitive value, fostering, 71
Collaboration between theory and practice, enhancing, 138–139
Committee on Aging Frontiers in Social Psychology, Personality, and Adult Developmental Psychology, 2, 13–14, 58
charge and approach, 11–13
Communication, patronizing forms of, 82
Communication strategies that motivate behavior change, 125–134
message framing, 130–134
message tailoring, 127–130
Competence stereotypes, 177–178
forgetfulness, 177–178
mental incompetence, 178
Compliance, with medical regimens, 47
Conscientiousness, 23
Consequences
of actions, 137
of age discrimination, 87
of ageism, 197
of choices made earlier in life, 55
considering, 49
of exposure to ageist stereotypes, 190–191
introduction of new, 49
Context effects, age-sensitive, 219, 228
Continuum-based framework, 124
Control, over the environment, 44
Coping, 43
with distress, 23
in the face of ageism, 198
with traumatic events, 28
Coping with a negative age identity, 191–196
primary compensatory strategies, 192–194
secondary compensatory strategies, 194–196
Cortical “disconnection,” 243
Cross-disciplinary research, 37
Cross-racial studies, 78
Cross-sectional studies, 12, 24–25
Cultural and ethnic factors, role of, 78–79
Cultural effects, 1, 5, 15, 21
recommendation regarding, 15
D
Deciding whether to decide, 155–158
Decision avoidance, 156–157
Decision-making processes
emotion, and older adults’ decisions, 58
long-range planning and, 59–61
meta-awareness of one’s own, 59
at older ages, 3
Decisions
attitudes guiding, 46
medical, 155
memories of past, 147
types most often regretted, 65
“Delay discounting,” 154
Deliberative forms of thinking, 48
Deliberative neural systems, 60–61
Dementia, 12
defining, 70–71
delaying the onset of, 79
educational level and, 31
physiology of, 242–243
Depressed performance, 88
Depression
and cognitive and neural function, 74
predicting, 189
Detection behaviors, 131
Developmental diathesis-stress model, 21
failing at, 42
nutritious, 13
Differences in people’s readiness to change, 122–139
Disambiguation, of stereotypes, 183, 186
Discrimination
age, consequences of, 87
stress from being the target of, 87
Disease onset, engagement as delaying, 77
Disidentification, 194–195
Disinhibition, 42
Dissatisfaction, post-change, 51
Distress
coping, 23
emotional, 52
Diversity, developing a psychology of, 4–5, 15–16
Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, 149–151
Driving ability, 58
link to independence, 59
Drug cards, increasingly complicated, 55
Drug regimens. See Medical regimens
E
Economy, of an aging workforce, 11
Educational level, and dementia, 31
Elderspeak, 182–183
Eliot, Andrew, 129
Emotion
attention to, 57
in the decision process, 58
effectiveness of regulation of, 146
intraindividual variability in the
experience of, 213
and older adults’ decisions, 147–149
regulation of, 156
Emotional distress, 52
Emotional factors in attitudes and decision making, 49–50
Emotional processes and self-regulation, 42–43.
See also Self-regulation
Emotional responses, to options, 66
Emotional solidarity, between parents and adult children, 25
Emotional well-being, 27–29
End-of-life care, 65–66
Engagement
as augmenting cognitive function or delaying disease onset, 77
most effective types of, 77
Environments
control over, 44
exposure to different types of, 23
mastery of, 28
natural, change in, 37
stable cues in, 41
Escapist strategies, 42
Ethnicity issues, 1, 5, 15, 21
recommendation regarding, 15
Exercising regularly, 13, 21, 35, 73–74, 121
Expectations
acquired, 23
of aging, 81
becoming self-fulfilling prophecies, 181
studying, 51
Experience
increasing complexity of, 214
learning from, 63
openness to, 22
Experience sampling, 212–214
Explicit stereotypes, 81–83
Extraversion, 23
F
Family
receiving care from, 32
relationships of self to, 61
Fascism, 235
Fear, and risk aversion, 152
“Feared” selves, 188
Feature-based strategies, 159–160
Five-factor model of traits, 22
Flexibility.
See also Neural plasticity
fMRI. See Functional magnetic resonance imaging
Forgetfulness, 177–178
Formal treatment, ability to change without any form of, 37
Free to Choose, 54
Friedman, Milton, 54
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), 58, 214–215, 240, 242, 245
Funding mechanisms, 6
Future, attitudes toward, 60
Future feelings, ability to predict, 62
Future research needed, 13–15
emerging themes and directions for, 184–186, 196–197
G
Gain-framed appeals, 130–131, 133
Gambling games, 153–154
studies using, 150
Gender, race, and socioeconomic status, 31–33
Gender differences, 5, 15, 21, 180
recommendation regarding, 15
Genetic explanations, for behavior, 21
Glucocorticoid dysregulation, 74
Grants
R24 infrastructure, 17
for transdisciplinary centers, 17, 248
Great Depression, “birth dearth” during, 9
H
Handbook of Questionnaire Design, The, 233
Health, subjective perceptions of, 38
Health interventions, costly and degrading, 66
“Healthy mind,” maintaining, 4
Healthy regimens, in everyday life, 13
Heterogeneity, of America’s older population, 15
Heuristics. See Affective heuristics
High-risk situations, 44
Hippocampal structures
loss of neurons in, 74
neurogenesis in, 73
“Hoped-for” selves, 188
5-HTT (serotonin transporter) gene, 21
Human genome project, 21
Hypertension, 151
I
IAT. See Implicit Association Test
Identity, and self-concept, 186–188
Illness, recovery from, 23
Implicit Association Test (IAT), 52, 84, 179, 211
Implicit attitudes and stereotypes, 179–180
activation of, 83–85
gender differences in, 180
Implicit constructs and processes, 83
Impression management, 193
Impulsivity, 154
Incidental encoding, 244–245
Incontinence, 193
Individual adjustments, 24
Individual beliefs and attitudes, 43–44
Individual differences, 23
role of, 78
Individuals, 56–58
Inertia, overcoming, 35
Information about health
more effective presentation of, 36, 126
reduced seeking of, 158–159
Initiation and maintenance of change, 39–41, 50–51, 121–144
Interactional perspective, on personality, 23
Interdisciplinary research, 5–6, 14, 16, 198, 248
Intergenerational interactions, 181
dynamics of, 184
Internalized stereotypes, effects of, 88–89
Intertemporal choice, normative models of, 60
Interventions, 183–184.
See also Health interventions
to change ageist attitudes, 89–90
culturally appropriate, programmatic, 79
strategies for, 138–139
Intraindividual variability, in emotional experience, 213
Intuitive modes of thinking, 48
Isolation, 12
J
Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 214
K
K awards, 247–248
flexibility in, 248
Kahn, Robert, 25
L
Late-life outcomes, 1
Learning from experience, 63
Leisure activities, mentally engaging, 68–69
Life change, successful, 44
Life experiences, accumulating, 24, 33
Life-prolonging medical care, 32
Life-span approach, 12, 14, 19–21, 24, 63
Likert, Rensis, 235
Long-term care institutions, 73
Long-term relationships, loss of, 26–27
Longer life expectancies, impact on societies, 1
Loss-framed appeals, 130–131, 133
M
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 240, 244
Magnetoencephalogram (MEG), 214
Major theory building, 13
Marijuana use, 58
Marital satisfaction, 26
“Matthew effect,” 20
Measurement of implicit constructs, 210–212
introduction, 219
Measurement of psychological mechanisms, 15, 17, 58, 209–216
experience sampling, 212–214
measuring implicit constructs, 210–212
social neuroscience, 214–216
Medical care, life-prolonging, 32
Medical decisions, 155
Medical regimens, compliance with, 47, 59, 121
Medical setting, ageist views of patients in, 82
Medicare, increasingly complicated, 55
Medications, adherence in taking, 35, 37, 40
Memories, of past decisions, 147
Memory bias, 165–166
Memory enhancement effect, and self-reference, 215
Memory loss
beliefs about, 30
Mental capabilities, significant declines in, 56
Mental incompetence, 178
Mental stimulation, and cognitive aging, 71–72
Mental vitality, ability to maintain, 68
Message framing, 130–134
Message tailoring, 40, 48–49, 126–130
defined, 127n
Meta-awareness, 58–59
Methodology, issues of, 17
Mischel, Walter, 60
Models, of behavior change, 128
Mortality, 121
predictors of, 38
Motivation, and health, 44
Motivation and behavioral change, 2–3, 34–53
developing methods for, 139
persuasion and attitude change, 45–52
recommendation regarding, 14
Motivation and self-regulation, 36–45
age differences in self-regulation, 38–39
the avoidance of novelty, 41–42
emotional processes and self-regulation, 42–43
individual beliefs and attitudes, 43–44
initiating or maintaining change, 39–41
social facilitation and barriers to change, 44–45
MRI. See Magnetic resonance imaging
Multiparty decision making, 61–66
affective forecasting, 62–63
regrets, 64–65
risk aversion, 63–64
Multiple categories of identity, 85–86
N
National Health Interview Survey, 29
National Institute of Mental Health, StartMH Program, 249
National Institute on Aging (NIA), 2, 5, 13–17, 247–248
Behavioral and Social Research Program, 2, 11, 16, 247
National Institutes of Health (NIH), 17, 248–249
Center for Scientific Review, 249
Office of Behavioral and Social Sciences Research, 248
National Institute on Drug Abuse, 248
National Research Council, 2
National Science Foundation, 249
Natural environments, change in, 37
Negative affect, 152
Negative emotional experiences, 128, 147, 160
Negative pictures, memory for, 148
Negative stereotypes, 176
Neural plasticity, role in social tasks, 216
Neural substrates of decision making, 149–151
Neural systems, types of, 60
Neurocognitive function and cognition, 70–71
Neurogenesis, 73
Neuron loss, 151
Neuroscience
cognitive, 39
methods of, 58
Neuroticism, 23
New consequences, introduction of, 49
NIA. See National Institute on Aging
NIH. See National Institutes of Health
Nondifferentiation, 236
Novelty, the avoidance of, 41–42
O
Obesity, effectiveness of programs to reduce, 32
Office of Behavioral and Social Sciences Research, 248
Older adult subtypes, attitudes toward different, 176
Older adults
affective heuristics for, 3
behavior toward, 180–184
coping with traumatic events, 28
differential treatment of, 4
emotional self-control in, 28
growing diversity of, 15
growth in, 20
identifying problems of, 12
impulse control in, 38–39
and the Internet, 76
predicting lower satisfaction in the future, 27
reported distance between actual and ideal selves, 24
self-satisfaction among, 43
societies top-heavy with, 9
solving interpersonal problems, 29
spending more time alone, 25
Older adults’ decisions, prefrontal cortex and, 149–164
Optimism-pessimism, dimension of, 23
Optimizing questionnaire design, 233–237
nondifferentiation, 236
number of scale points, 234
order effects, 237
scale point labeling, 234–236
Orbitofrontal cortex, 149–150
Order effects, 237
Overconfidence, 161
P
Paradox of Choice, The, 54
Park, Denise C., 254
Passivity, 40
Patronizing forms of communication, 82
versus accommodating speech, 181–183
Payne, Stanley, 233
Performance deficits, age-related, 88
Personality, and self-concept, 22–24
Personality studies, 213
interactional or transactional perspective on, 23
recent developments in, 12
stability and, 22
Perspectives, changing, 24
Persuasion and attitude change, 45–52
attitude change processes, thoughtful or automatic, 47–49
changing implicit and explicit attitudes, 51–52
emotional factors in attitudes and decision making, 49–50
initiation and maintenance of change, 50–51
knowledge about, 53
PET. See Positron emission tomography
Philadelphia Geriatric Center Positive and Negative Affect Scales, 231
Physical activity. See Exercising regularly
Plasticity. See Neural plasticity
Positive affect, 149
Positive emotional experiences, 128
Positive social identity, maintaining, 194
Positive stereotypes, 82, 184–185
Positivity effect, 30–31
Positron emission tomography (PET), 214, 240, 245
Prediction, 210
of depression, 189
of future feelings, 62
of mortality, 38
of self-esteem, 189
Prefrontal cortex and older adults’ decisions, 149–165
aging and prefrontal decline, 151–152
deciding whether to decide, 155–158
neural substrates of decision making, 149–151
repeated decisions, 161–162
risky decisions, 152–155
seeking information, 158–161
susceptibility to scams, 162–164
Prejudice
negotiating, 197
reducing, 183
Prevention behaviors, 131
Primacy effects, 222–223
Primary compensatory strategies, 192–194
self-presentation theory, 192–193
socioemotional selectivity theory, 193–194
Problem-solving, 156–157
social, 57
Procrastination, 34–35
Professional assistance, ability to change without any form of, 37
Prospect theory, framing postulate of, 130
Psychological applications of neuroimaging, 241
Psychological disengagement, 194
Psychological processes, 5
Psychological transformation of events, 63
Psychology
of diversity, developing, 4–5, 15–16
role in understanding motivation for change, 35
Psychology and Aging, 231, 234
Psychopathologies, 23
age not increasing risk of, 29
Psychotherapy, efficacy of, 41
Purpose in life, 28
Q
Question order effects, decreasing with aging, 220–221
Question wording, format, and order, 228
R
R24 infrastructure grants, 17
on health, 31
recommendation regarding, 15
“Rational” processes, 66
Readiness to make change, 122
Reasoned action, theory of, 123
Recency effects, 223
Recommendations, 2, 5–6, 14, 16
Recovery from illness, 23
Regret, 64–66
anticipated, 64
Relationships.
See also Social networks
positive, 28
of self to the family, 61
Repeated decisions, 161–162
Report structure, 18
Research infrastructure, 5–6, 247–250
developing, 6
supporting, 16–17
Research topics, 3–4
motivation and behavioral change, 3
opportunities lost: stereotypes of self and by others, 4
social engagement and cognition, 4
socioemotional influences on decision making, 3–4
Resilience, 24
Response alternatives, 226–227
Response order effects, increasing with age, 221–225
Retirement “decisions,” 21
Retirement Research Foundation, 249
Retirement savings, 55–56
Review process, innovative use of, 6
Reward anticipation, 215
Risk tolerance, 152
Risky decisions, 152–155.
See also Highrisk situations
Russell Sage Foundation, 249
S
Satisfaction, 136–137.
See also Dissatisfaction;
Self-satisfaction
marital, 26
studying, 51
Scale points
labeling, 234–236
number of, 234
Scams, susceptibility to, 162–164
Schwartz, Barry, 54
Screening behaviors, 132
Secondary compensatory strategies, 194–196
disidentification, 194–195
psychological disengagement, 194
social comparison, 195–196
Seeking information, 158–161
reduced, 158–159
Selection, 20
Self, views of, 24
Self-acceptance, 28
Self-concept, 198
changing with age, 24
Self-confidence, 145–146
Self-control, maintaining, 66–67
Self-efficacy, 128
beliefs about, 44
Self-esteem
not changing with age, 24
predicting, 189
Self-fulfilling prophecies, expectations becoming, 181
Self-knowledge, 20
Self-persuasion, 128
Self-presentation theory, 192–193
Self-questioning, 47
Self-regulation, 35
role of affect in, 43
strategies for, 137
Self-Regulatory Model of Illness Behavior, 135
Self-report scales, 62
of constructs or processes, 83
Self-satisfaction, among older adults, 43
Self-stereotypes, 198
implications of, 189
Senescence, cellular, 21
Senior citizen community settings, 73
Shifting standards framework, 86
Social class effects, 15
Social cognitive approach, 85
Social cognitive theory, 135
Social comparison, 195–196
Social concepts, 21
“Social convoys,” 25
Social downgrading, 195
Social engagement, 72–76
technology training as engagement, 75–76
underlying mechanisms, 73–75
Social facilitation, and barriers to change, 44–45
Social identity, maintaining a positive, 194
Social networks, 1
composition of, 25
over time, 25
size of, 27
strong and lasting, 13
Social neurosciences, 214–216
recent developments in, 12
transforming our understanding of behavior, 14
Social pressure, 162
Social problem solving, 57
Social psychology, 32, 81, 83, 86–87, 89
recent developments in, 12
Social Security system, 56
proposed changes in, 55
Social support, 44–45
Social tasks, role of neural plasticity in, 216
Sociocultural perspective, 83
recommendation regarding, 15
Socioemotional selectivity theory (SST), 42, 128, 148, 193–194
Spearman-Brown prophecy formula, 232
SST. See Socioemotional selectivity theory
Stable environmental cues, 41
Stable personality traits, 23
Stage-based framework, 124
StartMH Program, 249
Status quo, acceptance of, 34
“Stereotype threat” theory, 88, 190
Stereotypes, 175–180.
See also Self-stereotypes
activation of, 83
age identity and self-concept, 86–87
competence, 177–178
effects of internalized, 88–89
explicit, 81–83
impact on self and others, 2, 4, 16, 30, 80–91
implicit or unconscious, 179–180
interventions to change ageist attitudes, 89–90
multiple categories of identity, 85–86
negative, 81–83
recommendation regarding, 14
Stigma-related stress, 191
Stimulation, most effective types and combinations of, 79
Strains of later life, 26
Stress
from being the target of discrimination, 87
and cognitive and neural function, 74
stigma-related, 191
Subjective perceptions of health, 38
Subjective theories, 225–226
Subjective well-being, 23
Sustaining behavior change, 134–138
T
Tailoring. See Message tailoring
Taxonomies of traits, 22
Technology
training in as engagement, 75–76
using to tailor messages, 128
Telomere shortening, 21
Temperamental inheritance, 23
Thematic apperception tests, 83
Thinking continuum, 47–48
Thoughts about thoughts, 47
Trade-offs, 160
Training designs, 72
Transactional perspective, on personality, 23
Transdisciplinary centers, grants for, 17, 248
Transformation of events psychologically, 63
Traumatic events, coping with, 28
Treatment, ability to change without any formal, 37
“Tyranny of choice,” 54
U
Unconscious attitudes and stereotypes, 179–180
gender differences in, 180
Underconfidence, 161
Underlying mechanisms of behavior, 73–75
investigating, 3
Understanding. See Meta-awareness
University of California-San Diego, 249
“Use it or lose it” argument, 74
V
Vacations, retrieving memories about, 61
Validity checking, 47
W
Well-being
conceptualizing, 28
emotional, 27–29
of the nation, 250
subjective, 23
Widowhood, 26–27
Wisdom, 24
Workshops, extended, 6