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INDEX
A
Acanthostega, 88, 102, 106
Adenosine diphosphate (ADP), 14
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), 14
Aetosaurs, 151, 197
Age of Earth, 5, 32
Age of first animals, 52
Age of Universe, 32
Algae, 55, 93–94
Allonautilus, 71, 74, 75
Allosaurus, 167, 178, 202
Alroy, John, 225
Altitude.
See also High altitudes compression, 47, 141, 154–155
sickness, ix
Alvarez Impact Hypothesis, 138, 167
Ambulacra, 65
American Museum of Natural History, 52, 208
Ammonites, 71, 106, 163, 197, 199, 213, 215, 216–218, 223
Ammonoids, 71, 73, 113, 114, 133, 144, 159
Amphibians
adaptive radiation, 105
diversity, 195, 196
evolution of, 100–104
gigantism, 113
heart, 125
reproductive strategy, 120
reptile differentiation, 121
respiratory system, 100, 103, 104–105, 195
Romer’s Gap, 103, 104–108, 109
tadpole stage, 104
transition from gill to lungs, 100, 103, 104–105
Amphioxus, 76
Amphipods, 115
Anapsids, 126, 127, 130, 151, 211
Angelyck, Ken, 153
Anhydrate, 36, 37
Animal-free zones, 15–17
Annelids, 12, 15, 57, 59, 60–61, 93, 95
Anomalocaris, 57, 79, 84, 161
Anoxic environments
atmosphere, 38
continental drift and, 231–232
and mass extinctions, 102, 142, 204
in oceans and seas, 15–17, 32, 53, 75, 102, 106, 142, 204, 231–234
Arandaspis, 85
Archaeognatha, 98
Archaeopteris, 88
Archaeopteryx, 178, 185, 206
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Archeocyathids, 83
Archosaurs, 151, 152–153, 160, 162, 177, 188, 211, 212
Arizona State University, 115
Arthropleura, 110
Arthropods, 3.
See also specific arthropods
body plan, 10, 12, 51, 56–57, 59, 64, 111–112
Cambrian, 51, 52, 56–57, 58–63
diversity, 109
gigantism, 91, 111–112, 113, 115
land colonization, 93, 95–96, 98, 99, 107
mass extinctions, 78–79
Ordovician, 82
respiratory systems, 22, 60–61, 95, 96
segmentation, 57, 58–63, 91
Silurian, 91, 93, 95–96, 98, 99
Asteroid impact. See Meteor/asteroid impacts
Atmosphere.
See also Carbon dioxide;
Nitrogen;
Oxygen;
Oxygen-poor conditions;
Oxygen-rich conditions
COPSE model, 39
determinants of changes, 35–37, 38–39
forcings, 38–39
functions of, 31
GEOCARB model, 38
GEOCARBSULF model, 38–39, 41
measuring changes, 37–39
origins, 32–33
ozone layer, 35, 143
present-day composition, 1, 31, 32, 34
pressure, 184
B
Bacteria, 83
in anoxic environments, 16, 214–215
cyanobacteria, 34–35, 53–54
methanogens, 215
plant decomposition, 117
respiration, 12, 14
sulfur-metabolizing, 134, 136, 141–142, 164
Bakker, Robert, 152, 173–174, 175–176, 180, 200, 205
Banded iron formations, 34
Bardet, Nathalie, 190
Basalt floods and, 140–141, 233
Becker, Luann, 139, 140
Beerling, David, 119
Bennett, Albert, 188
Benton, Mike, 154
Bergman, Noah, 39
Berner, Robert, 36, 38, 39, 44, 99, 140, 141, 235
Birds
bipedalism, 166
bone pneumaticity, 181–183, 185, 206
Cretaceous, 152, 173, 175, 178
endothermy, 145, 147, 150, 151, 174, 176, 178, 207
evolution, 1, 48, 121, 174, 178, 185, 199, 200, 202, 206–207
first, 185
flight, 176, 178, 200, 206–207
heart, 150
at high altitudes, 122
Jurassic, 174, 199, 202
reproduction, 122, 208, 212
respiratory system, ix–x, 27–28, 147, 148, 171, 172–174, 176–177, 179, 181, 184, 207
Bivalves
arthropods, 56–57
brachiopods, 56, 81, 82–83
low-oxygen-tolerant, 214–216
mollusks, 22, 23, 27, 65, 68, 69, 70, 159, 163, 199, 214–216
Black Sea, 16, 35, 142
Blood pigments, 13, 14–15, 263.
See also Circulatory system
Body plans of animals
anterior and posterior design, 12
appendages/protrusions, 12, 20, 23, 59
aquatic, 214–221
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bipedal, 162–163, 165–171, 200
classification systems, 9–10
elongated, 20
exoskeletons, 59, 60, 112
fossil record, 2
functional origin, 11–12
limitations on, 111–112
mass extinctions and, 159
morphological changes during speciation events, 46, 78–79, 102
nerve tissue, 20, 227–228
protective, 111, 162
and respiratory structures and systems, 2, 6–7, 10–11, 19, 20, 26, 27–28, 42–48, 111, 124–125, 165
segmentation, 12, 57, 58–63, 65, 69, 91
size limits, 111
skeletons, 12, 220
squat and compact, 20
Theory of Punctuated Equilibrium, 46
Brachiopods
bivalve, 56, 81, 82–83
Cambrian, 58, 64
extinction, 95, 133, 137, 159, 163
inarticulate, 56
lophophore, 65–66, 67, 83
Ordovician, 87
pentamerid, 91–92
respiratory structures, 64, 70, 87
Silurian, 89
spiny, 114
Briggs, Derek, 58
Bryozoans, 65, 81, 82, 83, 95, 133
Bucky Balls, 139–140
Burgess Shale fauna, 2, 55, 56, 58, 59, 64, 66, 72, 75, 79, 161
C
Calcium carbonate, 219–221
Cambrian Explosion, xi, 11
arthropod diversity and disparity, 51, 52, 56–57, 58–63
carbon dioxide levels, 44, 53
chordate evolution, 57–58, 75–78
climate and, 43, 53
fossil record, 2, 3, 51, 56
importance of, 52–53, 161
landscape and environment, 42, 43, 44, 53–57
marine life, 55–58, 65, 67–75, 136
mass extinctions, 78–79, 81, 84, 86, 87, 89, 130, 161
molluscan evolution, 65, 67–75
oxygen levels, 41, 53, 54, 78, 129–130, 161
plant life, 53–54
respiratory systems of animals, 60–67
segmented body plans, 57, 58–63
speciation rate, 103
time interval, 52
Cambridge University, 11
Canadapsis, 56
Carbon, organic, 16, 36
Carbon cycle, 36, 37, 38, 79, 116, 164, 220–221, 229–230
Carbon dioxide
atmospheric changes over time, 10, 32, 33–34, 35, 38, 41, 44, 53, 138, 184, 186, 204, 223
basalt flood and, 140–141, 233
and calcium carbonate formation, 218–221
catastrophe, 140
and diversification rates, 44–45
forcings, 38–39
GEOCARB models, 38, 41
greenhouse effect, 41, 45, 140, 143, 189
and mass extinctions, 140
oxygen from, 34–35
and plant evolution, 44, 94, 137
respiratory waste product, 14, 15, 23, 24
solubility in water vs. air, 18, 19
volcanic, 33, 35
Carboniferous-Early Permian Period, 40–41
amniotic egg evolution, 113, 120–124
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atmospheric pressure, 115–116
climate, 112, 117, 120, 129
continental drift, 116–117
evolution, 119–124
forest fires, 112, 117–118
insects, 113, 114–117
landscape, 112–114
marine life, 113–114
oxygen levels, 109, 110, 114–119, 130–131
plants, 112–113, 117, 118–119
reptiles, 120–131, 171
size of animals, 111–112, 113, 130–131
Carrier, David, 124
Carrier’s Constraint, 124, 166, 168
Carroll, Robert, 101
Cenozoic Era, subdivisions, 41
Cephalopods
body plan, 67, 71, 80, 85, 132
buoyancy organ, 70–71, 72–74, 85
carnivores, 85
chambered, xi, 70–75, 84–85, 199
competition, 89, 113
diversification, 92, 144, 159, 199
evolution of, 2, 65, 70–75
extinctions, 136, 137, 163
gigantism, 87
locomotion, 72, 74, 75, 85
low-oxygen-tolerant, 216–218
metabolism, 217
respiratory system, 15, 69, 71, 74, 75, 85, 87, 217–218
shelled, 3, 71, 72–74, 113
Ceratites, 158, 163
Ceratopsians, 202, 203
Ceratosaurs, 202
Chapelle, Gautier, 115
Charophyceae, 93–94
Chasmatosaurus, 165
Chelicerates, 15
Chengjiang fossils, 55–57, 58, 64, 75, 76, 77, 207
Chicxulub asteroid strike, 71, 118
Chinsamy, Anusuya, 185
Chitons, 69, 70
Chordates
evolution of, 57–58, 75–78, 87
land colonization, 95, 120
Chriacus, 222
Chuandianella, 57
Ciliates and cilia, 15, 23
Circulatory systems, 25, 26, 150, 152, 263
Cistecephalus, 131
Clack, Jenny, 103, 104
Claessens, Leon, 181, 182–183
Clams
beds, 215–216
low-oxygen-tolerant, 214–216, 223
siphonate, 214
Classification systems, 9–10
Climate.
See also Temperatures, ambient
by geological period, 30, 41
glaciations, 112, 120, 129, 137
global warming, 134, 137, 143, 146–147, 156, 184, 229
greenhouse effect, 33–34, 41, 43, 45, 53, 140, 142, 143, 186, 229, 230
and mass extinctions, 106, 120, 134, 137, 140, 142, 156
sea level rise and, 232
and speciation events, 43, 53
Cnidaria, 10, 63–64, 95, 133
Coal Age, 117–118
Coccolithophorids, 213, 220, 221
Coelacanth, 100
Coelophysis, 177, 202
Coleoids, 199
Collier, Fred, 58
Comatulids, 214
Comet impacts, 33.
See also Meteor/asteroid impacts
Competition, 10, 42, 43, 48
Complexity of life, and energy requirements, 13
Continental drift, 116–117, 129, 134, 138, 230–23
Cope, Edward, 92
COPSE model, 39
Corals, 81, 86, 87, 114, 144, 160, 163
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Cornette, James, 44, 45
Cotylosaurs, 127
Crabs, 22, 63, 218–219
Cretaceous Period
birds, 152, 173, 175, 178
carbon dioxide levels, 223
dinosaurs, 3, 48, 175, 179–180, 183, 193–194, 200, 202, 203, 205, 208–209, 211, 213
diversification, 3, 48, 194
endothermic adaptation, 152
mammals, 199, 222, 224–228
marine fauna, 3, 213–221
mass extinctions, 118, 203, 218, 222, 223, 225
oxygen levels, 183, 222, 223, 225–227
plant life, 194, 205, 223
respiratory systems, 173
time interval, 41
Crinoids, 80, 113–114, 133, 136, 214
Crocodiles, 144, 151, 152, 168, 169, 172, 177, 179, 180, 184–185, 195, 196, 208
Crossopterygians, 100
Crurotarsans, 151
Crustaceans, 2, 15
Ctenophores, 56
Cyanobacteria, 34–35, 53–54
Cymbospondylus, 158, 190
Cynodonts, 130, 135, 146, 147, 160, 161, 169, 188, 223
D
Darwin, Charles, 2, 5, 6, 51
Dawkins, Richard, 3
de Riqules, A., 152
Demosponges, 56, 82
Desiccation, 68, 93, 94–95, 211
Devonian Period, 40–41.
See also Silurian-Devonian interval
mass extinctions, 48, 92, 102, 106
oxygen levels, 48
Diagoniella, 50
Diapsids, 126–127, 135, 151, 165, 168, 177, 211
Dicynodonts, 130, 131, 135, 146, 160, 161, 165
Diictodon, 131, 132, 153
Dimetrodon (Sail Back), 110, 113, 127, 128, 146
Dinocephalians, 129, 130, 131
Dinosaurs
air sac controversy, 173–183, 184, 185–186, 187, 206
armored, 202–203
body plans, 48, 162–163, 166, 167–168, 170–171, 191–192, 200, 201–204
bone pneumaticity, 175, 177, 179, 180, 181–182, 183, 185, 195, 197, 200, 205, 206
Chinese fossils, 179–180
Cretaceous, 3, 48, 175, 179–180, 183, 193–194, 200, 202, 203, 205, 208–209, 211, 213
diversity and disparity, 192–193, 195–197, 204–205
ectothermy, 178–179, 186–187, 188, 189, 206
endothermy, 125, 126, 127, 151–153, 167, 179, 184, 186, 206
evolution, 144, 151, 165–168, 169–170, 177–179, 184, 188, 200, 201–204
extinctions, 203, 207, 223
first, 167, 170, 177, 184, 200
flying, 169–170
gastralia, 183
herbivores, 204–205
history of, 201–204
Jurassic, 3, 122, 175, 177–178, 183, 185, 187, 194, 196, 199, 200, 202–203, 204, 209, 213
locomotion, 168–169
low-oxygen adaptations, 151, 166–167, 180, 188–191
Mesozoic, 127, 184, 194
metabolism, 151, 184–188, 189, 206
number of, 193–194
reproduction, 207–213
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respiratory systems, x, 8, 166–167, 168–169, 170, 173–183, 184–187, 195, 197, 200, 204–205, 206
size of, 194, 201, 202–203, 206
tooth adaptations, 205–206
Triassic, 3, 8, 47, 161, 162–163, 165–171, 177–180, 184–188, 191–194, 196, 201–202, 204, 209, 224
Diplodocus, 198
Diversity, habitat area and, 155, 193
DNA studies, 51, 75–76, 100–101, 121, 225
Dodson, Peter, 184
Dragonflies, 113, 114–115
Dromaeosaurids, 207
Dudley, Robert, 115
E
Echidna, 225
Echinoderms, 15, 64–65, 66, 81, 87, 95, 111, 113–114, 137
Echinoids, 22
Ectothermy (cold-bloodedness)
anapsid reptiles, 127
defined, 125, 126
dinosaurs, 178–179, 186–187, 188, 189, 206
disadvantages in cold environments, 145
and diving adaptation, 152
and heart size, 150, 152
oxygen conditions and, 148–149
synapsid reptiles, 127
Ediacarans, 50, 161
Eldredge, Niles, 46
Endemism, 47, 154–155
Endosymbiosis Theory, 34–35
Endothermy (warm-bloodedness), 26
aerobic capacity model, 149
air sacs and, 174, 176, 178, 179, 184, 207
birds, 145, 147, 150, 151, 174, 176, 178, 207
defined, 125–126
dinosaurs, 125, 126, 127, 151–153, 167, 179, 184, 186, 206
evolution of, 144–150
and four-chambered heart, 150–151, 152
metabolism and, 144–150, 151, 188
and nasal bones, 26, 146, 147, 187
oxygen levels and, 146–150
respiratory implications, 146, 147, 150
Energy expenditure and requirements.
See also Metabolism
air breathers vs. water breathers, 18–19
oxygen and, 12–15
size of animal and, 126, 162
temperature and, 188–191
Eoaluolavis, 207
Eocene, 43
Eoraptor lunesis, 158
Erwin, Doug, 58
Eudimorphodon, 169
Eukaryotes, 35
Euparkeria, 169
Eurypterids, 80, 91, 92
Eutrephoceras, 222
Eutrification, 17
Evolution
adaptive radiation, 105, 192
air sac system, 175, 177–179
amniotic egg and, 113, 120–124
amphibians, 100–104
biotic pressures, 42, 43
carbon dioxide levels and, 44–45
chordate, 75–78
convergent, 11, 60, 151, 178
Cope’s Rule, 92
Darwinian, 2, 5, 51–52
diversification of animal phyla, 51, 52, 86, 192
endothermy, 144–150
environmental pressures, 42, 43
locomotory adaptations, 61
Mesozoic Marine Revolution hypothesis, 42–43, 214
monophyletic stock, 121, 216
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natural selection, 42
oxygen levels as driver for, 2, 6–7, 10, 28–29, 42–48, 77–78, 86–87, 104–105, 119–120, 192–193, 235
paedomorphism, 76
rate of change, 44, 45, 86
respiratory adaptations, 25–26, 60, 61, 67–75, 77
Romer’s Gap, 103, 104–108, 109
vertebrates, 46–47, 75–78, 100–104
Extinctions. See Mass extinctions
F
Falkowsky, Paul, 226
Favkosky, David, 194
Fermentation, 12, 14
Fish
air-breathing, 108
amphibian diversification, 100–104
armored, fresh water, 85, 86, 90–91
bony, 100, 113
cartilaginous sharks, 113
extinctions, 133, 137, 163
gills, 24, 77, 85
jawed, 90
locomotion and respiration, 124
skeletonized, 81
thermoregulation, 188
Flatworms, 15, 20, 67
Fluorine, 13
Foraminifera, 213, 220
Forest fires, 112, 117–118
Fortey, Richard, 3
Fossils.
See also Burgess Shale fauna;
Chengjiang fossils
age of first animals, 52
dating of, 5, 39, 52, 104
eggs, 121–122, 123–124, 208, 212
and geological timescale, 39, 40, 51
Greenland tetrapods, 102
Karoo deposits, 129, 134, 153, 165
land animal, 95, 96–97
reptile, 121
Rhynie Chert assemblage, 97, 98
South African, 148
Valentia footprints, 101, 108
Fresh water, oxygen content, 18
G
Garstang, W., 76
Gastropods, 15, 22, 65, 68, 69, 70, 99, 213–214
Geist, Nicholas, 182, 211, 212
GEOCARB models, 38, 41, 141
GEOCARBSULF model, 38–39, 180, 193–194, 195, 204
Geological timescale, 5, 30, 39–41
Gigantism, 91, 111–112, 113, 114–115, 130, 201, 202–203, 206, 215
Gills
circulatory systems, 69, 77
countercurrent systems, 24
enclosed, 219
external systems, 23
as feeding organs, 27, 61, 63–64, 66, 67, 70, 76, 77–78, 83, 215
gnathobase water current system, 61
internal systems, 23, 64, 219
oxygen extraction efficiency, 62–63, 67–68, 75, 235
passive system, 21–22, 61, 62, 67, 70
pouches, 85–85, 105
protective structures and, 67–68, 85
pump systems, 21, 23–24, 61, 64, 66, 67, 68, 71, 75, 76, 77–78, 85, 92, 217
segmentation and, 60–63, 65, 69, 92
shells as part of, 69–71
surface area, 59, 61, 62, 63–64, 69, 77, 92, 97
thickness and size, 23–24
transition to lungs, 103
whole-body, 63
Glaciations, 112, 120, 129, 137
Glass sponges, 56, 82
Global warming, 134, 137, 143, 146–147, 156
Glossopteris, 156
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Glucose, 14
God, 6
Goldstein, Robert, 44
Gordon, Malcolm, 103, 105, 108
Gorgonopsians, 130, 131, 132, 135
Gould, Stephen Jay, 4, 11, 46, 75
Graptolites, 86
Greenhouse effect, 33–34, 41, 43, 45, 53, 140, 142, 143, 186
Greenhouse gases, 32.
See also Carbon dioxide;
other specific gases
Gulf of Mexico, 16–17, 75
Gypsum, 36, 37
H
Hadrocodium, 198
Hadrosaurs, 203, 205
Halobia, 215, 216
Harvard University, 140
Heart size and configuration, 26, 77, 263
four-chambered, 150–151, 152, 187
thermoregulation and, 150–151, 152
three-chambered, 125
Heavy Bombardment period, 33
Hemerythrin, 15
Hemicyclopsis, 86
Hemoglobin, 14–15
Herrerasaurus, 168, 170
Hesperonis, 222
High altitudes.
See also Oxygen-poor conditions
birds at, 122, 148, 174
mammalian reproductive limits, 227
and oxygen, 18
respiratory system efficiency, 28–29, 148
Hillenius, Willem, 147, 148, 185
Hirsch, Karl, 211
History of life
basic questions, 3–4
Cenozoic mammals, 223–225
chronology, 3, 4, 5, 52–53
classification systems, 9–10
dinosaurs, 201–204
driving forces, 4
evolution, 2, 5
extraterrestrial replication of Earth, 11
fossil and genetic record, 4–5
geological timescale, 5, 30, 39–41
pre-Cambrian, 42
Romer’s Gap, 103, 104–108, 109
scientific study, 4–5, 6
stratigraphic study, 5
terrestrialization, 92–99
Hooke, Robert, 72
Horner, Jack, 152, 185, 188, 208
Hox gene complex, 62
Huey, Ray, 141, 146, 154, 155, 190
Hydrogen-fluoride bonds, 13
Hydrogen-hydroxyl bonds, 13
Hydrogen sulfide, 37, 134, 136, 141–142, 155, 204
Hydroxyl radicals, 119
Hylonomus, 121
Hynerpeton, 102
Hyoliths, 56
Hypotheses
ammonite body plan, 218
chordate pump gill, 76
crab body plan, 219
dinosaur bipedalism, 168
dinosaur diversity, disparity, and size, 192–193, 204–205
dinosaur reproductive strategy, 213
dinosaur respiratory system, 197
endemism in low-oxygen environments, 154–155
endothermic adaptation to low oxygen, 147, 14
land colonization by animals, 98, 99, 108
molluscan shell pump, 68, 71
oxygen levels as evolutionary driver, 43, 47, 98, 192–193
repeated-segment body plan, 61
reproductive strategy in oxygen-rich environments, 122
test of, 43–48
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Hypothetical Ancestral Mollusk (HAM), 68
Hypoxia. See Oxygen-poor conditions
Hypsilophondontids, 202
Hypsilophontids, 203
I
Ichthyosaurs, 122, 164, 190, 191, 199, 200, 209, 213
Ichythostega, 102, 103, 105, 108
Iguanodons, 202
Inoceramus, 216
Insects
Carboniferous, 113, 114–117
floral revolution and, 194
gigantism, 112, 113, 114–115, 130
land colonization, 97, 98, 101
metabolic rates, 115
oxygen levels and, 90, 95, 97
Permian extinction, 135
respiratory system, 15, 96, 115, 130
segmentation, 59
Silurian, 90, 91, 95, 97, 98
thermoregulation, 188
winged, 97, 98, 114–115
Insolation changes, 39, 43, 89
Invertebrates
gill systems, 22, 23, 27
heart, 25
low-oxygen adaptations, 160
sessile, 23
Iron, 16, 36
J
Johns Hopkins University, 120, 227
Jones, Terry, 182
Jurassic Period
birds, 174, 199, 202
dinosaurs, 3, 122, 175, 177–178, 183, 185, 187, 194, 196, 199, 200, 202–203, 204, 209, 213
flyers, 200
fossil record, 129
gigantism, 202–203
mammals, 196, 199, 200
marine fauna, 3, 197, 199, 200, 213–221
mass extinctions, 195–197, 199, 204
oxygen levels, 157, 183, 185, 194, 198, 199, 200, 204, 207–213, 214, 227
rebound, 197
reptiles, 199
time interval, 41
K
Kannemeyeria, 131
Kelvin, Lord, 5
Knoll, Andy, 140
Kosmoceras, 198
Kump, Lee, 141
L
Labandeira, Conrad, 99, 106
Lagosuchus, 170
Lampreys, 86
Lancelet, 76
Land colonization
amphibian evolution, 100–104
annelids, 93, 95
arthropods, 93, 95–96, 98, 99, 107
fossil record, 95, 96–97, 102
insects, 97, 98, 101
mollusks, 93, 95, 99
oxygen levels and, 93–99, 101
plant evolution, 38, 42, 89, 90, 93–94
reproductive strategy and, 120–124
respiration-locomotion dilemma, 124–125
time interval, 89, 90
transition from gills to lungs, 89, 90, 96–97, 105
two-phase, 106–108
vertebrates, 93, 95, 99, 100–104, 107
Land surface, 10
Lane, Nick, 114
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Laurin, Michel, 99, 101, 106, 130, 131
Lead, 16
Lenton, Timothy, 39
Lepidodendron, 112
Lieberman, Bruce, 44
Limpets, 136
Lingula, 56
Linnaeus, C., 9
Liopleurodon, 198
Littorina, 55
Lizards, 125, 166, 172, 188, 208, 210
Lobopod, 57
Locomotion
Carrier’s Constraint, 124, 166, 168
dinosaur, 168–169
energy requirements, 13
evolution of, 61
hyponome, 74
on land, 100, 105, 124–125
marine bottom dwellers, 11–12
mollusks, 67, 72, 73, 74, 75, 85
posture and, 165–166
and respiratory system, 20, 22, 24, 61, 65, 71, 74, 75, 85, 124–125, 135, 165–166, 168–169, 172
segmentation and, 12, 61, 62
skeletons and, 12
Long, John, 103, 105, 108
Lophophore, 65–66, 67, 83
Lung fish, 100, 104
Lung systems
air sacs, 172–183, 184, 185–186, 187, 195, 196, 197, 200, 205, 206
alveolar, 171
amniote, 171–174
book lungs, 96
chest morphology, 26, 105, 176–177, 179
circulatory systems, 25, 26, 150, 152, 173, 263
diaphragm (pump), 24, 166, 171, 177, 179, 195
efficiency, 96, 171
and endothermy, 26
gas exchange principle, 24, 25
with gular pumping, 124
hepatic piston pump, 179, 180, 184
land colonization by animals and, 89, 90, 96–97, 105
and locomotion, 124–125
nasal bones, 26, 146, 147, 187
oxygen-poor environments and, 26
passive diffusion, 96
sac-like, 171, 177
septate, 171–172, 177, 179, 187, 196
size, 26
surface area, 96
vertebrates, 27
Lycopsids, 156
Lystrosaurus, 26–27, 131, 135
M
MacArthur, Robert, 155
Mammals
adaptive radiations, 199, 226
body plan, 168–169
Cenozoic, 224–225
Cretaceous, 199, 222, 224–228
endothermy, 145, 146, 147
evolution, 121, 130, 224–225
extinctions, 1
fossil record, 2
high-altitude, 227
human evolution, 227–228
Jurassic, 196, 199, 200, 227
metabolism, 223
oxygen levels and, 224, 225–227
reproductive strategies, 224–225, 226–227
respiratory system, 8, 147, 166, 171, 172
Tertiary diversification, 3
Triassic, 1, 3, 8, 130, 165, 196, 224
size of, 221, 224, 225–227
Maotionshania, 56
Marginocephalians, 202
Margulis, Lynn, 35
Marine life, xi
air breathers, 152, 164
Cambrian, 55–58, 65, 67–75, 136
carbon dioxide and, 44
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Carboniferous, 113–114
Cretaceous, 3, 213–221
at deep-sea vents, 215
and diving adaptation, 152
energy metabolism, 18–19, 189–190
eutrification and, 17
Jurassic, 3, 197, 199, 200, 213–221
locomotion, 11–12
low-oxygen body plans, 214–221
lower Paleozoic diversification, 3, 44
Ordovician, 82, 86–87
oxygen levels and, 190–191
re-evolution of terrestrial animals, 188–191
reptiles, 160, 164, 188–191, 199
Silurian, 91–92
thermoregulation, 152
Triassic, 159–160, 163–164, 188–191, 214, 215
Marrella, 50, 59
Mass extinctions.
See also Permian extinctions
asteroid impacts and, 3, 71, 106, 118, 157, 204, 218
“Big Five,” 48, 134, 216
carbon dioxide and, 140, 204
and carbon isotope values, 140, 164
climate and, 106, 120, 134, 137, 140, 142, 156
Devonian, 48, 92, 102, 106
and evolutionary changes, 102, 143, 159–160, 191–193
hydrogen sulfide poisoning and, 204
K/T event, 118, 157, 167, 203
low-oxygen conditions and, 48–49, 79, 102, 142, 204
ozone layer destruction and, 143
plants, 137, 140
Triassic-Jurassic, 195–197, 199, 203, 204, 216
McElwaine, Jenny, 204
Mediterranean Sea, 232
Meganeura, 110, 114
Mesozoic Era
asteroid-induced mass extinctions, 3, 144
dinosaurs, 127, 184, 194
marine environment, 17, 189, 215
oxygen levels, 41, 176, 180
subdivisions, 41
Mesozoic Marine Revolution Hypothesis, 42–43, 214
Metabolism.
See also Energy expenditure and requirements
basal level, 145, 188–189
defined, 144
dinosaur, 151, 184–188, 189, 206
and endothermy, 144–150, 151, 188
insects, 115
temperature and, 188–191
Meteor/asteroid impacts
Alvarez Impact Hypothesis, 138, 167
Chicxulub asteroid strike, 71, 118, 218, 223
Manicouagan event, 204
and mass extinctions, 3, 134, 139–140, 143, 157, 167, 204
Methane, 140, 143, 164, 215
Micromitra, 50, 66
Millipedes, 97, 98, 113, 115
Mississippi River valley region, 17
Mississippian Period, 40–41, 97, 105, 106, 109, 114, 118, 121, 130
Mites, 97
Mixosaurus, 164
Molecular clock studies, 51, 100–101, 121, 225
Mollusks, 3, 64.
See also individual families and species
bivalve, 10, 22, 23, 27, 65, 67–75, 84–85, 159, 163, 199
body plan, 10, 67–75, 84–85
buoyancy organs, 70–71, 72–74, 84–85
evolution, 65, 67–75
extinctions, 133, 216
giant, 216
HAM model, 68
land colonization, 93, 95, 99
locomotion, 67, 72, 73, 74, 75, 85
in oxygen-poor environments, 75, 81, 199
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respiratory systems, 15, 22, 67, 68–75, 85, 99
segmentation, 65, 69
shell, 67–68, 69–74, 81, 84–85
size of, 87
Monitor lizards, 128
Monoplacophorans, 59, 65, 68, 69, 70, 71, 73
Monotis, 215, 216
Mosasaurs, 190, 191, 213, 223
Moschops, 129
Morris, Simon Conway, 11, 55
Mountain uplift, 37, 38, 232, 234
N
Nautiloids, 74, 80, 84–85, 87, 92, 113, 132, 136, 144, 159, 199, 217, 218
Nautilus, xi, 69, 70–71, 72–75, 217
Nematodes, 15, 95
Nemerteans, 63
Neogastropods, 213
Neogene Period, 41
Neornischians, 202
Nesomachils, 88
Newman, S. A., 62
Nitrogen
atmospheric, 32, 116
fixation, 35
volcanic, 33
Nodosaurs, 203
Nutrient-rich runoff, 16–17
O
O’Connor, Patrick, 181, 182–183
Oceans and seas, 10.
See also Marine life;
individual bodies of water
anoxic conditions, 15–17, 32, 53, 75, 102, 106, 142, 204, 214–215, 231–234
atmosphere and, 32
Cambrian, 54–55
Carboniferous, 115
chemistry, 33, 43
low-oxygen events, 78, 214–221
Mesozoic, 17
origin, 33
oxygen content, 18, 35, 87, 115
salinity, 33, 43
thermohaline circulation, 17
tides, 55
Octopus, 70, 218
Omolska, Halszka, 184
Onycophorans, 57
Ordovician Period
animal diversification rates, 86
atmospheric gases, 79, 86–87
climate, 43
landscape and fauna, 81–85, 94
mass extinctions, 48
oxygen levels, 41, 48, 79, 80
time interval, 89
Oregon State University, 173
Ornithischians, 48, 171, 176, 183, 196, 200, 201, 202–203, 204–205
Ornithodira, 169–170
Ornithopods, 202
Osteolepis, 101
Ostracoderms, 80, 85, 86, 113
Oxidation-reduction reactions, 14, 34, 36
Oxygen
atmospheric composition over time, 31–32, 33, 35–38, 39, 41, 53, 54, 78, 129–130, 161, 180, 229–235
Berner curves, 39, 53, 98, 101, 110, 130, 132, 157, 158, 198, 222, 226
carbon cycle and, 36, 37, 79, 220–221, 229–230
content of air vs. water, 18–19
continental drift and, 232–233
energy production, 12–15
enzyme biosynthesis, 13
and evolution, 2, 6–7, 10, 28–29, 42–48, 77–78, 86–87, 104–105, 119–120, 192–193
extraction efficiency, 27–28, 62–63, 67–68, 75, 77
isotope mass balance model, 38
locomotion and, 20
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measuring past levels, 37–39, 41, 180
and respiration, 18–20
sensory processing and, 20
sources, 13, 34–35
sulfur cycle and, 36–37
temperature and, 39
and thermoregulation, 148–149
Oxygen-free. See Anoxic environments
Oxygen-poor conditions, 10.
See also Cambrian Explosion;
Jurassic Period;
Permian extinctions;
Triassic Explosion
and altitudinal compression, 47, 141
and bipedalism, 167–169
and chest and lung morphology, 26–27
dinosaur adaptations, x–xi, 2, 151, 166–167, 180, 188–191
and diversification rates, 45, 46, 47, 86–87, 102, 109, 119
and endothermy, 146–150
greatest crash, 137–138
mammals, 2
and marine life, 17, 190–191, 214–221
and mass extinctions, 48–49, 79
reproductive strategy, 122–123
respiratory efficiency in, 26, 75, 77, 146–150, 153–154, 160–161
and speciation rates, 45, 46, 78–79, 102–103, 119
temperature and, 48
and tetrapod fossils, 101
Oxygen-rich conditions.
See also Carboniferous-Early Permian Period;
Permian extinctions;
Silurian-Devonian interval
and adaptive radiation, 97, 103, 105–106, 129
cause of, 116–117
and diversification rates, 119, 127–128
and extinctions, 216
and gigantism, 91–92, 111–112, 216
and habitat, 193
highest in Earth’s history, 112, 114
and hydroxyl radicals, 119
and land colonization, 93–99, 101
mammals, 2
and marine invertebrates, 120
plant life, 118–119
reproductive strategies, 122–123
and speciation rates, 45–46, 119–120
Ozone layer, 35, 143
P
Pachycephalans, 202
Padian, Kevin, 185, 207
Paleomap Project, 231
Paleothyris, 121
Paleozoic Era.
See also individual periods
land colonization, 3
marine diversification, 3, 44, 144
oxygen levels, 26, 41, 131
subdivisions, 40–41
Pangea, 116–117, 129, 133, 138, 154, 230–231, 233, 234
Pareiosaurs, 127
Paul, Gregory S., 173–174, 176, 177, 178, 180, 188
Peck, Lloyd, 115
Pelycosaurs, 127, 128, 129
Pennatulaceans, 64
Pennsylvania State University, 141
Pennsylvanian Period, 40–41, 97, 99, 106, 109, 114, 118, 120, 121, 126, 127, 128–129
Perdepes, 104
Permian extinctions
carbon dioxide levels and, 48, 134, 137, 138, 140, 143, 144
cause of, 133, 138–144
climate and, 43, 134, 135–136, 137, 140–141, 142, 143, 144, 146–147, 156
combination scenario, 142–143
damage estimates, 133
dinosaurs, 151–153, 211
and endothermy, 144–153
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evolutionary effects, 143–150
fungal and algal fossils, 156
habitable land area, 141, 154–155
hydrogen sulfide hypothesis, 134, 136, 141–142, 144, 155
importance of, 143–144
insects, 135
marine life, 3, 92, 133, 136–137, 143–144
meteor impact hypothesis, 134, 139–140
methane hypotheses, 140, 143
oxygen levels, 26, 41, 48, 98, 114, 132, 134, 135–136, 137–138, 140, 141, 144, 146, 153–154
ozone layer destruction hypothesis, 143
Permian-Triassic boundary event, 138–142, 144, 156
plant life and, 135, 137, 138, 155–156
recovery interval, 133, 157, 164–165
and reproductive strategy, 144
results of, 144, 153, 156–157
Siberian trap hypothesis, 140–141, 233
terrestrial life, 135, 141, 144
therapsid respiratory adaptations, 26–27, 153–154
time interval, 98
volcanic eruptions, 134
pH, 15, 42
Phanerozoic, subdivisions of, 40–41
Phillips, John, 144
Phosphorus, 14
Photosynthesis, 34–35, 36, 53, 93, 94, 117
C-4 pathway, 137
Phyla.
See also Body plans of animals origins of, 10
Phytoplankton, 143
Phytosaurs, 151, 163, 195, 197
Pikaia, 50, 75
Pisanosaurus, 201
Placoderms, 90–91, 113
Placodonts, 164, 190
Plankton, 17, 83, 86, 117, 213
calcareous, 219–221
Plants
angiosperms, 194, 205
C-4 photosynthesis, 137
Cambrian, 53–54
carbon dioxide levels and, 44, 94, 137
Carboniferous, 112–113, 117, 118–119
chloroplasts, 35
Cretaceous, 194, 205, 223
cuticle, 93–94
decomposition, 117, 233
fire resistance traits, 118
floral revolution, 194, 205
fossil record, 97
and insect diversification, 194
land colonization and evolution, 38, 42, 89, 90, 93–94
in oxygen-rich environments, 118–119
Permian extinctions, 137, 138, 140, 155–156
photorespiration, 119
reproduction, 94
root systems, 94, 119
stems and trunks, 94
stomata, 94
temperature sensitivity, 155
Plate tectonics, 37, 53, 220, 230–231, 233–234
Plateosaurus, 202
Platypus, 224–225
Pleistocene, climate, 43
Plesiosaurs, 190, 191, 199, 200, 213
Pojeta, John, 68
Polychaetes, 15
Polyplacophores, 69, 70
Poreda, Robert, 139
Powell, Matthew, 120
Predation and predators, 10, 22, 42, 43, 92, 111, 123, 128, 135, 147, 159, 165, 169, 170
Priapulans, 15
Priapulids, 56
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Prosauropods, 162, 202
Proterosuchus, 135, 153, 165, 177
Pterodactyls, 200, 207
Pterosaurs, 169, 200
Pyrite, 34, 36–37, 38, 116, 230
Q
Quaternary Period, 41
R
Radiometric age dating, 5, 39
Raff, Rudy, 10, 11
Rauisuchians, 152
Raup, David, 48
Reef ecosystems, 3, 81, 83–84, 89, 114, 137, 160, 163, 199
Rees, Peter McAllister, 156
Reproductive strategies, 120
amniotic eggs, 120–124, 208–212, 213, 224
calcareous eggs, 208, 209–210, 211, 212
dinosaurs, 207–213
high altitudes and, 122
and land colonization, 120–124
live births, 122, 123, 144, 208, 209, 211, 212, 213, 224–225, 226–227
marsupial, 224–225
oxygen levels and, 207–213, 235
parchment egg, 210, 211, 212, 213
placental, 224, 226–227
temperature and, 210, 212
Reptiles
amniotic eggs, 120–124, 208, 210, 211
Carboniferous, 120–131
defined, 121
evolution, 121, 127–128
gigantism, 127
heart, 125
Jurassic, 199
live births, 122, 123, 144, 211
locomotion, 124–125, 135
mammal-like, see Therapsids nasal structure, 147, 149, 153–154
Permian extinction, 135, 141, 144
respiratory systems, 124–125, 135, 147, 153–154, 164, 171, 172, 173, 177
return to sea, 160, 164
size, 130–131
thermoregulation, 125–130, 149–150, 151
Respiration (aerobic) and respiratory systems.
See also Gills;
Lung systems;
individual system components
absorption surface, 262
air breathers, 18–19, 21, 262–263
blood pigments, 13, 14–15, 263
as body plan driver, 2, 6–7, 10–11, 19, 20, 26, 27–28, 42–48, 111, 124–125
breathing rate, 26–27
Cambrian animals, 60–67
and carbon dioxide, 14, 15, 18, 19, 23, 24, 62
Carrier’s Constraint, 124, 166, 168
coral reefs as part of, 83–84
countercurrent, 173
cuirassal breathing, 186
defensive systems, 22, 71
defined, 25
diving adaptation, 152
efficiency of, ix–x, 27–28, 62–63, 75, 115, 147, 148, 173, 174, 235
endothermy and, 146, 147, 150
and energy metabolism, 12–15
as evolutionary pathway, 25–26, 60, 61, 67–75, 77
as feeding organs, 27, 66, 70, 166
gas exchange, 25
land colonization and, 89, 90, 96–97, 105, 124–125
locomotion and, 20, 22, 24, 61, 65, 71, 74, 75, 85, 124–125, 135, 166, 168–169, 172
oxygen environment and, 18–20, 62–63, 95, 130, 153–154, 160–161, 174
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pH and, 15
plants, 12, 14
protective structures as, 67–68
sensory processing system and, 20
size and shape of animals and, 19–20, 21, 26, 87, 111–112, 115
skin, 103
surface area, 263
temperature and, 19
tracheal system, 115
transition from gill to lung, 100, 103, 104–105
water-breathers, 18–19, 20, 21, 262–263
and water loss, 146, 147
Respiration (anaerobic) and respiratory systems, 12, 14
Retallack, Greg, 139, 140, 141
Rhipidistians, 100
Rhynchosaurs, 162
Romer, Alfred, 103, 104
Romer’s Gap, 103, 104–108, 109
Ruben, John, 148, 173, 175, 178–179, 180, 181, 182, 185, 187, 197, 200, 206, 211, 212
Rugose corals, 83, 144
Runnegar, Bruce, 68
S
Salamanders, 22, 23, 125, 166
Salinity of water, 18
Saperion, 57
Saurians, 2
Saurischians, 47, 48, 152, 168, 170–171, 174, 176, 178, 180, 181, 183, 185, 195–197, 199, 200, 201–202, 204–205, 206, 207, 211
Sauropods, 175, 186, 201, 202, 203, 205, 211
Scaphopods, 68
Scipionyx, 180
Scleractinian corals, 160, 163, 199
Scleromochlus, 169
Scorpions, 91, 95, 96, 97–98, 112, 113, 115, 125
Scotese, C., 231
Sea anemones, 63
Sea cucumbers, 64
Sea level change, 38, 232
Sea lilies, 113–114
Sea Pens, 64
Sea scorpions, 57
Sea squirts, 76
Sea urchins, 64, 65
Sedimentary record
dating, 104
Greenland, 143
red beds, 34
stratified, 3
Segmentation, 91
functions of, 12, 57, 58–63
insects, 59
and locomotion, 12, 61, 62
as repeat gill system, 60–63, 65, 69, 92
Seismosaurus, 208
Sepkoski, Jack, 44, 48
Sereno, Paul, 192, 203, 204
Seymour, Roger, 150
Shonisaurus, 164
Siberian traps, 140–141, 233
Sidor, Christian, 131, 154
Silurian-Devonian interval
amphibians, 100–104
arthropods, 91, 93, 95–96, 98, 99
insects, 90, 91, 95, 97, 98
land colonization, 87, 90, 92–108
landscape, flora, and fauna, 88, 89, 90–92
mass extinctions, 91, 92
oxygen levels, 87, 88, 89–90, 91, 98, 109
respiratory systems of land animals, 89–90
Romer’s Gap, 104–108, 109
time interval, 89, 90
Silverfish, 90
Sinosauropteryx, 180
Sipunculans, 15
Skeletons, oxygen and, 13
Smith, Roger, 154, 165
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Snakes, 172, 188
Spiders, 95, 96, 97, 101, 112, 113
Spiny nautiloid, 132, 136
Sponges, 10, 12, 56, 58, 64, 67, 82, 83, 86, 95, 114
Springtails, 90, 97
Squid, 70, 72, 75, 218
Stanley, Steve, 120, 227
Starfish, 64
State University of New York, 139
Staurikosaurus, 163, 168
Stegosaurs, 202, 203
Sterols, 13
Stromatolites, 136–137
Stromotoporoids, 83
Sulfur, elemental, 33, 36
Sulfur cycle, 36–37
Sulfur dioxide, 37
Sulfur-metabolizing bacteria, 134, 136, 141–142
Sunlight. See Insolation changes
Synapsids, 125, 126, 130, 146, 211
T
Tabulate corals, 83, 144, 163
Temperatures, ambient, 10
carbon dioxide and, 189;
see also Greenhouse effect
and egg laying strategy, 210
and evolution, 42, 43, 44–45
and metabolic rate, 188–191
modeling over time, 39
and oxygen content, 18, 35, 39, 230
and stress of low oxygen, 48
and thermoregulation, 125, 146–147, 149
Tertiary Period, 41
mammalian diversification, 3
Tetanurans, 202
Thecodonts, 168, 195, 196, 197
Therapsids, 26, 125, 128–129, 130, 131, 144, 147, 148, 151, 153, 160, 165, 195, 196, 197, 212, 224
Thermoregulation.
See also Ectothermy;
Endothermy
body covering and, 126
insects, 188
large animals, 125, 148
oxygen levels and, 148–149
reptiles, 125–130
Therocephalians, 130, 147
Theropods, 177, 181
Thrinaxodon (premammal), 1
Thyreaphorans, 202
Tiktaalik, 88, 106
Triassic Explosion
adaptive radiations, 157
bipedal animals, 162–171
carbon dioxide levels, 138, 184, 186, 204
cause, 180
climate and, 43, 184, 186
dinosaurs, 3, 8, 47, 161, 162–163, 165–171, 177–180, 184–188, 191–194, 196, 201–202, 204, 209, 224
disparity in body plans, 159–163, 165
diversity of tetrapods, 196
importance, 161
mammals, 1, 3, 8, 130, 165, 196, 224
marine life, 159–160, 163–164, 188–191, 214, 215
mass extinctions, 48, 161, 164, 194, 195–197, 203, 204, 216
oxygen levels and, 47, 48, 157, 158, 159, 160, 162, 180, 184, 186, 191–193, 194, 195, 204, 215
plant life, 161
rebound, 164–165
respiratory adaptations, 165
size of animals, 131
terrestrial life, 161–162
time interval, 41, 159, 164
Trilobites, xi
body plan, 50, 51, 59–62
extinctions, 78, 81, 84, 86, 92, 133, 137, 144, 161
first appearance, 52
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redlichiacean, 57
respiratory system, 59, 60, 61–63, 92
segmentation, 59, 60, 92
Tritylodon, 131, 197
Troodontids, 207
Tunicates, 76–77, 78
Turtles, 126, 127, 208, 210, 212
Tyrannosaurids, 206
Tyrannosaurus rex, 167, 170, 202, 207
U
Ultraviolet radiation, 10, 35, 68, 143
University of California, 42
at Berkeley, 153, 176, 207
at Irvine, 188
at Santa Barbara, 139, 225
University of Chicago, 156, 204
University of Oregon, 139
University of Washington, 131, 141
Uranium
oxides, 34
sedimentary minerals, 37–38
Urochordata, 76–77
V
Valentine, James, 10, 60, 61
VandenBrooks, John, 123, 235
Varanids, 124
Ventastega, 102
Vermeij, Gary, 42–43
Vertebrates, 3
body plan, 10, 76
evolution of, 46–47, 75–78, 100–104
first, 57–58
gigantism, 113, 130
gill structures, 22
heart, 25
high-oxygen assemblage, 46–47
land colonization, 93, 95, 99, 100–104, 107
low-oxygen assemblage, 47
lung systems, 27
respiratory pigments, 15
Vetulicola, 57
Vicuna, 27
Volcanoes
continental drift and, 232, 234
degassing, 38, 220, 229
gas composition, 33, 35, 37, 142
W
Water vapor, 32, 33
Watson, Andrew, 39
Wedel, Matt, 176, 178
Weischampel, David, 184
Wells, Martin, 217
Williford, Ken, 195
Wilson, E. O., 155
Wilson, J. Tuzo, 233–234
Wilson Cycle, 233–234
Wolcott, Charles, 2–3, 56
Wray, Charles, 52
Y
Yale University, 38, 119, 123
Z
Zelenitsky, Darla, 211
Representative terms from entire chapter:
mass extinctions
