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Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy (2006)

Chapter: APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy

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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
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APPENDIX B
Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards,1 Benchmarks for Science Literacy,2 and Standards for Technological Literacy3

National Science Education Standards

Standards Related to “Science and Technology”

Standard E1:
Abilities of Technological Design
Benchmarks for Grades K–4

Identify a simple problem. In problem identification, children should develop the ability to explain a problem in their own words and identify a specific task and solution related to the problem.

1

National Research Council. 1996. National Science Education Standards. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.

2

American Association for the Advancement of Science. 1993. Benchmarks for Science Literacy. New York: Oxford University Press. Reprinted with permission.

3

International Technology Education Association. 2002. Standards for Technological Literacy: Content for the Study of Technology. Reston, Va.: ITEA. Reprinted with permission.

Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×

Propose a solution. Students should make proposals to build something or get something to work better; they should be able to describe and communicate their ideas. Students should recognize that designing a solution might have constraints, such as cost, materials, time, space, or safety.


Implementing proposed solutions. Children should develop abilities to work individually and collaboratively and to use suitable tools, techniques, and quantitative measurements when appropriate. Students should demonstrate the ability to balance simple constraints in problem solving.


Evaluate a product or design. Students should evaluate their own results or solutions to problems, as well as those of other children, by considering how well a product or design met the challenge to solve a problem. When possible, students should use measurements and include constraints and other criteria in their evaluations. They should modify designs based on the results of evaluations.

Benchmarks for Grades 5–8

Identify appropriate problems for technological design. Students should develop their abilities by identifying a specified need, considering its various aspects, and talking to different potential users or beneficiaries. They should appreciate that for some needs, the cultural backgrounds and beliefs of different groups can affect the criteria for a suitable product.


Design a solution or product. Students should make and compare different proposals in the light of the criteria they have selected. They must consider constraints—such as cost, time, trade-offs, and materials needed— and communicate ideas with drawings and simple models.


Implement a proposed design. Students should organize materials and other resources, plan their work, make good use of group collaboration where appropriate, choose suitable tools and techniques, and work with appropriate measurement methods to ensure adequate accuracy.


Evaluate completed technological designs or products. Students should use criteria relevant to the original purpose or need, consider a variety of

Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×

factors that might affect acceptability and suitability for intended users or beneficiaries, and develop measures of quality with respect to such criteria and factors; they should also suggest improvement and, for their own products, try proposed modifications.


Communicate the process of technological design. Students should review and describe any completed piece of work and identify the stages of problem identification, solution design, implementation, and evaluation.

Benchmarks for Grades 9–12

Identify a problem or design an opportunity. Students should be able to identify new problems or needs and to change and improve current technological designs.


Propose designs and choose between alternative solutions. Students should demonstrate thoughtful planning for a piece of technology or technique. Students should be introduced to the roles of models and simulations in these processes.


Implement a proposed solution. A variety of skills can be needed in proposing a solution depending on the type of technology that is involved. The construction of artifacts can require the skills of cutting, shaping, treating, and joining common materials—such as wood, metal, plastics, and textiles. Solutions can also be implemented using computer software.


Evaluate the solution and its consequences. Students should test any solution against the needs and criteria it was designed to meet. At this stage, new criteria not originally considered may be reviewed.


Communicate the problem, process, and solution. Students should present their results to students, teachers, and others in a variety of ways, such as orally, in writing, and in other forms—including models, diagrams, and demonstrations.

Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
Standard E2:
Understanding about Science and Technology
Benchmarks for Grades K–4
  • People have always had questions about their world. Science is one way of answering questions and explaining the natural world.

  • People have always had problems and invented tools and techniques (ways of doing something) to solve problems. Trying to determine the effects of solutions helps people avoid some new problems.

  • Scientists and engineers often work in teams with different individuals doing different things that contribute to the results. This understanding focuses primarily on teams working together and, secondarily, on the combination of scientist and engineer teams.

  • Women and men of all ages, backgrounds, and groups engage in a variety of scientific and technological work.

  • Tools help scientists make better observations, measurements, and equipment for investigations. They help scientists see, measure, and do things that they could not otherwise see, measure, and do.

Benchmarks for Grades 5–8
  • Scientific inquiry and technological design have similarities and differences. Scientists propose explanations for questions about the natural world, and engineers propose solutions relating to human problems, needs, and aspirations. Technological solutions are temporary; technologies exist within nature and so they cannot contravene physical or biological principles; technological solutions have side effects; and technologies cost, carry risks, and provide benefits.

  • Many different people in different cultures have made and continue to make contributions to science and technology.

  • Science and technology are reciprocal. Science helps drive technology, as it addresses questions that demand more sophisticated instruments and provides principles for better instrumentation and technique. Technology is essential to science, because it provides instruments and techniques that enable observations of objects and phenomena that are otherwise unobservable due to factors such as quantity, distance, location, size, and speed. Technology also provides tools for investigations, inquiry, and analysis.

Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
  • Perfectly designed solutions do not exist. All technology solutions have trade-offs, such as safety, cost, efficiency, and back-up systems to provide safety. Risk is part of living in a highly technological world. Reducing risk often results in new technology.

  • Technological designs have constraints. Some constraints are unavoidable, for example, properties of materials, or effects of weather and friction; other constraints limit choices in the design, for example, environmental protection, human safety, and aesthetics.

  • Technological solutions have intended benefits and unintended consequences. Some consequences can be predicted, others cannot.

Benchmarks for Grades 9–12
  • Scientists in different disciplines ask different questions, use different methods of investigation, and accept different types of evidence to support their explanations. Many scientific investigations require the contributions of individuals from different disciplines, including engineering. New disciplines of science, such as geophysics and biochemistry often emerge at the interface of two older disciplines.

  • Science often advances with the introduction of new technologies. Solving technological problems often results in new scientific knowledge. New technologies often extend the current levels of scientific understanding and introduce new areas of research.

  • Creativity, imagination and a good knowledge base are all required in the work of science and engineering.

  • Science and technology are pursued for different purposes. Scientific inquiry is driven by the desire to understand the natural world, and technological design is driven by the need to meet human needs and solve human problems. Technology, by its nature, has a more direct effect on society than science because its purpose is to solve human problems, help humans adapt, and fulfill human aspirations. Technological solutions may create new problems. Science, by its nature, answers questions that may or may not directly influence humans. Sometimes scientific advances challenge people’s beliefs and practical explanations concerning various aspects of the world.

  • Technological knowledge is often not made public because of patents and the financial potential of the idea or invention. Scientific knowledge is made public through presentations at professional meetings and publications in scientific journals.

Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
Standard E3:
Abilities to Distinguish Between Natural Objects and Objects Made by Humans
Benchmarks for Grades K–4
  • Some objects occur in nature; others have been designed and made by people to solve human problems and enhance the quality of life.

  • Objects can be categorized into two groups, natural and designed.

Benchmarks for Science Literacy

Standards Related to “the Nature of Technology”

Standard 3A:
Technology and Science
Benchmarks for Grades K–2

By the end of the 2nd grade, students should know that:

  • Tools are used to do things better or more easily and to do some things that could not otherwise be done at all. In technology, tools are used to observe, measure, and make things.

  • When trying to build something or to get something to work better, it usually helps to follow directions if there are any, or to ask someone who has done it before for suggestions.

Benchmarks for Grades 3–5

By the end of the 5th grade, students should know that:

  • Throughout all of history, people everywhere have invented and used tools. Most tools of today are different from those of the past, but many are modifications of very ancient tools.

  • Technology enables scientists and others to observe things that are too small or too far away to be seen without them and to study the motion of objects that are moving very rapidly or are hardly moving at all.

  • Measuring instruments can be used to gather accurate information for making scientific comparisons of objects and events and for designing and constructing things that will work properly.

  • Technology extends the ability of people to change the world: to cut, shape, or put together materials; to move things from one place to

Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×

another; and to reach farther with their hands, voices, senses, and minds. The changes may be for survival needs such as food, shelter, and defense, for communication and transportation, or to gain knowledge and express ideas.

Benchmarks for Grades 6–8

By the end of the 8th grade, students should know that:

  • In earlier times, the accumulated information and techniques of each generation of workers were taught on the job directly to the next generation of workers. Today the knowledge base for technology can be found as well in libraries of print and electronic resources and is often taught in the classroom.

  • Technology is essential to science for such purposes as access to outer space and other remote locations, sample collection and treatment, measurement, data collections and storage, computation, and communication of information.

  • Engineers, architects, and others who engage in design and technology use scientific knowledge to solve practical problems. But they usually have to take human values and limitations into account as well.

Benchmarks for Grades 9–12

By the end of the 12th grade, students should know that:

  • Technological problems often create a demand for new scientific knowledge, and new technologies make it possible for scientists to extend their research in new ways or to undertake entirely new lines of research. The very availability of new technology itself often sparks scientific advances.

  • Mathematics, creativity, logic, and originality are all needed to improve technology.

  • Technology usually affects society more directly than science because it solves practical problems and serves human needs (and may create new problems and needs). In contrast, science affects society mainly by stimulating and satisfying people’s curiosity and occasionally by enlarging or challenging their view of what the world is like.

Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
Standard 3B:
Design and Systems
Benchmark for Grades K–2

By the end of the 2nd grade, students should know that:

  • People may not be able to actually make or do everything that they can design.

Benchmarks for Grades 3–5

By the end of the 5th grade, students should know that:

  • There is no perfect design. Designs that are best in one respect (safety or ease of use, for example) may be inferior in other ways (cost or appearance). Usually some features must be sacrificed to get others. How such trade-offs are received depends upon which features are emphasized and which are down-played.

  • Even a good design may fail. Sometimes steps can be taken ahead of time to reduce the likelihood of failure, but it cannot be entirely eliminated.

  • The solution to one problem may create other problems.

Benchmarks for Grades 6–8

By the end of the 8th grade, students should know that:

  • Design usually requires taking constraints into account. Some constraints, such as gravity or the properties of the materials to be used, are unavoidable. Other constraints, including economic, political, social, ethical, and aesthetic ones, limit choices.

  • All technologies have effects other than those intended by the design, some of which may have been predictable and some not. In either case, these side effects may turn out to be unacceptable to some of the population and therefore lead to conflict between groups.

  • Almost all control systems have inputs, outputs, and feedback. The essence of control is comparing information about what is happening to what people want to happen and then making appropriate adjustments. This procedure requires sensing information, processing it, and making changes. In almost all modern machines, microprocessors serve as centers of performance control.

Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
  • Systems fail because they have faulty or poorly matched parts, are used in ways that exceed what was intended by the design, or were poorly designed to begin with. The most common ways to prevent failure are pretesting parts and procedures, overdesign, and redundancy.

Benchmarks for Grades 9–12

By the end of the 12th grade, students should know that:

  • In designing a device or process, thought should be given to how it will be manufactured, operated, maintained, replaced, and disposed of and who will sell, operate, and take care of it. The costs associated with these functions may introduce yet more constraints on the design.

  • The value of any given technology may be different for different groups of people and at different points in time.

  • Complex systems have layers of controls. Some controls operate particular parts of the system and some control other controls. Even fully automatic systems require human control at some point.

  • Risk analysis is used to minimize the likelihood of unwanted side effects of a new technology. The public perception of risk may depend, however, on psychological factors as well as scientific ones.

  • The more parts and connections a system has, the more ways it can go wrong. Complex systems usually have components to detect, back up, bypass, or compensate for minor failures.

  • To reduce the chance of system failure, performance testing is often conducted using small-scale models, computer simulations, analogous systems, or just the parts of the system thought to be least reliable.

Standard 3C:
Issues in Technology
Benchmarks for Grades K–2

By the end of the 2nd grade, students should know that:

  • People, alone or in groups, are always inventing new ways to solve problems and get work done. The tools and ways of doing things that people have invented affect all aspects of life.

  • When a group of people wants to build something or try something new, they should try to figure out ahead of time how it might affect other people.

Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
Benchmark for Grades 3–5

By the end of the 5th grade, students should know that:

  • Technology has been part of life on the earth since the advent of the human species. Like language, ritual, commerce, and the arts, technology is an intrinsic part of human culture, and it both shapes society and is shaped by it. The technology available to people greatly influences what their lives are like.

  • Any invention is likely to lead to other inventions. Once an invention exists, people are likely to think up ways of using it that were never imagined at first.

  • Transportation, communications, nutrition, sanitation, health care, entertainment, and other technologies give large numbers of people today the goods and services that once were luxuries enjoyed only by the wealthy. These benefits are not equally available to everyone.

  • Scientific laws, engineering principles, properties of materials, and construction techniques must be taken into account in designing engineering solutions to problems. Other factors, such as cost, safety, appearance, environmental impact, and what will happen if the solution fails also must be considered.

  • Technologies often have drawbacks as well as benefits. A technology that helps some people or organisms may hurt others—either deliberately (as weapons can) or inadvertently (as pesticides can). When harm occurs or seems likely, choices have to be made or new solutions found.

  • Because of their ability to invent tools and processes, people have an enormous effect on the lives of other living things.

Benchmarks for Grades 6–8

By the end of the 8th grade, students should know that:

  • The human ability to shape the future comes from a capacity for generating knowledge and developing new technologies—and for communicating these ideas to others.

  • Technology cannot always provide successful solutions for problems or fulfill every human need.

  • Throughout history, people have carried out impressive technological feats, some of which would be hard to duplicate today even with modern tools. The purposes served by these achievements have sometimes been practical, sometimes ceremonial.

Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
  • Technology has strongly influenced the course of history and continues to do so. It is largely responsible for the great revolutions in agriculture, manufacturing, sanitation and medicine, warfare, transportation, information processing, and communications that have radically changed how people live.

  • New technologies increase some risks and decrease others. Some of the same technologies that have improved the length and quality of life for many people have also brought new risks.

  • Rarely are technology issues simple and one-sided. Relevant facts alone, even when known and available, usually do not settle matters entirely in favor of one side or another. That is because the contending groups may have different values and priorities. They may stand to gain or lose in different degrees, or may make very different predictions about what the future consequences of the proposed action will be.

  • Societies influence what aspects of technology are developed and how these are used. People control technology (as well as science) and are responsible for its effects.

Benchmarks for Grades 9–12

By the end of the 12th grade, students should know that:

  • Social and economic forces strongly influence which technologies will be developed and used. Which will prevail is affected by many factors, such as personal values, consumer acceptance, patent laws, the availability of risk capital, the federal budget, local and national regulations, media attention, economic competition, and tax incentives.

  • Technological knowledge is not always as freely shared as scientific knowledge unrelated to technology. Some scientists and engineers are comfortable working in situations in which some secrecy is required, but others prefer not to do so. It is generally regarded as a matter of individual choice and ethics, not one of professional ethics.

  • In deciding on proposals to introduce new technologies or to curtail existing ones, some key questions arise concerning alternatives, risks, costs, and benefits. What alternative ways are there to achieve the same ends, and how do the alternatives compare to the plan being put forward? Who benefits and who suffers? What are the financial and social costs, do they change over time, and who bears them? What are the risks associated with using (or not using) the new technology, how serious are they, and who is in jeopardy? What human, material, and

Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×

energy resources will be needed to build, install, operate, maintain, and replace the new technology, and where will they come from? How will the new technology and its waste products be disposed of and at what costs?

  • The human species has a major impact on other species in many ways: reducing the amount of the earth’s surface available to those other species, interfering with their food sources, changing the temperature and chemical composition of their habitats, introducing foreign species into their ecosystems, and altering organisms directly through selective breeding and genetic engineering.

  • Human inventiveness has brought new risks as well as improvements to human existence.

Standards Related To “The Designed World”

Standard 8A:
Agriculture
Benchmarks for Grades K–2

By the end of the 2nd grade, students should know that:

  • Most food comes from farms either directly as crops or as the animals that eat the crops. To grow well, plants need enough warmth, light, and water. Crops also must be protected from weeds and pests that can harm them.

  • Part of a crop may be lost to pests or spoilage.

  • A crop that is fine when harvested may spoil before it gets to consumers.

  • Machines improve what people get from crops by helping in planting and harvesting, in keeping food fresh by packaging and cooling, and in moving it long distances from where it is grown to where people live.

Benchmarks for Grades 3–5

By the end of the 5th grade, students should know that:

  • Some plant varieties and animal breeds have more desirable characteristics than others, but some may be more difficult or costly to grow. The kinds of crops that can grow in an area depend on the climate and soil. Irrigation and fertilizers can help crops grow in places where there is too little water or the soil is poor.

Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
  • The damage to crops caused by rodents, weeds, and insects can be reduced by using poisons, but their use may harm other plants or animals as well, and pests tend to develop resistance to poisons.

  • Heating, salting, smoking, drying, cooling, and airtight packaging are ways to slow down the spoiling of food by microscopic organisms. These methods make it possible for food to be stored for long intervals before being used.

  • Modern technology has increased the efficiency of agriculture so that fewer people are needed to work on farms than ever before.

  • Places too cold or dry to grow certain crops can obtain food from places with more suitable climates. Much of the food eaten by Americans comes from other parts of the country and other places in the world.

Benchmarks for Grades 6–8

By the end of the 8th grade, students should know that:

  • Early in human history, there was an agricultural revolution in which people changed from hunting and gathering to farming. This allowed changes in the division of labor between men and women and between children and adults, and the development of new patterns of government.

  • People control the characteristics of plants and animals they raise by selective breeding and by preserving varieties of seeds (old and new) to use if growing conditions change.

  • In agriculture, as in all technologies, there are always trade-offs to be made. Getting food from many different places makes people less dependent on weather in any one place, yet more dependent on transportation and communication among far-flung markets. Specializing in one crop may risk disaster if changes in weather or increases in pest populations wipe out the crop. Also, the soil may be exhausted of some nutrients, which can be replenished by rotating the right crops.

  • Many people work to bring food, fiber, and fuel to U.S. markets. With improved technology, only a small fraction of workers in the U.S. actually plant and harvest the products that people use. Most workers are engaged in processing, packaging, transporting, and selling what is produced.

Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
Benchmarks for Grades 9–12

By the end of the 12th grade, students should know that:

  • New varieties of farm plants and animals have been engineered by manipulating their genetic instructions to produce new characteristics.

  • Government sometimes intervenes in matching agricultural supply to demand in an attempt to ensure a stable, high-quality, and inexpensive food supply. Regulations are often also designed to protect farmers from abrupt changes in farming conditions and from competition by farmers in other countries.

  • Agricultural technology requires trade-offs between increased production and environmental harm and between efficient production and social values. In the past century, agricultural technology led to a huge shift of population from farms to cities and a great change in how people live and work.

Standard 8B:
Materials and Manufacturing
Benchmarks for Grades K–2

By the end of the 2nd grade, students should know that:

  • Some kinds of materials are better than others for making any particular thing. Materials that are better in some ways (such as stronger or cheaper) may be worse in other ways (heavier or harder to cut).

  • Several steps are usually involved in making things.

  • Tools are used to help make things, and some things cannot be made at all without tools. Each kind of tool has a special purpose.

  • Some materials can be used over again.

Benchmarks for Grades 3–5

By the end of the 5th grade, students should know that:

  • Naturally occurring materials such as wood, clay, cotton, and animal skins may be processed or combined with other materials to change their properties.

  • Through science and technology, a wide variety of materials that do not appear in nature at all have become available, ranking from steel to nylon to liquid crystals.

  • Discarded products contribute to the problem of waste disposal. Some-

Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×

times it is possible to use the materials in them to make new products, but materials differ widely in the ease with which they can be recycled.

  • Through mass production, the time required to make a product and its cost can be greatly reduced. Although many things are still made by hand in some parts of the world, almost everything in the most technologically developed countries is not produced using automatic machines. Even automatic machines require human supervision.

Benchmarks for Grades 6–8

By the end of the 8th grade, students should know that:

  • The choice of materials for a job depends on their properties and on how they interact with other materials. Similarly, the usefulness of some manufactured parts of an object depends on how well they fit together with the other parts.

  • Manufacturing usually involves a series of steps, such as designing a product, obtaining and preparing raw materials, processing the materials mechanically or chemically, and assembling, testing, inspecting, and packaging. The sequence of these steps is also often important.

  • Modern technology reduces manufacturing costs, produces more uniform products, and creates new synthetic materials that can help reduce the depletion of some natural resources.

  • Automation, including the use of robots, has changed the nature of work in most fields, including manufacturing. As a result, high-skill, high-knowledge jobs in engineering, computer programming, quality control, supervision, and maintenance are replacing many routine manual-labor jobs. Workers therefore need better learning skills and flexibility to take on new and rapidly changing jobs.

Benchmarks for Grades 9–12

By the end of the 12th grade, students should know that:

  • Manufacturing processes have been changed by improved tools and techniques based on more thorough scientific understanding, increases in the forces that can be applied and the temperatures that can be reached, and the availability of electronic controls that make operations occur more rapidly and consistently.

  • Waste management includes considerations of quantity, safety, degradability, and cost. It requires social and technological innovations,

Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×

because waste-disposal problems are political and economic as well as technical.

  • Scientific research identifies new materials and new uses of known materials.

  • Increased knowledge of the molecular structure of materials helps in the design and synthesis of new materials for special purposes.

Standard 8C:
Energy Sources and Use
Benchmarks for Grades K–2

By the end of the 2nd grade, students should know that:

  • People can save money by turning off machines when they are not using them.

  • People burn fuels such as wood, oil, coal, or natural gas, or use electricity to cook their food and warm their houses.

Benchmarks for Grades 3–5

By the end of the 5th grade, students should know that:

  • Moving air and water can be used to run machines.

  • The sun is the main source of energy for people and they use it in various ways. The energy in fossil fuels, such as oil and coal comes from the sun indirectly, because the fuels come from plants that grew long ago.

  • Some energy sources cost less than others and some cause less pollution than others.

  • People try to conserve energy in order to slow down the depletion of energy resources and/or to save money.

Benchmarks for Grades 6–8

By the end of the 8th grade, students should know that:

  • Energy can change from one form to another, although in the process some energy is always converted to heat. Some systems transform energy with less loss of heat than others.

  • Different ways of obtaining, transforming, and distributing energy have different environmental consequences.

Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
  • In many instances, manufacturing and other technological activities are performed at a site close to an energy source. Some forms of energy are transported easily, others are not.

  • Electrical energy can be produced from a variety of energy sources and can be transformed into almost any other form of energy. Moreover, electricity is used to distribute energy quickly and conveniently to distant locations.

  • Energy from the sun (and the wind and water energy derived from it) is available indefinitely. Because the flow of energy is weak and variable, very large collection systems are needed. Other sources don’t renew or renew only slowly.

  • Different parts of the world have different amounts and kinds of energy resources to use and use them for different purposes.

Benchmarks for Grades 9–12

By the end of the 12th grade, students should know that:

  • A central factor in technological change has been how hot a fire could be made. The discovery of new fuels, the design of better ovens and furnaces, and the forced delivery of air or pure oxygen have progressively increased the available temperature. Lasers are a new tool for focusing radiation energy with great intensity and control.

  • At present, all fuels have advantages and disadvantages so that society must consider the trade-offs among them.

  • Nuclear reactions release energy without the combustion products of burning fuels, but the radioactivity of fuels and by-products poses other risks, which may last for thousands of years.

  • Industrialization brings an increased demand for and use of energy. Such usage contributes to the high standard of living in the industrially developing nations but also leads to more rapid depletion of the earth’s energy resources and to environmental risks associated with the use of fossil and nuclear fuels.

  • Decisions to slow the depletion of energy sources through efficient technology can be made at many levels, from personal to national, and they always involve trade-offs of economic costs and social costs.

Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
Standard 8D:
Communication
Benchmarks for Grades K–2

By the end of the 2nd grade, students should know that:

  • Information can be sent and received in many different ways. Some allow answering back and some do not. Each way has advantages and disadvantages.

  • Devices can be used to send and receive messages quickly and clearly.

Benchmarks for Grades 3–5

By the end of the 5th grade, students should know that:

  • People have always tried to communicate with one another. Signed and spoken language was one of the first inventions. Early forms of recording messages used markings on materials such as wood or stone.

  • Communication involves coding and decoding information. In any language, both the sender and the receiver have to know the same code, which means that secret codes can be used to keep communication private.

  • People have invented devices, such as paper and ink, engraved plastic disks, and magnetic tapes, for recording information. These devices enable great amounts of information to be stored and retrieved—and be sent to one or many other people or places.

  • Communication technologies make it possible to send and receive information more and more reliably, quickly, and cheaply over long distances.

Benchmarks for Grades 6–8

By the end of the 8th grade, students should know that:

  • Errors can occur in coding, transmitting, or decoding information, and some means of checking for accuracy is needed. Repeating the message is a frequently used method.

  • Information can be carried by many media, including sound, light, and objects. In this century, the ability to code information as electric currents in wires, electromagnetic waves in space, and light in glass fibers has made communication millions of times faster than is possible by mail or sound.

Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
Benchmarks for Grades 9–12

By the end of the 12th grade, students should know that:

  • Almost any information can be transformed into electrical signals. A weak electrical signal can be used to shape a stronger one, which can control other signals of light, sound, mechanical devices, or radio waves.

  • The quality of communication is determined by the strength of the signal in relation to the noise that tends to obscure it. Communication errors can be reduced by boosting and focusing signals, shielding the signal from internal and external noise, and repeating information, but all of these increase costs. Digital coding of information (using only 1s and 0s) makes possible more reliable transmission of information.

  • As technologies that provide privacy in communication improve, so do those for invading privacy.

Standard 8E:
Information Processing
Benchmarks for Grades K–2

By the end of the 2nd grade, students should know that:

  • There are different ways to store things so they can be easily found later.

  • Letters and numbers can be used to put things in a useful order.

Benchmarks for Grades 3–5

By the end of the 5th grade, students should know that:

  • Computers are controlled partly by how they are wired and partly by special instructions called programs that are entered into a computer’s memory. Some programs stay permanently in the machine but most are coded on disks and transferred into and out of the computer to suit the user.

  • Computers can be programmed to store, retrieve, and perform operations on information. These operations include mathematical calculations, word processing, diagram drawing, and the modeling of complex events.

  • Mistakes can occur when people enter programs or data into a computer. Computers themselves can make errors in information processing because of defects in their hardware or software.

Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
Benchmarks for Grades 6–8

By the end of the 8th grade, students should know that:

  • Most computers use digital codes containing only two symbols, 0 and 1, to perform all operations. Continuous signals must be transformed into digital codes before they can be processed by a computer.

  • What use can be made of a large collection of information depends upon how it is organized. One of the values of computers is that they are able, on command, to reorganize information in a variety of ways, thereby enabling people to make more and better uses of the collection.

  • Computer control of mechanical systems can be much quicker than human control. In situations where events happen faster than people can react, there is little choice but to rely on computers. Most complex systems still require human oversight, however, to make certain kinds of judgments about the readiness of the parts of the system (including the computers) and the system as a whole to operate properly, to react to unexpected failures, and to evaluate how well the system is serving its intended purposes.

  • An increasing number of people work at jobs that involve processing or distributing information. Because computers can do these tasks faster and more reliably, they have become standard tools both in the workplace and at home.

Benchmarks for Grades 9–12

By the end of the 12th grade, students should know that:

  • Computer modeling explores the logical consequences of a set of instructions and a set of data. The instructions and data input of a computer model try to represent the real world so the computer can show what would actually happen. In this way, computers assist people in making decisions by simulating the consequences of different possible decisions.

  • Redundancy can reduce errors in storing or processing information but increase costs.

  • Miniaturization of information-processing hardware can increase processing speed and portability, reduce energy use, and lower cost. Miniaturization is made possible through higher-purity materials and more precise fabrication technology.

Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
Standard 8F:
Health Technology
Benchmarks for Grades K–2

By the end of the 2nd grade, students should know that:

  • Vaccinations and other scientific treatments protect people from getting certain diseases, and different kinds of medicines may help those who do become sick to recover.

Benchmarks for Grades 3–5

By the end of the 5th grade, students should know that:

  • There are normal ranges for body measurements—including temperature, heart rate, and what is in the blood and urine—that help to tell when people are well. Tools, such as thermometers and x-ray machines, provide us clues about what is happening inside the body.

  • Technology has made it possible to repair and sometimes replace some body parts.

Benchmarks for Grades 6–8

By the end of the 8th grade, students should know that:

  • Sanitation measures such as the use of sewers, landfills, quarantines, and safe food handling are important in controlling the spread of organisms that cause disease. Improving sanitation to prevent disease has contributed more to saving human life than any advance in medical treatment.

  • The ability to measure the level of substances in body fluids has made it possible for physicians to make comparisons with normal levels, make very sophisticated diagnoses, and monitor the effects of the treatments they prescribe.

  • It is becoming increasingly possible to manufacture chemical substances such as insulin and hormones that are normally found in the body. They can be used by individuals whose own bodies cannot produce the amounts required for good health.

Benchmarks for Grades 9–12

By the end of the 12th grade, students should know that:

  • Owing to the large amount of information that computers can process,

Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×

they are playing an increasingly larger role in medicine. They are used to analyze data and to keep track of diagnostic information about individuals and statistical information on the distribution and spread of various maladies in populations.

  • Almost all body substances and functions have daily or longer cycles. These cycles often need to be taken into account in interpreting normal ranges for body measurements, detecting disease, and planning treatment of illness. Computers aid in detecting, analyzing, and monitoring these cycles.

  • Knowledge of genetics is opening whole fields of health care. In diagnosis, mapping of genetic instructions in cells makes it possible to detect defective genes that may lead to poor health. In treatment, substances from genetically engineered organisms may reduce the cost and side effects of replacing missing body chemicals.

  • Inoculations use weakened germs (or parts of them) to stimulate the body’s immune system to react. This reaction prepares the body to fight subsequent invasions by actual germs of that type. Some inoculations last for life.

  • Knowledge of molecular structure and interactions aids in synthesizing new drugs and predicting their effects.

  • The diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders are improving, but not as rapidly as for physical health. Techniques for detecting and diagnosing these disorders include observation of behavior, in-depth interviews, and measurements of body chemistry. Treatments range from discussing problems to affecting the brain directly with chemicals, electric shock, or surgery.

  • Biotechnology has contributed to health improvement in many ways, but its cost and application have led to a variety of controversial social and ethical issues.

Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×

Standards for Technological Literacy

Standards Related to “the Nature of Technology”

Standard 1:
The Characteristics and Scope of Technology.
Benchmarks for Grades K–2
  • The natural world and human-made world are different.

  • All people use tools and techniques to help them do things.

Benchmarks for Grades 3–5
  • Things that are found in nature differ from things that are human-made in how they are produced and used.

  • Tools, materials, and skills are used to make things and carry out tasks.

  • Creative thinking and economic and cultural influences shape technological development.

Benchmarks for Grades 6–8
  • New products and systems can be developed to solve problems or to help do things that could not be done without the help of technology.

  • The development of technology is a human activity and is the result of individual and collective needs and the ability to be creative.

  • Technology is closely linked to creativity, which has resulted in innovation.

  • Corporations can often create demand for a product by bringing it onto the market and advertising it.

Benchmarks for Grades 9–12
  • The nature and development of technological knowledge and processes are functions of the setting.

  • The rate of technological development and diffusion is increasing rapidly.

  • Inventions and innovations are the results of specific, goal-directed research.

  • Most development of technologies these days is driven by the profit motive and the market.

Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
Standard 2:
The Core Concepts of Technology
Benchmarks for Grades K–2
  • Some systems are found in nature, and some are made by humans.

  • Systems have parts or components that work together to accomplish a goal.

  • Tools are simple objects that help humans complete tasks.

  • Different materials are used in making things.

  • People plan in order to get things done.

Benchmarks for Grades 3–5
  • A subsystem is a system that operates as a part of another system.

  • When parts of a system are missing, it may not work as planned.

  • Resources are the things needed to get a job done, such as tools and machines, materials, information, energy, people, capital, and time.

  • Tools are used to design, make, use, and assess technology.

  • Materials have many different properties.

  • Tools and machines extend human capabilities, such as holding, lifting, carrying, fastening, separating, and computing.

  • Requirements are the limits to designing or making a product or system.

Benchmarks for Grades 6–8
  • Technological systems include input, processes, output, and at times, feedback.

  • Systems thinking involves considering how every part relates to others.

  • An open-loop system has no feedback path and requires human intervention, while a closed-loop system uses feedback.

  • Technological systems can be connected to one another.

  • Malfunctions of any part of a system may affect the function and quality of the system.

  • Requirements are the parameters placed on the development of a product or system.

  • Trade-off is a decision process recognizing the need for careful compromises among competing factors.

  • Different technologies involve different sets of processes.

Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
  • Maintenance is the process of inspecting and servicing a product or system on a regular basis in order for it to continue functioning properly, to extend its life, or to upgrade its quality.

  • Controls are mechanisms or particular steps that people perform using information about the system that causes systems to change.

Benchmarks for Grades 9–12
  • Systems thinking applies logic and creativity with appropriate compromises in complex real-life problems.

  • Systems, which are the building blocks of technology, are embedded within larger technological, social, and environmental systems.

  • The stability of a technological system is influenced by all of the components in the system, especially those in the feedback loop.

  • Selecting resources involves trade-offs between competing values, such as availability, cost, desirability, and waste.

  • Requirements involve the identification of the criteria and constraints of a product or system and the determination of how they affect the final design and development.

  • Optimization is an ongoing process or methodology of designing or making a product and is dependent on criteria and constraints.

  • New technologies create new processes.

  • Quality control is a planned process to ensure that a product, service, or system meets established criteria.

  • Management is the process of planning, organizing, and controlling work.

  • Complex systems have many layers of controls and feedback loops to provide information.

Standard 3:
The Relationships Among Technologies and the Connections Between Technology and Other Fields of Study
Benchmarks for Grades K–2
  • The study of technology uses many of the same ideas and skills as other subjects.

Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
Benchmarks for Grades 3–5
  • Technologies are often combined.

  • Various relationships exist between technology and other fields of study.

Benchmarks for Grades 6–8
  • Technological systems often interact with one another.

  • A product, system, or environment developed for one setting may be applied to another setting.

  • Knowledge gained from other fields of study has a direct effect on the development of technological products and systems.

Benchmarks for Grades 9–12
  • Technology transfer occurs when a new user applies an existing innovation developed for one purpose in a different function.

  • Technological innovation often results when ideas, knowledge, or skills are shared within a technology, among technologies, or across other fields.

  • Technological ideas are sometimes protected through the process of patenting.

  • Technological progress promotes the advancement of science and mathematics.

Standards Related to Technology and Society

Standard 4:
The Cultural, Social, Economic, and Political Effects of Technology.
Benchmarks for Grades K–2
  • • The use of tools and machines can be helpful or harmful.

Benchmarks for Grades 3–5
  • When using technology, results can be good or bad.

  • The use of technology can have unintended consequences.

Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
Benchmarks for Grades 6–8
  • The use of technology affects humans in various ways, including their safety, comfort, choices, and attitudes about technology’s development and use.

  • Technology, by itself, is neither good nor bad, but decisions about the use of products and systems can result in desirable or undesirable consequences.

  • The development and use of technology poses ethical issues.

  • Economic, political, and cultural issues are influenced by the development and use of technology.

Benchmarks for Grades 9–12
  • Changes caused by the use of technology can range from gradual to rapid and from subtle to obvious.

  • Making decisions about the use of technology involves weighing the trade-offs between the positive and negative effects.

  • Ethical considerations are important in the development, selection, and use of technologies.

  • The transfer of a technology from one society to another can cause cultural, social, economic, and political changes affecting both societies to varying degrees.

Standard 5:
The Effects of Technology on the Environment
Benchmarks for Grades K–2
  • Some materials can be reused and/or recycled.

Benchmarks for Grades 3–5
  • Waste must be appropriately recycled or disposed of to prevent unnecessary harm to the environment.

  • The use of technology affects the environment in good and bad ways.

Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
Benchmarks for Grades 6–8
  • The management of waste produced by technological systems is an important societal issue.

  • Technologies can be used to repair damage caused by natural disasters and to break down waste from the use of various products and systems.

  • Decisions to develop and use technologies often put environmental and economic concerns in direct competition with one another.

Benchmarks for Grades 9–12
  • Humans can devise technologies to conserve water, soil, and energy through such techniques as reusing, reducing, and recycling.

  • When new technologies are developed to reduce the use of resources, considerations of trade-offs are important.

  • With the aid of technology, various aspects of the environment can be monitored to provide information for decision-making.

  • The alignment of technological processes with natural processes maximizes performance and reduces negative impacts on the environment.

  • Humans devise technologies to reduce the negative consequences of other technologies.

  • Decisions regarding the implementation of technologies involve the weighing of trade-offs between predicted positive and negative effects on the environment.

Standard 6:
The Role of Society in the Development and Use of Technology
Benchmarks for Grades K–2
  • Products are made to meet individual needs and wants.

Benchmarks for Grades 3–5
  • Because people’s needs and wants change, new technologies are developed, and old ones are improved to meet those changes.

  • Individual, family, community, and economic concerns may expand or limit the development of technologies.

Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
Benchmarks forGrades 6–8
  • Throughout history, new technologies have resulted from the demands, values, and interests of individuals, businesses, industries, and societies.

  • The use of inventions and innovations has led to changes in society and the creation of new needs and wants.

  • Social and cultural priorities and values are reflected in technological devices.

  • Meeting societal expectations is the driving force behind the acceptance and use of products and systems.

Benchmarks for Grades 9–12
  • Different cultures develop their own technologies to satisfy their individual and shared needs, wants, and values.

  • The decision whether to develop a technology is influenced by societal opinions and demands, in addition to corporate cultures.

  • A number of different factors, such as advertising, the strength of the economy, the goals of a company, and the latest fads contribute to shaping the design of and demand for various technologies.

Standard 7:
The Influence of Technology on History
Benchmarks for Grades K–2
  • The way people live and work has changed throughout history because of technology.

Benchmark for Grades 3–5
  • People have made tools to provide food, to make clothing, and to protect themselves.

Benchmarks for Grades 6–8
  • Many inventions and innovations have evolved using slow and methodical processes of tests and refinements.

  • The specialization of function has been at the heart of many technological improvements.

Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
  • The design and construction of structures for service or convenience have evolved from the development of techniques for measurement, controlling systems, and the understanding of spatial relationships.

  • In the past, an invention or innovation was not usually developed with the knowledge of science.

Benchmarks for Grades 9–12
  • Most technological development has been evolutionary, the result of a series of refinements to a basic invention.

  • The evolution of civilization has been directly affected by, and has in turn affected, the development and use of tools and materials.

  • Throughout history, technology has been a powerful force in reshaping the social, cultural, political, and economic landscape.

  • Early in the history of technology, the development of many tools and machines was based not on scientific knowledge but on technological know-how.

  • The Iron Age was defined by the use of iron and steel as the primary materials for tools.

  • The Middle Ages saw the development of many technological devices that produced long-lasting effects on technology and society.

  • The Renaissance, a time of rebirth of the arts and humanities, was also an important development in the history of technology.

  • The Industrial Revolution saw the development of continuous manufacturing, sophisticated transportation and communication systems, advanced construction practices, and improved education and leisure time.

  • The Information Age places emphasis on the processing and exchange of information.

Standards Related to Design

Standard 8:
The Attributes of Design
Benchmarks for Grades K–2
  • Everyone can design solutions to a problem.

  • Design is a creative process.

Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
Benchmarks for Grades 3–5
  • The design process is a purposeful method of planning practical solutions to problems.

  • Requirements for a design include such factors as the desired elements and features of a product or system or the limits that are placed on the design.

Benchmarks for Grades 6–8
  • Design is a creative planning process that leads to useful products and systems.

  • There is no perfect design.

  • Requirements for design are made up of criteria and constraints.

Benchmarks for Grades 9–12
  • The design process includes defining a problem, brainstorming, researching and generating ideas, identifying criteria and specifying constraints, exploring possibilities, selecting an approach, developing a design proposal, making a model or prototype, testing and evaluating the design using specifications, refining the design, creating or making it, and communicating processes and results.

  • Design problems are seldom presented in a clearly defined form.

  • The design needs to be continually checked and critiqued, and the ideas of the design must be redefined and improved.

  • Requirements of a design, such as criteria, constraints, and efficiency, sometimes compete with each other.

Standard 9:
Engineering Design
Benchmarks for Grades K–2
  • The engineering design process includes identifying a problem, looking for ideas, developing solutions, and sharing solutions with others.

  • Expressing ideas to others verbally and through sketches and models is an important part of the design process.

Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
Benchmarks for Grades 3–5
  • The engineering design process involves defining a problem, generating ideas, selecting a solution, testing the solution(s), making the item, evaluating it, and presenting the results.

  • When designing an object, it is important to be creative and consider all ideas.

  • Models are used to communicate and test design ideas and processes.

Benchmarks for Grades 6–8
  • Design involves a set of steps, which can be performed in different sequences and repeated as needed.

  • Brainstorming is a group problem-solving design process in which each person in the group presents his or her ideas in an open forum.

  • Modeling, testing, evaluating, and modifying are used to transform ideas into practical solutions.

Benchmarks for Grades 9–12
  • Established design principles are used to evaluate existing designs, to collect data, and to guide the design process.

  • Engineering design is influenced by personal characteristics, such as creativity, resourcefulness, and the ability to visualize and think abstractly.

  • A prototype is a working model used to test a design concept by making actual observations and necessary adjustments.

  • The process of engineering design takes into account a number of factors.

Standard 10:
The Role of Troubleshooting, Research and Development, Invention and Innovation, and Experimentation in Problem Solving
Benchmarks for Grades K–2
  • Asking questions and making observations helps a person to figure out how things work.

Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
  • All products and systems are subject to failure. Many products and systems, however, can be fixed.

Benchmarks for Grades 3–5
  • Troubleshooting is a way of finding out why something does not work so that it can be fixed.

  • Invention and innovation are creative ways to turn ideas into real things.

  • The process of experimentation, which is common in science, can also be used to solve technological problems.

Benchmarks for Grades 6–8
  • Troubleshooting is a problem-solving method used to identify the cause of a malfunction in a technological system.

  • Invention is a process of turning ideas and imagination into devices and systems. Innovation is the process of modifying an existing product or system to improve it.

  • Some technological problems are best solved through experimentation.

Benchmarks for Grades 9–12
  • Research and development is a specific problem-solving approach that is used intensively in business and industry to prepare devices and systems for the marketplace.

  • Technological problems must be researched before they can be solved.

  • Not all problems are technological, and not every problem can be solved using technology.

  • Many technological problems require a multidisciplinary approach.

Standards Related to Abilities for a Technological World

Standard 11:
Apply the Design Process
Benchmarks for Grades K–2
  • Brainstorm people’s needs and wants and pick some problems that can be solved through the design process.

Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
  • Build or construct an object using the design process.

  • Investigate how things are made and how they can be improved.

Benchmarks for Grades 3–5
  • Identify and collect information about everyday problems that can be solved by technology, and generate ideas and requirements for solving a problem.

  • The process of designing involves presenting some possible solutions in visual form and then selecting the best solution(s) from many.

  • Test and evaluate the solutions for the design problem.

  • Improve the design solutions.

Benchmarks for Grades 6–8
  • Apply a design process to solve problems in and beyond the laboratory-classroom.

  • Specify criteria and constraints for the design.

  • Make two-dimensional and three-dimensional representations of the designed solution.

  • Test and evaluate the design in relation to pre-established requirements, such as criteria and constraints, and refine as needed.

  • Make a product or system and document the solution.

Benchmarks Grades 9–12
  • Identify the design problem to solve and decide whether or not to address it.

  • Identify criteria and constraints and determine how these will affect the design process.

  • Refine a design by using prototypes and modeling to ensure quality, efficiency, and productivity of the final product.

  • Evaluate the design solution using conceptual, physical, and mathematical models at various intervals of the design process in order to check for proper design and to note areas where improvements are needed.

  • Develop and produce a product or system using a design process.

  • Evaluate final solutions and communicate observation, processes, and

Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×

results of the entire design process, using verbal, graphic, quantitative, virtual, and written means, in addition to three-dimensional models.

Standard 12:
Use and Maintain Technological Products and Systems
Benchmarks for Grades K–2
  • Discover how things work.

  • Use hand tools correctly and safely and be able to name them correctly.

  • Recognize and use everyday symbols.

Benchmarks for Grades 3–5
  • Follow step-by-step directions to assemble a product.

  • Select and safely use tools, products, and systems for specific tasks.

  • Use computers to access and organize information.

  • Use common symbols, such as numbers and words, to communicate key ideas.

Benchmarks for Grades 6–8
  • Use information provided in manuals, protocols, or by experienced people to see and understand how things work.

  • Use tools, materials, and machines safely to diagnose, adjust, and repair systems.

  • Use computers and calculators in various applications.

  • Operate and maintain systems in order to achieve a given purpose.

Benchmarks for Grades 9–12
  • Document processes and procedures and communicate them to different audiences using appropriate oral and written techniques.

  • Diagnose a system that is malfunctioning and use tools, materials, machines, and knowledge to repair it.

  • Troubleshoot, analyze, and maintain systems to ensure safe and proper function and precision.

  • Operate systems so that they function in the way they were designed.

Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
  • Use computers and calculators to access, retrieve, organize, process, maintain, interpret, and evaluate data and information in order to communicate.

Standard 13:
Assess the Impact of Products and Systems
Benchmarks for Grades K–2
  • Collect information about everyday products and systems by asking questions.

  • Determine if the human use of a product or system creates positive or negative results.

Benchmarks for Grades 3–5
  • Compare, contrast, and classify collected information in order to identify patterns.

  • Investigate and assess the influence of a specific technology on the individual, family, community, and environment.

  • Examine the trade-offs of using a product or system and decide when it could be used.

Benchmarks for Grades 6–8
  • Design and use instruments to gather data.

  • Use data collected to analyze and interpret trends in order to identify the positive and negative effects of a technology.

  • Identify trends and monitor potential consequences of technological development.

  • Interpret and evaluate the accuracy of the information obtained and determine if it is useful.

Benchmarks for Grades 9–12
  • Collect information and evaluate its quality.

  • Synthesize data, analyze trends, and draw conclusions regarding the effect of technology on the individual, society, and environment.

Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
  • Use assessment techniques, such as trend analysis and experimentation, to make decisions about the future development of technology.

  • Design forecasting techniques to evaluate the results of altering natural systems.

Standards Related to the Design World

Standard 14:
Medical Technologies
Benchmarks for Grades K–2
  • Vaccinations protect people from getting certain diseases.

  • Medicine helps people who are sick to get better.

  • There are many products designed specifically to help people take care of themselves.

Benchmarks for Grades 3–5
  • Vaccines are designed to prevent diseases from developing and spreading; medicines are designed to relieve symptoms and stop diseases from developing.

  • Technological advances have made it possible to create new devices, to repair or replace certain parts of the body, and to provide a means for mobility.

  • Many tools and devices have been designed to help provide clues about health and to provide a safe environment.

Benchmarks for Grades 6–8
  • Advances and innovations in medical technologies are used to improve healthcare.

  • Sanitation processes used in the disposal of medical products help to protect people from harmful organisms and disease, and shape the ethics of medical safety.

  • The vaccines developed for use in immunization require specialized technologies to support environments in which a sufficient amount of vaccines is produced.

  • Genetic engineering involves modifying the structure of DNA to produce novel genetic make-ups.

Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
Benchmarks for Grades 9–12
  • Medical technologies include prevention and rehabilitation, vaccines and pharmaceuticals, medical and surgical procedures, genetic engineering, and the systems within which health is protected and maintained.

  • Telemedicine reflects the convergence of technological advances in a number of fields, including medicine, telecommunications, virtual presence, computer engineering, informatics, artificial intelligence, robotics, materials science, and perceptual psychology.

  • The sciences of biochemistry and molecular biology have made it possible to manipulate the genetic information found in living creatures.

Standard 15:
Agricultural and Related Biotechnologies
Benchmarks for Grades K–2
  • The use of technologies in agriculture makes it possible for food to be available year round and to conserve resources.

  • There are many different tools necessary to control and make up the parts of an ecosystem.

Benchmarks for Grades 3–5
  • Artificial ecosystems are human-made environments that are designed to function as a unit and are comprised of humans, plants, and animals.

  • Most agricultural waste can be recycled.

  • Many processes used in agriculture require different procedures, products, or systems.

Benchmarks for Grades 6–8
  • Technological advances in agriculture directly affect the time and number of people required to produce food for a large population.

  • A wide range of specialized equipment and practices is used to improve the production of food, fiber, fuel, and other useful products and in the care of animals.

  • Biotechnology applies the principles of biology to create commercial products or processes.

Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
  • Artificial ecosystems are human-made complexes that replicate some aspects of the natural environment.

  • The development of refrigeration, freezing, dehydration, preservation, and irradiation provide long-term storage of food and reduce the health risks caused by tainted food.

Benchmarks for Grades 9–12
  • Agriculture includes a combination of businesses that use a wide array of products and systems to produce, process, and distribute food, fiber, fuel, chemical, and other useful products.

  • Biotechnology has applications in such areas as agriculture, pharmaceuticals, food and beverages, medicine, energy, the environment, and genetic engineering.

  • Conservation is the process of controlling soil erosion, reducing sediment in waterways, conserving water, and improving water quality.

  • The engineering design and management of agricultural systems require knowledge of artificial ecosystems and the effects of technological development on flora and fauna.

Standard 16:
Energy and Power Technologies
Benchmarks for Grades K–2
  • Energy comes in many forms.

  • Energy should not be wasted.

Benchmarks for Grades 3–5
  • Energy comes in different forms.

  • Tools, machines, products, and systems use energy in order to do work.

Benchmarks for Grades 6–8
  • Energy is the capacity to do work.

  • Energy can be used to do work, using many processes.

  • Power is the rate at which energy is converted from one form to another or transferred from one place to another, or the rate at which work is done.

Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
  • Power systems are used to drive and provide propulsion to other technological products and systems.

  • Much of the energy used in our environment is not used efficiently.

Benchmarks for Grades 9–12
  • Energy cannot be created nor destroyed; however, it can be converted from one form to another.

  • Energy can be grouped into major forms: thermal, radiant, electrical, mechanical, chemical, nuclear, and others.

  • It is impossible to build an engine to perform work that does not exhaust thermal energy to the surroundings.

  • Energy resources can be renewable or nonrenewable.

  • Power systems must have a source of energy, a process, and loads.

Standard 17:
Information and Communication Technologies
Benchmarks for Grades K–2
  • Information is data that has been organized.

  • Technology enables people to communicate by sending and receiving information over a distance.

  • People use symbols when they communicate by technology.

Benchmarks for Grades 3–5
  • The processing of information through the use of technology can be used to help humans make decisions and solve problems.

  • Information can be acquired and sent through a variety of technological sources, including print and electronic media.

  • Communication technology is the transfer of messages among people and/or machines over distances through the use of technology.

  • Letters, characters, icons, and signs are symbols that represent ideas, quantities, elements, and operations.

Benchmarks for Grades 6–8
  • Information and communication systems allow information to be trans-

Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×

ferred from human to human, human to machine, and machine to human.

  • Communication systems are made up of a source, encoder, transmitter, receiver, decoder, and destination.

  • The design of a message is influenced by such factors as intended audience, medium, purpose, and the nature of the message.

  • The use of symbols, measurements, and drawings promotes a clear communication by providing a common language to express ideas.

Benchmarks for Grades 9–12
  • Information and communication technologies include the inputs, processes, and outputs associated with sending and receiving information.

  • Information and communication systems allow information to be transferred from human to human, human to machine, machine to human, and machine to machine.

  • Information and communication systems can be used to inform, persuade, entertain, control, manage, and educate.

  • Communication systems are made up of source, encoder, transmitter, receiver, decoder, storage, retrieval, and destination.

  • There are many ways to communicate information, such as graphic and electronic means.

  • Technological knowledge and processes are communicated using symbols, measurement, conventions, icons, graphic images, and languages that incorporate a variety of visual, auditory, and tactile stimuli.

Standard 18:
Transportation Technologies
Benchmarks for Grades K–2
  • A transportation system has many parts that work together to help people travel.

  • Vehicles move people or goods from one place to another in water, air or space, and on land.

  • Transportation vehicles need to be cared for to prolong their use.

Benchmarks for Grades 3–5
  • The use of transportation allows people and goods to be moved from place to place.

Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
  • A transportation system may lose efficiency or fail if one part is missing or malfunctioning or if a subsystem is not working.

Benchmarks forGrades 6–8
  • Transporting people and goods involves a combination of individuals and vehicles.

  • Transportation vehicles are made up of subsystems, such as structural propulsion, suspension, guidance, control, and support, that must function together for a system to work effectively.

  • Governmental regulations often influence the design and operation of transportation systems.

  • Processes, such as receiving, holding, storing, loading, moving, unloading, delivering, evaluating, marketing, managing, communicating, and using conventions are necessary for the entire transportation system to operate efficiently.

Benchmarks for Grades 9–12
  • Transportation plays a vital role in the operation of other technologies, such as manufacturing, construction, communication, health and safety, and agriculture.

  • Intermodalism is the use of different modes of transportation, such as highways, railways, and waterways as part of an interconnected system that can move people and goods easily from one mode to another.

  • Transportation services and methods have led to a population that is regularly on the move.

  • The design of intelligent and non-intelligent transportation systems depends on many processes and innovative techniques.

Standard 19:
Manufacturing Technologies
Benchmarks for Grades K–2
  • Manufacturing systems produce products in quantity.

  • Manufactured products are designed.

Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
Benchmarks for Grades 3–5
  • Processing systems convert natural materials into products

  • Manufacturing processes include designing products, gathering resources, and using tools to separate, form, and combine materials in order to produce products.

  • Manufacturing enterprises exist because of a consumption of goods.

Benchmarks for Grades 6–8
  • Manufacturing systems use mechanical processes that change the form of materials through the processes of separating, forming, combining, and conditioning them.

  • Manufactured goods may be classified as durable and non-durable.

  • The manufacturing process includes the designing, development, making, and servicing of products and systems.

  • Chemical technologies are used to modify or alter chemical substances.

  • Materials must first be located before they can be extracted from the earth through such processes as harvesting, drilling, and mining.

  • Marketing a product involves informing the public about it as well as assisting in its sales and distribution.

Benchmarks for Grades 9–12
  • Servicing keeps products in good operating condition.

  • Materials have different qualities and may be classified as natural, synthetic, or mixed.

  • Durable goods are designed to operate for a long period of time, while non-durable goods are designed to operate for a short period of time.

  • Manufacturing systems may be classified into types, such as customized production, batch production, and continuous production.

  • The interchangeability of parts increases the effectiveness of manufacturing processes.

  • Chemical technologies provide a means for humans to alter or modify materials and to produce chemical products.

  • Marketing involves establishing a product’s identity, conducting research on its potential, advertising it, distributing it, and selling it.

Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
Standard 20:
Construction Technologies
Benchmarks for Grades K–2
  • People live, work, and go to school in buildings, which are of different types: houses, apartments, office buildings, and schools.

  • The type of structure determines how the parts are put together.

Benchmarks for Grades 3–5
  • Modern communities are usually planned according to guidelines.

  • Structures need to be maintained.

  • Many systems are used in buildings.

Benchmarks for Grades 6–8
  • The selection of designs for structures is based on factors such as building laws and codes, style, convenience, cost, climate, and function.

  • Structures rest on a foundation.

  • Some structures are temporary, while others are permanent.

  • Buildings generally contain a variety of subsystems.

Benchmarks for Grades 9–12
  • Infrastructure is the underlying base or basic framework of a system.

  • Structures are constructed using a variety of processes and procedures.

  • The design of structures includes a number of requirements.

  • Structures require maintenance, alteration, or renovation periodically to improve them or to alter their intended use.

  • Structures can include prefabricated materials.

Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
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×
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×
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×
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
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×
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×
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×
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×
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×
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
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×
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
×
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B Technology-Related Standards and Benchmarks in the National Science Education Standards, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and Standards for Technological Literacy." National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council. 2006. Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11691.
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Next: APPENDIX C Challenges and Opportunities for Assessing Technological Literacy in the United States »
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In a broad sense, technology is any modification of the natural world made to fulfill human needs or desires. Although people tend to focus on the most recent technological inventions, technology includes a myriad of devices and systems that profoundly affect everyone in modern society. Technology is pervasive; an informed citizenship needs to know what technology is, how it works, how it is created, how it shapes our society, and how society influences technological development. This understanding depends in large part on an individual level of technological literacy.

Tech Tally: Approaches to Assessing Technological Literacy determines the most viable approaches to assessing technological literacy for students, teachers, and out-of-school adults. The book examines opportunities and obstacles to developing scientifically valid and broadly applicable assessment instruments for technological literacy in the three target populations. The book offers findings and 12 related recommendations that address five critical areas: instrument development; research on learning; computer-based assessment methods, framework development, and public perceptions of technology.

This book will be of special interest to individuals and groups promoting technological literacy in the United States, education and government policy makers in federal and state agencies, as well as the education research community.

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