Index
A
Academic careers. See Career building
Academic institutions. See College attendance;
Universities
Academic medicine, 82−84
culture of, 83
Academic milestones, 228
Academic Workforce Survey, 89−90
Acceptance, 185
Access to resources, 122
Accountability
methods for changing institutional processes to combat bias, 229−232
Action blueprint, 219−241
changing institutional processes to combat bias, 219−225
Adelman, Cliff, 55
ADVANCE program, 144−145, 155, 196−197, 211
Advising, 221
Age of Discrimination Act of 1975, 191
Agenda for Excellence: Creating Flexibility in Tenure-Track Faculty Careers, 201, 209
Alfred P. Sloan Awards, for faculty career flexibility, 198
Allport, Gordon, 260
Ambiguous and ambivalent prejudice, 264
American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 124
American Association of University Women (AAUW), 191, 207−208
American Chemical Society, Directory of Graduate Research, 89−90, 104
American Council on Education (ACE), 9, 163, 198−199, 201, 209, 233
American Institute of Physics, Academic Workforce Survey, 89−90
American Philosophical Society, 124
American Physical Society (APS), 177, 202, 212
American Psychological Association (APA), 205−206
American Society for Cell Biology (ASCB), 126−127, 203
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), 194
Anti-discrimination laws
discrimination types banned under, 195
federal agencies enforcing, 11, 164−165
primer on, 192−194
Antiracists, 263
Applicant pool, 195
in physical sciences, mathematics, and engineering, and faculty positions, 88
Aronson, Josh, 46
Assimilation, of outsiders, 186
Association for Women in Science (AWIS), 202
Association of American Medical Colleges (AAMC), Faculty Roster, 79, 89−90
Association of American Universities, 9, 163, 233
Attainment, vs. intention, 63
Attrition. See Faculty attrition
Automatic discrimination, 262−265
Avoidance, as intentional discrimination, 261, 263
Awards, 52
B
Bachelors degrees. See Science and engineering undergraduate degree programs
Barriers to success in science and engineering, identifying, 200−205
Berg, Jeremy, 131
Bias avoidance behaviors, 179
Biases.
See also Subtle bias and discrimination
against caregivers, and family obligations, 174−175
effects on evaluation, top research articles on, 158
evidence establishing that most men and women hold implicit, findings concerning, 3
moving beyond, 159
specific steps for overcoming, 158, 242
Biological, Social, and Organizational Components of Success for Women in Academic Science and Engineering, xiii, 19, 22
Biology, 37−42
brain structure and function, 37−38
evolutionary psychology, 41−42
hormonal influences on cognitive performance, 38−39
and learning and performance, 37−42
psychological development in infancy, 39−41
Blinded peer review, 146−147
Blueprint for action, 219−241
changing institutional processes to combat bias, 219−225
Boring, EG, 42
Brain structure and function, 25, 37−38
Building Engineering and Science Talent (BEST) Initiative, 20−21, 57
Talent Imperative: Diversifying America’s Science and Engineering Workforce, 21
C
Career building, 117−125
models of, 160
productivity, 117−120
progress in, 113
recognition, 123−125
sex differences in publication productivity, 121−123
success and its evaluation in science and engineering, 117−125
Career flexibility, Alfred P. Sloan Awards for faculty, 198
Career Lunch Table program, 203
Caregivers, family obligations and the bias against, 161, 164−165, 174−175
Carnegie Mellon University, Women in Computer Science Program, 68
Ceilings. See Glass ceiling;
“Polycarbonate ceiling”
Census Bureau, current nomenclature of ethnicity, 15n
Center for Research on Learning and Teaching (CRLT) Theater Program, 226
NSF ADVANCE program at the University of Michigan, 144−145
Chait, Richard, 18
Changes needed, xiv, 217−218
building, 196−205
to combat bias in institutional processes, 219−241
coordinating body, 232−237
creating methods for evaluation and accountability, 229−232
creating new institutional structures, 225−229
economic reasons, 218
ethical reasons, 218
federal standards and compliance issues, 238−240
global competitiveness, 217−218
identifying barriers to success in science and engineering, 200−205
institutional constraints bringing, 196−205
legal reasons, 218
possible unintended consequences, 239−241
and sanctions, 239
scorecard for continuous evaluation, 238
small-win experiments, 197−200
systemic, 155
Chemistry departments, academic, building strong, through gender equity, 226−227
Chemistry faculty
case study, 104−109
chemistry doctorates who obtain positions at Research I institutions, 108
comparison of the number of men and women at RI institutions, 107
by country of doctorate, 106
by sex and rank, 107
Chemistry research, major federal funders of, 224, 226−227
Child-care
costs of covered by grants or reimbursements from scientific and professional societies to members, 231
on-site, from scientific and professional societies, at a supplemental rate using a high-quality provider, 231
Child Care Grant Subsidy (CCGS), 230
Childbirth policy, for female graduate students, 72, 228−229
Childcare Voucher Program, 230
Children, socialization of, 43−44
Civil Rights Act of 1964, 192, 238
pressures associated with, 81
Clare Boothe Luce (CBL) program, 211−212
Climate Workshops for Department Chairs, 224−225
Cognition, 28−37
hormonal influences on performance, 38−39
and learning and performance, 28−37
longitudinal manifestation of differences in, 36−37
mathematical and spatial performance, 29−32
verbal and written performance, 32−36
Cohen, Jacob, 27
Cohort analysis, 93
College attendance
examining persistence and attrition, 61−66
graduate school persistence and attrition, 66−76
and majors, 61−66
social factors influencing undergraduate attrition, 63−66
undergraduate persistence to degree, 61−63
Collegiality, 153
Columbia University, xi, 97, 208
Commission on the Status of Women, 204
Commitment, sustaining, 220
Committee on Maximizing the Potential of Women in Academic Science and Engineering, xii, 1, 19
Committee on Science, Engineering, and Public Policy, xii, 1
Committee on the Advancement of Women Chemists (COACh), 125, 132, 180, 197, 226−227
Committee on Women in Science and Engineering (CWSE), 19
Gender Differences in the Careers of Science, Engineering, and Mathematics Faculty, 19, 22
To Recruit and Advance Women Students and Faculty in US Science and Engineering, 19
presumed, benefits of, 216
Competitiveness, consequences of failure to act as detrimental to the nation’s, findings concerning, 4, 241
Composite information, funding agencies and foundations collecting, storing, and publishing, 10, 116
Conclusions, 4−6
on institutional constraints, 212−213
on learning and performance, 49
on persistence and attrition, 109−112
on success and its evaluation in science and engineering, 159
Conflicts between personal and professional life, 84
and faculty retention, 97
Congenital adrenal hyperplasia, 38
Congress, recommendations to, 12, 165
Congressional Commission on the Advancement of Women and Minorities in Science, Engineering, and Technology (CAWMSET) Project, building science and engineering talent with, 15, 20−21
Congruence, 135.
See also Role congruity theory
Conspiracy of silence, about minority-group women faculty, breaking, 210−211
Constitutional claim, of equal protection, 193
Continuous evaluation scorecard, in changing institutional processes to combat bias, 238
Contracts, for leadership positions, 129
Controversies, 23
the evolution of motivation, 42
models of faculty representation, 56−58
Convergence, 187
Coordinating body, in changing institutional processes to combat bias, 232−237
Cornell University, Child Care Grant Subsidy, 230
Course selection, in high school, and persistence and attrition, 59−61
Cover up. See Conspiracy of silence
Creativity, increasing, 153
“Critical mass,” 187
CRLT Players, 144
Cross-institutional strategy, 224, 226−227, 242
Culture.
See also Society and culture of academic medicine, 83
auditing, 156
within departments, 225
Cumulative disadvantage, 272−273
across generations and through history, 272
over time through the course of an individual’s life across different domains, 272−273
over time through the course of an individual’s life sequentially within any one domain, 273
Curricula vitae, 145−146
D
Dartmouth University, 208, 229
childbirth policy for female graduate students, 72
David and Lucille Packard Foundation, Packard Fellowship for Science and Engineering, 231
Deans, recommendations for, 8, 52, 115−116, 257
Decision making, 266
departmental, 206
Decreasing isolation, in the Johns Hopkins Department of Medicine Task Force study, 222
Defining issues. See Dynamic definitions of discrimination;
Issues defined
Degrees. See Science and engineering doctorate recipients;
Science and engineering undergraduate degree programs
Deloitte and Touche Leadership in Industry Case Study, 200, 202, 207
Department chairs, recommendations for, 8, 52, 115−116, 257
Department of Agriculture, 12, 165
Department of Defense, 12, 165, 192, 239
Department of Education, 12, 32, 164−165, 192, 239
Office of Civil Rights, 239
Department of Energy (DOE), 12, 132, 165, 224, 226
national laboratories leadership positions, 129
Department of Justice, 11, 164, 238n, 239
Department of Labor, 11−12, 164−165, 193
Office of Federal Contract Compliance Programs, 238n
Departmental decision making, 206
Departments
academic, building strong, through gender equity, 226−227
climate within, and faculty retention, 97−98, 105
vs. centers, 99
Dependent care expenses, funding agencies and foundations enabling use of grant monies for, 10
Dependent Care Fund for Conference Travel, 230
Differences in salaries between groups, and faculty retention, 95−96
Directory of Graduate Research (DGR), 89−90
Disciplinary endogamy, 177
Discrimination
federal agencies evaluating whether universities have engaged in any types of, 11
within five domains, map of potential points of, 271
understanding, 150−151
Discrimination cumulating over time through the course of an individual’s life
across different domains, 272−273
sequentially within any one domain, 273
Discrimination law, 267
Discrimination types, 260−269
intentional, explicit discrimination, 260−262
organizational processes, 267−269
statistical discrimination and profiling, 265−267
subtle, unconscious, automatic discrimination, 262−265
Discrimination types banned under anti-discrimination laws, 195
disparate impact discrimination, 195
failure to maintain required policies and procedures, 195
intentional discrimination, 195
retaliation, 195
sexual harassment, 195
Disparities
disparate impact discrimination banned, 195
root causes of, 214−217
Diversity
capturing workforce talent, 154, 166
the case for, 153−155
within departments, 105
faculty development and, 221
federal agencies encouraging and providing technical assistance on achieving, 11−12
making it work, 156−157
among women, 18−19
Division of Genetics and Developmental Biology, 131
Doctorate degrees. See Science and engineering doctorate recipients
Domains
map of potential points of discrimination within five, 271
in which discrimination operates, 270−272
Dual-career marriages, 170
Duke University, 94
Women’s Initiative, 203−204
Dynamic definitions of discrimination
effects of discrimination as cumulating across different domains, 272−273
effects of discrimination as cumulating across generations and through history, 272
effects of discrimination as cumulating sequentially within any one domain, 273
moving to, from episodic, 272−273
E
Economics
impact of faculty attrition, 100−104
and the necessity of change, 218
Education, 44−45
documenting, 266
in the Johns Hopkins Department of Medicine Task Force study, 222
Effect size, 27
“Elephants in the room,” 242
Employers for Work-Life Balance, 207
Engineering. See Science and engineering
Episodic definitions of discrimination, moving to dynamic, 272−273
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), 11−12, 164−165, 192, 194−195, 238n
Equal Pay Act of 1963, 190, 193
Equal protection, a constitutional claim, 193
Ethics, and the necessity of change, 218
Evaluation.
See also Monitoring and evaluation
criteria for often containing arbitrary and subjective components that disadvantage women, findings concerning, 3−4
of leaders, 129−135
Evaluation of success in science and engineering, 135−159
accountability and, 155−159
the case for diversity, 153−155
gender bias in, 143−150
subtle, implicit, or unexamined bias, 151−153
understanding discrimination, 150−151
Evolution of motivation, controversy over, 42
Evolutionary psychology, 41−42
Exclusion, as intentional discrimination, 261
Executive Order 11246, 190, 193, 195, 238
Experimental psychology, 42
Experiments and strategies, 23
breaking through the “polycarbonate ceiling,” 132
building strong academic chemistry departments through gender equity, 226−227
Carnegie Mellon’s Women in Computer Science Program, 68
Center for Research on Learning and Teaching Theater Program, 144−145
climate workshops for department chairs, 224−225
Committee on the Advancement of Women Chemists, 132
Deloitte and Touche Leadership in Industry Case Study, 200
financial support for dependent care, 230−232
improving the retention of junior faculty case study, 222−223
National Science Foundation ADVANCE Program, 196−197
Pioneer Award, 130−131
searching for excellence and diversity, 148−150
speaker representation at scientific and professional society meetings, 126−127
specific steps for overcoming bias, 158
Stanford University’s childbirth policy for female graduate students, 228−229
Task Force on the Retention and Promotion of Junior Faculty, Yale Women Faculty Forum, 100−101
University of Washington Faculty Retention Toolkit, 105
Women in Cell Biology, 203
Women in Science and Engineering Leadership Institute, 224−225
workshops for search committee chairs at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, 148−150
Explicit discrimination, 260−262
Extermination, as intentional discrimination, 262
F
Faculty Advising Faculty Handbook, 145
Faculty attrition, 50−112.
See also Chemistry faculty
case study of chemistry, 104−109
chapter highlights, 50−51
college attendance, and majors, 61−66
college to graduate school, 66−76
conclusion, 109−112
course selection in high school, 59−61
economic impact of, 100−104
factors affecting, 96
findings, 51−52
postdoctoral appointments, 77−78
postgraduate career plans, 76
recommendations, 52−59
Faculty development
and diversity, 221
in the Johns Hopkins Department of Medicine Task Force study, 223
midcareer, 105
Faculty Early Career Development (CAREER) award, 78
Faculty positions, 52, 79−99, 218, 221, 257.
See also Tenure-track faculty careers
departments vs. centers, 99
examining persistence and attrition, 79−99
exiting the tenure track, 91−92
hiring new doctorates into, 80−85, 103
mobility within, 51, 89−92, 174
the “pool,” 85−88
promotion, 93−95
Faculty representation, controversy over models of, 56−58
Faculty retention, 95−99
conflicts between personal and professional life, 97
department climate and a supportive work environment, 97−98
differences in salaries between groups, 95−96
tenure policies and procedures, 96−97
Failure to act, consequences of, as detrimental to the nation’s competitiveness, 4
Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993 (FMLA), 190−191, 194, 207
Family-friendly policies, 162
Family obligations.
See also Maternal wall
and the bias against caregivers, institutional interactions reflecting, 174−175
enabling academic science careers in the context of, 221
Family responsibilities discrimination. See Maternal wall
encompassing a broad number and range of institutions in their review, 11
encouraging and providing technical assistance on achieving diversity, 11−12
evaluating whether universities have engaged in any types of discrimination, 11
recommendations to, 11−12, 52, 116
Federal enforcement agencies, enforcing the federal anti-discrimination laws, 11, 164−165
Federal standards and compliance issues, in changing institutional processes to combat bias, 238−240
Federation of Clinical Immunological Societies (FOCIS), 127
Feminist colleagues, supporting, 242
Financial support for dependent care, 230−232
from funding agencies and organizations, 231−232
from scientific and professional societies, 230−231
Findings, 2−4
academic organizational structures and rules contributing significantly to the underuse of women in academic science and engineering, 4
consequences of failure to act as detrimental to the nation’s competitiveness, 4
evaluation criteria often containing arbitrary and subjective components that disadvantage women, 3−4
evidence establishing that most men and women hold implicit biases, 3
examining persistence and attrition, 51−52
on institutional constraints, 161−162
on learning and performance, 25−26
problem lying not only in the pipeline, 2−3
on success and its evaluation in science and engineering, 114−115
women as likely to face discrimination in every field of science and engineering, 3
women as possessing the ability and drive to succeed in science and engineering, 2
women who are interested in science and engineering being lost at every educational transition, 2, 51
First-author papers, 77
Flexibility, in tenure-track faculty careers, 105, 201, 207
Foundations. See Funding agencies and foundations
Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Postdoc Childcare Subsidy Program, 230
Funding agencies and foundations, 10−11, 231−232, 257.
See also individual agencies and foundations
collecting, storing, and publishing composite information, 10
creating additional funding mechanisms, 10
enabling use of grant monies for dependent care expenses, 10
establishing policies for extending grant support, 11
expanding support for research, 11
funding postdoctoral appointments, 78
institutional transformation driven by,
and institutional constraints, 211−212
providing workshops, 10
G
Gender-congruent roles, 135
Gender Differences in Major Federal External Grant Programs, 15
Gender Differences in the Careers of Science, Engineering, and Mathematics Faculty, 22
Gender discrimination, xi, 143−150
Gender equity, 143
role of leadership in achieving, 116
universities reaffirming pledge for, 180
Generations, effects of discrimination as cumulating across, 272
Georgi, Howard, 167
Georgia Institute of Technology, Program for Institutional Transformation, 197
Glass ceiling.
See also Maternal wall
institutional interactions reflecting, 152, 179−180
Global competitiveness, and the necessity of change, 1, 13, 217−218
Gordon Research Conferences, 127
Government Accountability Office, 15
Graduate Record Examination scores, 75
Graduate school students, 55, 68−75
attrition of, 75−76
childbirth policy for female, 72, 228−229
Grants
extending support from, funding agencies and foundations establishing policies for, 11
for leadership positions, 129
from scientific and professional societies to members to cover child-care costs, 231
Greenberg, Judith, 131
Group problem solving, 153
Guiterrez, Carlos, 45
H
Halpern, Diane F., 29
Harvard University, 108, 167, 208
Dependent Care Fund for Conference Travel, 230
enabling academic science careers in the context of family obligations, 221
faculty development and diversity, 221
mentoring and advising, 221
Study of New Scholars, 96
sustaining commitment, 220
Task Force on Women Faculty, 18, 220−221
Task Force on Women in Science and Engineering, 18, 212, 219−221
Hate crimes, 262
Hazard analysis, 92
High school
course selection and persistence and attrition, 59−61
graduates completing advanced coursework in mathematics and science, 60
High-threat condition, 48
Higher education organizations.
See also College attendance;
Universities
Higher Education Research Institute, 98
Hildred Blewitt Scholarship, 212
Hiring, through word-of-mouth recommendations, 268
Hirsh, Elizabeth, 191
History, effects of discrimination as cumulating throughout, 272
Honorary societies, 1
Hopkins, Nancy, 81
Hormonal influences, on cognitive performance, 38−39
Human capital, 216
Human Frontier Science Program, 57
I
“Ideal” scientist or engineer, and institutional constraints, 165−167
“Identity-blind” practices, 187
Inclusive work environment
institutional constraints for establishing, 205−210
integrating work into one’s whole life, 207−210
service obligations, 210
Infancy
psychological development in, 39−41
socialization in, 43−44
Information
composite, funding agencies and foundations collecting, storing, and publishing, 10
limited or missing, 266
Innate abilities, 215
Institution-wide transformations, 162
Institutional constraints, 160−213, 256
breaking the conspiracy of silence about minority-group women faculty, 210−211
bringing institutional change, 196−205
chapter highlights, 160−161
conclusion, 212−213
establishing an inclusive work environment, 205−210
findings, 161−162
funding-agency-driven institutional transformation, 211−212
and the “ideal” scientist or engineer, 166−167
the legal landscape, 189−196
pioneers and tipping points, 180−188
recommendations on, 162−165
recruitment, 167−169
Institutional interactions, 169−180
cross-institutional strategy, 224, 226−227
family responsibilities, and the bias against caregivers, 174−175
glass ceilings, 179−180
the maternal wall, 176−179
Institutional structures, new, in changing institutional processes to combat bias, 1, 225−229
Institutions
federal agencies encompassing a broad enough number and range of, in their reviews, 11
where the greatest number of chemistry faculty at research institutions were trained, 109
“Intangible” environment, 238−240
Integration
of available data on gender issues across all fields of science and engineering, 256
of work into one’s whole life, 207−210
Intention vs. attainment, 63
Intentional discrimination
avoidance, 261
banned under anti-discrimination laws, 195
exclusion, 261
explicit, 260−262
extermination, 262
physical attacks, 262
segregation, 261−262
verbal antagonism, 260−261
Inter-institution monitoring organization, 232
InterAcademy Council (IAC), 124
Interactions
institutional, 169−180
social, 54
International Congress of Immunology, 127
Isolation, decreasing in the Johns Hopkins Department of Medicine Task Force study, 222
Issues defined, 22−23
academic medicine, 82−84
anti-discrimination laws, 192−194
building engineering and science talent, 20−21
creating flexibility in tenure-track faculty careers, 201
diversity among women, 18−19
“elephants in the room,” 242
faculty attrition, 96
Title IX, 239
types of discrimination banned under the anti-discrimination laws, 195
universities reaffirming pledge for gender equity, 180
the variability hypothesis, 34−35
J
Jackson, Shirley, 154
Job change, in all faculty ranks and fields, reasons for, 91−92
Johns Hopkins Department of Medicine
academic rewards, 223
decreased isolation, 222
education, 222
faculty development, 223
Improving the Retention of Junior Faculty Case Study, 222−223
leadership, 222
monitoring and evaluation, 223
Task Force on Women’s Academic Careers in Medicine, 222−223
Journals, 143−144
K
Keystone Symposia, 127
KiddieCorp, 231
L
Land of Plenty: Diversity as America’s Competitive Edge in Science, Engineering, and Technology, 20
Language functions, lateralization of, 37
Lasker Prize, 124
Lawyers Life Coach, 121
Leadership positions, 1, 125−135, 152, 179, 188, 242, 257
evaluation of leaders, 129−135
grants and contracts for, 129
in the Johns Hopkins Department of Medicine Task Force study, 222
success and its evaluation in science and engineering, 125−135
Learning and performance, 24−49
in biology, 37−42
chapter highlights, 24−25
in cognition, 28−37
conclusion, 49
findings, 25−26
recommendation, 26
research approaches, 26−28
in society and culture, 42−49
Leave-of-absence policies, 194, 228
Legal standards
comparison with the four types of discrimination, 269−270
landscape of institutional constraints, 189−196
law and the necessity of change, 218
Letters of recommendation, 144
Lovell v. BBNT Solutions, LLC, 193
M
Marriages
dual-career, 170
PhDs with employed spouses, 173
Mass killings, 262
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), 1, 81, 94−98, 206, 218, 224
Report on Women Faculty in the School of Science, 85
Maternal wall, institutional interactions reflecting, 176−179
Mathematical performance, 29−32
magnitude (“d”) of sex differences in, 36
Mathematics and science, percentage of high school graduates completing advanced coursework in, 60
Mathematics undergraduate degree programs, top reasons for leaving, 67
Measuring Racial Discrimination, 23, 258−274
Medewar, Peter, 26
Media portrayals, of nonwhites versus whites, 262
Medicine, academic, 82−84
Mental rotation ability, 39
of junior faculty, 143, 156, 205−206
of students, individual and perceived institutional value of, 119
Meritocratic system of rewards, 3, 142, 215
Millett, Catherine, 71
Minorities. See Racial discrimination;
Women
Minority-group women faculty, breaking the conspiracy of silence about, 210−211
Mobility, within faculty positions, 89−91, 174
Models, of faculty representation, controversy over, 56−58
Monitoring and evaluation, in the Johns Hopkins Department of Medicine Task Force study, 223
Monks, James, 233
See also Maternal wall
Motivation, controversy over the evolution of, 42
N
Nanny Network, 231
National Academies, 1, 13, 22−23
National Academy of Engineering, 2, 124
National Academy of Sciences, 2, 124
Committee on Women in Science and Engineering, 19
National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 12, 165, 192, 239
National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), 28−29
National Association of State Universities and Land Grant Colleges, 9, 163, 233
National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), 163, 232, 240
National Educational Longitudinal Survey, 59
National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), 232
National Institute of General Medical Sciences, 131
National Institute of Standards and Technology, 12, 165
National Institutes of Health (NIH), 12, 129, 165, 192, 224, 226, 232, 239
average research grant award to women and men, 142
Mentored Research Scientist Development Award K01 grant mechanism, 212
Pathway to Independence Award, 78
Roadmap for Medical Research, 130
Small Business Innovation Research Program, 129
Small Business Technology Transfer Program, 129
National Medal of Science, 124
National Research Council, 56−57
Research Doctorate Programs in the United States: Continuity and Change, 86
National Science Foundation (NSF), 12, 120, 132, 165, 192, 224, 226, 239
ADVANCE program, 144−145, 155, 196−197, 211
Engineering Research Center leadership positions, 138−139
Faculty Early Career Development awards, 78−79
Science and Technology Center leadership positions, 140−141
Survey of Doctorate Recipients, 52, 86, 89
Net present value model, 104
Nettles, Michael, 71
New doctorates, hiring into faculty positions, 80−85
New institutional structures, in changing institutional processes to combat bias, 225−229
New professors, start-up costs associated with, 103
Nine-University Statement on Gender Equity, 241
Nomenclature of ethnicity, current, 15n
Northwestern University, 210
NSF. See National Science Foundation
O
Obstacles, recognizing, 15−22
Occupations of science and engineering PhDs, by sector, 54
O’Connor, Sandra Day, 13
Office of Civil Rights (OCR), 12, 239
Office of Federal Contract Compliance Programs, 193, 238n
On-site child-care, from scientific and professional societies, at a supplemental rate using a high-quality provider, 231
Organizational processes
development, 156
discriminatory, 267−269
pyramidal hierarchy, 216
Ostrow, Ellen, 121
Outgroups, people’s reactions to, 263
P
Packard Fellowship for Science and Engineering, 231
Parenting. See Maternal wall
Pathway to Independence Award, 78
Peer review, 77, 117−118, 143, 146−147
blinded, 146−147
Penk v. Oregon State Board of Higher Education, 191
Performance
judgments of, 117
learning and, 24−49
spatial, 29−32
verbal and written, 32−36
Persistence, 50−112
case study in chemistry, 104−109
chapter highlights, 50−51
college attendance, and majors, 61−66
college to graduate school, 66−76
conclusion, 109−112
course selection in high school, 59−61
economic impact of faculty attrition, 100−104
faculty positions, 79−99
findings, 51−52
postdoctoral appointments, 77−78
postgraduate career plans, 76
recommendations, 52−59
PhD pools, proportion of women in, 16−17
Physical attacks, as intentional discrimination, 262
Pioneers, institutional constraints on, 180−188
Pipeline, 56
findings concerning problems with, 2−3
science, engineering, and technology, 20
“Polycarbonate ceiling,” breaking through, 132
The “pool,” 85−88
proportion of women in, 16−17
Postdoc Childcare Subsidy Program, 230
Postdoctoral appointments, 77−78
examining persistence and attrition, 77−78
funding source, 78
professional development and productivity from, 77−78
Postgraduate career plans, and examining persistence and attrition, 76
Potential of women in academic science and engineering unfulfilled, 214−243
blueprint for action, 219−241
changing institutional processes to combat bias, 219−241
reasons change is necessary, 217−218
root causes of disparities, 214−217
Potential points of discrimination, within five domains, map of, 271
Pregnancy Discrimination Act (PDA), 190, 193
Presidential Early Career Awards for Scientists and Engineers (PECASE), 78
women awardees, 79
Presumed competence, benefits of, 216
Primary Caregiver Technical Assistance Supplements, 232
Primer on anti-discrimination laws, 192−194
Americans with Disabilities Act, 194
Equal Pay Act, 193
equal protection, 193
Executive Order 11246, 193
Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993, 194
Pregnancy Discrimination Act, 193
Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, 192
Title IX, 192
Princeton University, 218, 224
Problem solving
differences in, 36
group, 153
Productivity
and building a career, 113, 117−120
from postdoctoral appointments, 77−78
Professional development, 116
from postdoctoral appointments, 77−78
Professional Opportunities for Women in Research and Education (POWRE), 98−99, 196
Professional societies, 9−10
honorary societies, 10
journals, 10
recommendations to, 9−10, 52−53
scientific and professional societies, 9−10
Professors, start-up costs associated with new, 103
Profiling, 265−267
Profits, increasing, 153
Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), 33
Provosts, recommendations for, 7−8
Provost’s Committee on the Status of Women, 222
Psychiatric disorders, 37
Psychological development, in infancy, 39−41
Publication productivity, and building a career, sex differences in, 113, 121−123
Pyramidal organizational hierarchy, 216
Q
Quigley, Jim, 202
R
Racial discrimination, 259−263
racial steering, 268
RAND Corp., 15
Recognition, and building a career, 123−125
Recommendations, 7−12
to Congress, 12
for examining persistence and attrition, 52−59
to federal agencies, 11−12
to funding agencies and foundations, 10−11
on institutional constraints, 162−165
on learning and performance, 26
to professional societies and higher education organizations, 9−10
on success and its evaluation in science and engineering, 115−117
to universities, 7−9
Recruitment, 52
institutional constraints on, 167−169
targeted, 156
Rehabilitation Act of 1973, 191
Reimbursements, from scientific and professional societies to members to cover child-care costs, 231
Report on Women Faculty in the School of Science, 85
Representation. See Faculty representation
Required policies and procedures, failure to maintain banned under anti-discrimination laws, 195
Research approaches, 23
benefits of presumed competence, 216
blinded peer review, 146−147
gender differences in the careers of science, engineering, and mathematics faculty, 22
gender factors in, 118
to learning and performance, 26−28
making diversity work, 156−157
meta-analysis, 27
stereotype threat, 46−47
top research articles on the effects of bias on evaluation, 158
workplace pioneers as “Men in Skirts,” 183−187
Research I (R1) institutions, 22, 74, 86, 91−93, 104−108, 123
chemistry faculty positions at, 108
number of faculty hired at, selected by sex, 110
Research productivity. See Productivity
Research project grants (RPGs), 129
Resources, access to, 122
Retaliation, banned under anti-discrimination laws, 195
Retention. See Faculty retention
“Review” paradigm, 93
Rising Above the Gathering Storm, 13
Roadmap for Medical Research, 130
Role congruity theory, 65
RPGs. See Research project grants
Rutgers University, 98
S
Salaries, 52.
See also Differences in salaries between groups
average start-up packages for assistant professors in selected fields starting at public Research I universities, 102
Sanctions, in changing institutional processes to combat bias, 239
Schmader, Toni, 46
Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT), 24−25, 28−35, 46
Schultz, George, 85
Science
engineering and mathematics (SEM) careers, 34−35, 45, 66, 69
and technology (SET) pipeline, 20
technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) faculty, 168
Science and engineering
applicant pool and faculty positions at the University of California, Berkeley, 88
identifying barriers to success in, 200−205
welcoming and encouraging all our nation’s people to excel in, 243
Science and engineering doctorate recipients (of PhDs)
30-44 years old, spousal employment of, 172−173
hiring new doctorates into faculty positions, 80−85
location and type of planned postgraduate study for US citizens and permanent resident, by sex, 76
occupations of, by sector, 54
percentage of women, 14
by race or ethnicity and sex, 70−71
in tenured or tenure-track positions, by sex, marital status, and presence of children, 171
top 10 US baccalaureate institutions of, 74
Science and Engineering Equal Opportunities Act of 1980, 218
Science and engineering talent, building with the CAWMSET and BEST Projects, 20−21
Science and engineering undergraduate degree programs
bachelor’s degree recipients, 64−65, 80
percentages of first-year college students intending to major in science and engineering, by sex and race or ethnicity, 62−63
persistence to degree, 61−63
by sex and race or ethnicity, 64−65
top reasons for leaving, by sex, 67
Scientific and professional societies, 1, 116, 229−231
on-site child-care at a supplemental rate using a high-quality provider, 231
providing grants or reimbursements to members to cover child-care costs, 231
recommendations for, 9−10, 163
speaker representation at meetings of, 126−127
Scorecard for Evaluating How Well Research Universities Serve Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering, 9, 53, 234−237.
See also Continuous evaluation scorecard
Search committees, workshops for chairs of, at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, 148−150
Segregation, as intentional discrimination, 261−262
Self-confidence, challenge of maintaining, 75
Self-nomination, 131
Self-perpetuating discrimination, 266
Self-reported faculty hours, 121
Sexual harassment, 203
banned under anti-discrimination laws, 195
Shalala, Donna E., xi−xiv
Silence. See Conspiracy of silence
Sloan Foundation, 197−198
Small Business Innovation Research Program, 129
Small Business Technology Transfer Program, 129
Small-win experiments, 162, 197−200
Social effects
on infants and children, 43−44
on undergraduate attrition, 63−66
on women’s cognitive performance, 45−49
Social interactions, 54
Social psychology, 135
Social tipping points, 187−188
Society and culture, 42−49
education, 44−45
and learning and performance, 42−49
Spatial performance, 29−32, 41
Speaker representation, at scientific and professional society meetings, 126−127
Spousal employment, 160
of science and engineering PhDs, 30-44 years old, 172
Stacy, Angelica, 168
Standardized tests, 33
Stanford University, 208, 218−219
childbirth policy for female graduate students, 72, 228−229
Start-up costs, associated with new professors, 103
Statistical discrimination, 265−267
Steele, Claude, 46
Steering, racial, 268
Stereotypes
gender, 26, 40, 43−44, 143−145, 152
reducing use of, in hiring, 150
religious, 42
Strategies. See Experiments and strategies
Strategies and Tactics for Recruiting to Improve Diversity and Excellence (STRIDE) program, 150
Structural discrimination, 267−268.
See also Institutional structures
Study of Faculty Worklife at the UW-Madison, 148
Study of New Scholars, 96
Subtle bias and discrimination
difficult to document, 264−265
implicit or unexamined, 151−153
indirect prejudice, 263
unconscious and automatic, 262−265
Success and its evaluation in science and engineering, 113−159
building a career, 117−125
chapter highlights, 113−114
conclusion, 159
evaluation of success, 135−159
findings, 114−115
leadership positions, 125−135
moving beyond bias, 159
recommendations, 115−117
tournament model of, 216
Support
for research, funding agencies and foundations expanding, 11
in the work environment, and faculty retention, 97−98
Supreme Court, 268
Survey of Doctorate Recipients, 52
T
Talent Imperative: Diversifying America’s Science and Engineering Workforce, 21
Targeted recruitment, 156
Task Force on Faculty Recruitment and Retention, 100−102
Task Force on the Retention and Promotion of Junior Faculty, 100−101
Task Force on Women Faculty (WF-TF), 18, 220−221
Task Force on Women in Science and Engineering (WISE-TF), 18, 219−221
Task statement, 256−257
Teleconferencing, xiii
Tensions between personal and professional life, 84, 97
Tenure policies and procedures, and faculty retention, 96−97
Tenure-track faculty careers, 50, 55, 91
exiting, 91−92
flexibility in, 201
proportion of women in, by field, 16−17
Tenured faculty, 218, 221, 242
recommendations for, 8, 52, 115−116, 257
Theories of discrimination, 259−274
comparison of legal standards with the four types of discrimination, 269−270
domains in which discrimination operates, 270−272
map of potential points of discrimination within five domains, 271
role of cumulative disadvantage, 272−273
summary, 274
types of discrimination, 260−269
“There Goes the Neighborhood?,” 153−155
Tipping points, institutional constraints on, 180, 188
Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, 189, 238
Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, 189, 192, 218, 238, 268
Title IX of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, 189, 192, 218, 232−233, 238−240
To Recruit and Advance Women Students and Faculty in US Science and Engineering, 19
Tournament model of success, 216
Tracking and evaluation, 23
Alfred P. Sloan Awards for faculty career flexibility, 198
American Chemical Society Directory of Graduate Research, 90
American Institute of Physics Academic Workforce Survey, 90
Association of American Medical Colleges’ Faculty Roster, 90
Scorecard for Evaluating How Well Research Universities Serve Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering, 234−237
Transitions, educational, 55
women being lost at every, 2, 51
Transparency, 105
Travel allowances, 231
Trower, Cathy, 18
Trustees, recommendations for, 7−8, 115
Types of discrimination, 260−269
banned under the anti-discrimination laws, 195
U
Unconscious discrimination, 262−265
Undergraduate degrees. See Science and engineering undergraduate degree programs
Underrepresented minorities (URMs), 87−88
Underuse of women in academic science and engineering, academic organizational structures and rules contributing significantly to, findings concerning, 4
Unintended consequences, in changing institutional processes to combat bias, 239−241
Cornell University, Child Care Grant Subsidy, 230
deans and department chairs and their tenured faculty, 8
Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Postdoc Childcare Subsidy Program, 230
Harvard University, Dependent Care Fund for Conference Travel, 230
importance of progress toward equality on their campuses, 214
reaffirming pledge for gender equity, 180
trustees, university presidents, and provosts, 7−8
university leaders working with their faculties and department chairs, 9
University of Washington, Childcare Voucher Program, 230
University leaders, recommendations for, 9, 115−116, 162−163
University of California, Berkeley, 86, 108, 167−168, 209
biological and health sciences applicant pool and faculty positions at Berkeley, 87
faculty advancing through the ranks, by sex and field, 94
faculty positions at, and the applicant pool in physical sciences, mathematics, and engineering, 88
faculty self-reported hours per week engaged in professional work, housework, and caregiving, 121
University of Colorado at Boulder, 95−98
Task Force on Faculty Recruitment and Retention, 100−102
University of Michigan, 224
NSF ADVANCE program, 144−145, 155
STRIDE program, 150
University of Washington, 66, 191, 208
Childcare Voucher Program, 230
Faculty Retention Toolkit, 105
University of Wisconsin-Madison, 169
WISELI program at, 147−150, 221
workshops for department chairs at, 224−225
workshops for search committee chairs at, 148−150
University presidents, recommendations for, 7−8
Unmarried scientists, 168, 174, 226, 228
V
Variability hypothesis, 31−32, 34−35
Verbal antagonism, as intentional discrimination, 260−261
Verbal performance, 32−36
Vest, Chuck, 215
W
Western European notions, dominant, 211
Women
biases against, 215
as chief editors at top-ranked journals, by field, 125, 133−134
diversity among, 18−19
as faculty in the School of Science at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 85
as likely to face discrimination in every
field of science and engineering, findings concerning, 3
as a minority, 166
nominated to an honorific society or for a prestigious award, 128
as possessing the ability and drive to succeed in science and engineering, findings concerning, 2, 114
social effects on cognitive performance of, 45−49
Women CAREER and PECASE awardees, 79
Women in Cell Biology (WICB), 203
Women in science and engineering.
See also Underuse of women in academic science and engineering
career opportunities for, 257
declining proportions of, 14
evidence refuting commonly held beliefs about, 5−6
minority, xii
PhD chemists working full-time at PhD-granting institutions, by rank and sex, 111
Women in Science and Engineering Leadership Institute (WISELI), 147−150, 197
Climate Workshops for Department Chairs, 224−225
Women interested in science and engineering, being lost at every educational transition, findings concerning, 2, 51
Women’s Initiative, 204
Women’s Participation in the Sciences Has Increased, but Agencies Need to Do More to Ensure Compliance with Title IX, 15
Word-of-mouth recommendations, hiring through, 268
Work, integrating into one’s whole life, 207−210
Work environment
inclusive, institutional constraints for establishing, 205−210
“intangibles” in, 238
service obligations, 210
supportive, and faculty retention, 97−98, 219−221
Workplace pioneers, as “Men in Skirts,” 183−187
Workshops
funding agencies and foundations providing, 10
for search committee chairs, at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, 148−150
Written performance, 32−36
Y
Yale Women Faculty Forum, 99−101
Z
Zare, Richard, 218
Zero-sum game, 262