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Green Schools: Attributes for Health and Learning
GREEN SCHOOLS
ATTRIBUTES FOR HEALTH AND LEARNING
Committee to Review and Assess the Health and Productivity Benefits of Green Schools
Board on Infrastructure and the Constructed Environment
Division on Engineering and Physical Sciences
NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES
THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS
Washington, D.C.
www.nap.edu
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Green Schools: Attributes for Health and Learning
THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS
500 Fifth Street, N.W. Washington, DC 20001
NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competences and with regard for appropriate balance.
This study was supported by a Master Services Agreement between the National Academy of Sciences and the Massachusetts Technology Collaborative (awarded November 2004); Grant 1906 between the Barr Foundation and the National Academy of Sciences (awarded September 2004); and funding from the Connecticut Clean Energy Fund (awarded April 2005), the Kendall Foundation (awarded March 2005), and the U.S. Green Building Council (awarded February 2005). Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the organizations or agencies that provided support for the project.
International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-309-10286-5
International Standard Book Number-10: 0-309-10286-3
Copies of this report are available from the Board on Infrastructure and the Constructed Environment, National Research Council, 500 Fifth Street, N.W., Room 967, Washington, DC 20001; (202) 334-3376.
Additional copies of this report are available from the
National Academies Press,
500 Fifth Street, N.W., Lockbox 285, Washington, DC 20055; (800) 624-6242 or (202) 334-3313 (in the Washington metropolitan area); Internet, http://www.nap.edu.
Copyright 2007 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America
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Green Schools: Attributes for Health and Learning
THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES
Advisers to the Nation on Science, Engineering, and Medicine
The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Ralph J. Cicerone is president of the National Academy of Sciences.
The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government. The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. Wm. A. Wulf is president of the National Academy of Engineering.
The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the responsibility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal government and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of medical care, research, and education. Dr. Harvey V. Fineberg is president of the Institute of Medicine.
The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy’s purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Ralph J. Cicerone and Dr. Wm. A. Wulf are chair and vice chair, respectively, of the National Research Council.
www.national-academies.org
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Green Schools: Attributes for Health and Learning
COMMITTEE TO REVIEW AND ASSESS THE HEALTH AND PRODUCTIVITY BENEFITS OF GREEN SCHOOLS
JOHN D. SPENGLER,
Harvard University,
Chair
VIVIAN E. LOFTNESS,
Carnegie Mellon University,
Vice Chair
CHARLENE W. BAYER,
Georgia Institute of Technology
JOHN S. BRADLEY,
National Research Council, Ottawa, Canada
GLEN I. EARTHMAN,
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
PEYTON A. EGGLESTON,
Johns Hopkins University
PAUL FISETTE,
University of Massachusetts, Amherst
CAROLINE BREESE HALL,
University of Rochester
GARY T. HENRY,
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill
CLIFFORD S. MITCHELL,
Johns Hopkins University
MARK S. REA,
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
HENRY SANOFF,
North Carolina State University
CAROL H. WEISS,
Harvard University (resigned September 2005)
SUZANNE M. WILSON,
Michigan State University
Staff
LYNDA STANLEY, Director,
Board on Infrastructure and the Constructed Environment
KEVIN LEWIS, Program Officer
PAT WILLIAMS, Senior Project Assistant
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Green Schools: Attributes for Health and Learning
BOARD ON INFRASTRUCTURE AND THE CONSTRUCTED ENVIRONMENT
HENRY J. HATCH,
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (retired), Oakton, Virginia,
Chair
MASSOUD AMIN,
University of Minnesota
REGINALD DesROCHES,
Georgia Institute of Technology
DENNIS DUNNE, Consultant,
Scottsdale, Arizona
PAUL FISETTE,
University of Massachusetts, Amherst
LUCIA GARSYS,
Hillsborough County, Florida
THEODORE C. KENNEDY,
BE&K, Inc.
SUE McNEIL,
University of Delaware
DEREK PARKER,
Anshen+Allen
WILLIAM WALLACE,
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
CRAIG ZIMRING,
Georgia Institute of Technology
Staff
LYNDA STANLEY, Director
KEVIN LEWIS, Program Officer
DANA CAINES, Financial Associate
PAT WILLIAMS, Senior Project Assistant
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Green Schools: Attributes for Health and Learning
Acknowledgment of Reviewers
This report has been reviewed in draft form by individuals chosen for their diverse perspectives and technical expertise, in accordance with procedures approved by the National Research Council’s Report Review Committee. The purpose of this independent review is to provide candid and critical comments that will assist the institution in making its published report as sound as possible and to ensure that the report meets institutional standards for objectivity, evidence, and responsiveness to the study charge. The review comments and draft manuscript remain confidential to protect the integrity of the deliberative process. We wish to thank the following individuals for their review of this report:
David W. Bearg, Life Energy Associates
Sheila Bosch, Green Ark, Inc.
Julie Dockrell, University of London
Dennis Dunne, dddunne & associates
James W. Guthrie, Vanderbilt University
Alan Hedge, Cornell University
James Kadamus, Sightlines, Inc.
Melvin Mark, Pennsylvania State University
Donald Milton, University of Massachusetts, Lowell
William B. Rose, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Ward V. Wells, Texas A&M University
Richard N. Wright, National Institute of Standards and Technology (retired)
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Green Schools: Attributes for Health and Learning
Although the reviewers listed above have provided many constructive comments and suggestions, they were not asked to endorse the conclusions or recommendations, nor did they see the final draft of the report before its release. The review of this report was overseen by Henry W. Riecken, University of Pennsylvania, Emeritus. Appointed by the National Research Council, he was responsible for making certain that an independent examination of this report was carried out in accordance with institutional procedures and that all review comments were carefully considered. Responsibility for the final content of this report rests entirely with the authoring committee and the institution.
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Green Schools: Attributes for Health and Learning
Contents
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
1
1
INTRODUCTION
15
School Construction and Related Issues,
17
A School Building as a System of Systems,
20
School Building Performance,
21
“Green” Building Movement,
23
Green School Guidelines,
24
Statement of Task,
26
Finding and Recommendations,
26
Organization of the Report,
27
Note to Readers,
28
2
COMPLEXITY OF THE TASK AND THE COMMITTEE’S APPROACH
29
Complexity of the Task,
29
The Committee’s Approach,
35
Findings and Recommendation,
38
3
BUILDING ENVELOPE, MOISTURE MANAGEMENT, AND HEALTH
40
Excess Moisture and Health,
42
Building Envelope and Moisture Management,
46
Solutions/Design Requirements for Moisture Management,
48
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Current Green School Guidelines,
52
Findings and Recommendations,
52
4
INDOOR AIR QUALITY, HEALTH, AND PERFORMANCE
54
Pollutant Sources,
55
Ventilation,
60
Thermal Comfort,
65
Perception of Air Quality (Sensory Loads),
66
Ventilation System Standards,
71
Solutions/Design Requirements for Indoor Air Quality,
72
Current Green School Guidelines,
75
Findings and Recommendations,
77
5
LIGHTING AND HUMAN PERFORMANCE
80
Lighting for Visual Performance,
80
Lighting and the Circadian System,
85
Solutions/Design Requirements for Visual Performance,
87
Current Green School Guidelines,
89
Findings and Recommendations,
89
6
ACOUSTICAL QUALITY, STUDENT LEARNING, AND TEACHER HEALTH
92
Effects of Excessive Noise,
94
Excessive Noise and Student Achievement,
97
Excessive Noise and Teachers’ Health,
100
Solutions/Design Requirements,
101
Current Green School Guidelines,
103
Findings and Recommendations,
103
7
BUILDING CHARACTERISTICS AND THE SPREAD OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES
105
Modes of Transmission for Respiratory Viruses,
106
Measures for Controlling the Spread of Infections in Schools,
110
Decontamination of Environmental Surfaces,
112
Ventilation and Air Cleaning,
113
Findings and Recommendations,
118
8
OVERALL BUILDING CONDITION AND STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT
120
Building Condition and Student Achievement,
120
School Building Functionality and Student Achievement,
124
Limitations of the Current Studies,
126
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Green Schools: Attributes for Health and Learning
Current Green School Guidelines,
128
Finding,
128
9
PROCESSES AND PRACTICES FOR PLANNING AND MAINTAINING GREEN SCHOOLS
129
Participatory Planning,
130
Building Commissioning: Quality Assurance for Building Performance,
132
Monitoring Building Performance Over Time,
136
Postoccupancy Evaluation,
138
Training for Educators and Support Staff,
139
Current Green School Guidelines,
141
Findings and Recommendations,
141
10
LINKING GREEN SCHOOLS TO HEALTH AND PRODUCTIVITY: RESEARCH CONSIDERATIONS
143
Research Methodologies,
145
Considerations in Designing Green Schools-Related Research,
147
Findings,
152
BIBLIOGRAPHY
155
APPENDIX: Biographies of Committee Members
175
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