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Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2007. Seafood Choices: Balancing Benefits and Risks. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11762.
×

Index

A

α-linolenic acid. See Alpha-linolenic acid

AA. See Arachidonic acid

Aboriginal communities, 229

ACF. See Administration for Children and Families

“Action Levels for Poisonous or Deleterious Substances in Human Food and Animal Feed,” 175

ADA. See American Dietetic Association

Adequate dietary intake (ADI), 146

Adequate intake (AI), 21, 6970

ADHD effects.

See also Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

case-control studies, 472473

in children supplemented with omega-3 fatty acids in foods, 462473

randomized controlled trials, 462471

review studies, 462463

ADI. See Adequate dietary intake

Administration for Children and Families (ACF), 269

Adolescent males, adult males, and females who will not become pregnant, specific guidance for healthy consumption, 8, 208, 210, 265

Adult chronic disease studies, 494677

adult asthma and allergies, 626627

aging and other neurological outcomes, 658669

arrhythmia, 612615

blood pressure, 602611

cancer, 628657

cardiac indicators, 616617

diabetes, 618625

lipid profiles, 582601

secondary prevention, with cardiovascular outcomes, 494559

stroke, 560583

Adults at risk for cardiovascular disease, specific guidance for healthy consumption, 8, 208

Adults at risk for chronic disease, research recommendations for, 14

Adverse health effects

associated with omega-3 supplementation, 174175

coronary heart disease, 67

of dioxins and dioxin-like compounds, 141

information available on, 199

of polybrominated diphenyl ethers, 148

of polychlorinated biphenyls, 143145

Advertising and promotion, and the current information environment influencing seafood choices, 225

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2007. Seafood Choices: Balancing Benefits and Risks. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11762.
×

Advisories and warnings about seafood consumption, 2124.

See also Federal advisories about seafood consumption;

State advisories about seafood consumption

European Food Safety Authority, 25

outside the US, 2426

UK’s Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition, 24

World Health Organization, 26

African Americans, in the MEC Study, 3839

AGA. See American Gastroenterological Association

Agency for Health Research and Quality (AHRQ), 67, 96, 250251

Evidence Report/Technology Assessment No. 93, 98

Aging and neurological outcome studies, 104, 658669

case-control studies, 666669

cohort studies, 658667

Agricultural Marketing Act, 223

Agricultural Research Service (ARS), 207

AHA. See American Heart Association

AhR. See Arylhydrocarbon receptor

AHRQ. See Agency for Health Research and Quality

AI. See Adequate intake

ALA. See Alpha-linolenic acid

Alaska, 203, 207, 270

Alaskan Native populations, current seafood intake by, 4041

Allergy and asthma studies, 103, 626627.

See also Food allergies

case-control studies, 480483

cohort studies, 626627

cross-sectional studies, 626627

ecological studies, 482485

effects in children supplemented with omega-3 fatty acids in foods, 474485

effects in infants and children of mothers who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 378387

effects in infants supplemented with omega-3 fatty acids in formula, 458461

immunity and benefits to infants from postnatal supplementation through formula, 88

randomized controlled trials, 474475

review studies, 476479

studies on adult, 626627

Alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), 18, 21, 45, 48, 53, 6970, 150, 290

dietary intake of fatty acid, 5051

ALSPAC. See Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children

Alzheimer’s disease, 104

research recommendations on, 14, 108

American Dietetic Association (ADA), recommendations from, 2021

American Gastroenterological Association (AGA), 166168

American Heart Association (AHA) Dietary Guidelines, recommendations from, 1920

American Indian populations, current seafood intake by, 4041

Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning (ASP), 170

Analytic samples of the most common seafood types, research recommendations on obtaining larger, 13, 60

Analytical data, recommendations for consistently revising, 7, 178

Anglers, 41, 280

Animal studies, 144

on allergy effects in infants and children of mothers who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 418419

on cognitive and motor development effects in infants supplemented with omega-3 fatty acids in formula, 452457

on development effects in infants of mothers who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 370377

Annual occurrence of parasitic infections due to consumption of seafood, 167

Antimicrobial/antifungal agents, used at some time for aquaculture production in the US, 171

Antimicrobial resistance in seafood, 176

Aquaculture, 149, 164, 171, 176, 213, 224, 253, 280

Arachidonic acid (AA), 7576, 78, 86, 88

Arctic Circle campaign, 240

Aromatic compounds, chlorinated, 142

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2007. Seafood Choices: Balancing Benefits and Risks. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11762.
×

Arrhythmia, 101102, 280

Arrhythmia studies, 612615

cohort studies, 614615

cross-sectional studies, 614615

randomized controlled trials, 612613

review studies, 612613

ARS. See Agricultural Research Service

Arsenic, risks associated with seafood consumption, 138

Arylhydrocarbon receptor (AhR), 145

Asian American populations, current seafood intake by, 3940

ASP. See Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning

Asthma, 89.

See also Allergy and asthma studies

Atherosclerosis, carotid, 134, 280

Atopic disease, 84, 280

Atrial fibrillation, 101

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), 89

effects in children supplemented with omega-3 fatty acids in foods, 462473

Audience segmentation, 10, 238

Avoidance, of fish from polluted harvest locations, 169, 231

Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC), 78, 8183, 132

B

Balancing benefits and risks of seafood consumption, 29, 195216

benefits associated with nutrients from seafood, 45

conclusions, 214215

consumption of seafood in the US, 34

findings, 213214

risks associated with seafood, 56

scientific benefit-risk analysis for seafood consumption, 198213

selections for, 687690

Bayesian hierarchical model, 129, 280

Bayley Psychomotor Development scores, 80

Bayley Scales of Infant Development Mental Index (MDI), 8586

Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), 72

Beef, nutrients in, 4647

Benchmark dose (BMD)

modeling, 136, 280

Benchmark dose lower bound (BMDL), 123, 128, 136137

Bender Visual Motor Gestalt Test, 127

Benefit-risk analysis, 198, 233, 280

identifying target populations for seafood consumption, 253

Benefits and risks of seafood consumption

balancing for healthy consumption, 79, 197198, 207211, 248

decision pathways for balancing, 9, 212

designing communications to support informed decision-making, 250271

guidance for healthy consumption for adolescent males, adult males, and females who will not become pregnant, 208, 210

guidance for healthy consumption for adults at risk of cardiovascular disease, 208

guidance for healthy consumption for children up to age 12, 207210

guidance for healthy consumption for females who are or may become pregnant or who are breast-feeding, 207, 209

population groups and appropriate guidance in balancing, 8

for population subgroups, research recommendations, 13, 60

recommendations for balancing, 7

supporting consumer seafood consumption decisions, 1013, 248273

Benefits associated with nutrients from seafood, 45, 6970

allergy and immunity, 88

cardiovascular disease, cardiovascular mortality, and all-cause morbidity and mortality, 91106

to children, 89

cognitive and motor development, 8588

development in infants and children, 7784

duration of gestation and birth weight, 7377

to the general population, 6869

to infants and children associated with prenatal omega-3 fatty acid intake, 7384

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2007. Seafood Choices: Balancing Benefits and Risks. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11762.
×

to infants from postnatal supplementation through formula, 80, 8489

for prevention of adult chronic disease, 91107

recommendations on, 107

research recommendations on, 107108

transfer of maternal DNA to the fetus or breastfeeding infant, 73

visual acuity, 85

to women, infants, and young children associated with omega-3 fatty acids, 7190

Benefits to women during and after pregnancy, 7173

postpartum depression, 7172

preeclampsia, 71

summary of evidence, 73

Bioaccumulative pollutants in seafood, 281

of dioxins, 141

of PBDEs, 147148

of PCBs, 142143, 230

Biomarkers of contaminant exposures, research recommendations on, 15, 179

Biomonitoring, 151

Bioreactors, 54

Biosynthesis of long-chain fatty acids, 291

Birth weight

case-control studies, 336337

cohort studies, 330335

effects in infants of mothers who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 322337

randomized controlled trials, 322329

Bis(methylmercuric)selenide (BMS), 153

Blood cholesterol, high, 20

Blood pressure, 99101

high, 20

and protective factors in fish, 135

Blood pressure studies, 602611

Cochrane reviews, 602603

cohort studies, 608609

cross-sectional studies, 610611

meta-analysis, 602603

observational studies, 100101

randomized controlled trials, 100, 604609

BMD. See Benchmark dose

BMDL. See Benchmark dose lower bound

BMI. See Body Mass Index

BMS. See Bis(methylmercuric)selenide

Body burdens, 281

of MeHg, 138

of POPs, 150151

Body mass index (BMI), 100

Body weight, excess, 20

Boston Naming Test, 126127, 131, 281

Brain vulnerability, 137

Brazil, 133

Breastfeeding, 132133

Brominated compounds, potential hazards from, 139

Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency, 126

Brunet-Lezine’s developmental quotient, 8586

C

CAD. See Coronary artery disease

Cadmium, risks associated with seafood consumption, 138, 152

California

a “core state” for management plan to reduce Vibrio vulnificus illness, 159, 162

Proposition 65, 223224

California Verbal Learning Test, 126127, 131

Canada, 133, 143, 147, 228

Cancer, 104

liver, 144

research recommendations on, 14, 108

Cancer slope factor (CSF), 146

Cancer studies, 628657

case-control studies, 654657

cohort studies, 632655

randomized controlled trials, 628629

review studies, 628631, 656657

Carcinogenicity, 141

Cardiac indicator studies, randomized controlled trials, 616617

Cardiac risk, reducing, 20

Cardioprotective effects, of EPA/DHA supplements, 92, 94

Cardiovascular disease (CVD), 91106

aging and other neurological outcomes, 104

allergy and asthma, 103

arrhythmia, 101102

blood pressure, 99101

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2007. Seafood Choices: Balancing Benefits and Risks. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11762.
×

cancer, 104

cardiovascular benefits to specific population groups, 9192

clotting factors, 102103

fibrinogen, 102

indicators of glucose tolerance in diabetes, 103

lipid profiles, 9899

platelet aggregation, 103

risk of, 211

and seafood benefits for prevention of adult chronic disease, 91106

seafood or omega-3 fatty acid consumption and coronary heart disease, 9296

stroke, 9698

summary of evidence, 104106

toxicity of methylmercury, 133135

Cardiovascular health, 138, 252

benefits of seafood consumption for, 25

benefits to specific population groups, 9192

Cardiovascular Health Study, 98

Carotid atherosclerosis, 134, 280

Case-control studies, 281

on ADHD effects in children supplemented with omega-3 fatty acids in foods, 472473

on aging and other neurological outcomes, 666669

on allergy and asthma effects in children supplemented with omega-3 fatty acids in foods, 480483

on cancer, 654657

on development effects in infants of mothers who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 364367

on gestation and birth weight effects in infants of mothers who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 336337

on preeclampsia effects in women who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 306311

on secondary prevention, with cardiovascular outcomes, 550557

on stroke, 578579

Catenation, 291

CDC. See Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

CD4RO+ immune cells, 88

Center for Science in the Public Interest (CSPI), 153, 155

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 144, 153155, 250

CFR. See Code of Federal Regulations

Challenge to California’s Proposition 65, 223

Changes in benefits and risks

associated with changes in consumption patterns, 200207

substitution impact on selected contaminants, 202203

substitution impact on selected nutrients, 201202

uncertainties in substitution analysis, 203, 207

Changes in supply and demand, concerning future seafood supplies, 4243

Charge to the committee, 2627

approach to the task, 27

CHD. See Coronary heart disease

Chemotherapeutants, risks associated with, 171174

Child health outcomes, 67

Childbearing. See Women

Children.

See also Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children

with behavioral disorders, research recommendations on better designing studies about EPA/DHA supplementation in, 14, 108

benefits to, 89

research recommendations for, 10, 14

supplemented with omega-3 fatty acids in foods, 462485

up to age 12, specific guidance for healthy consumption, 8, 207210

Children’s studies, 298493

on ADHD effects in children supplemented with omega-3 fatty acids in foods, 462473

on allergy and asthma effects in children supplemented with omega-3 fatty acids in foods, 474485

on allergy effects in infants and children of mothers who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 378387

China, 138

Chlordane, 22

Chlorinated aromatic compounds, 142

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2007. Seafood Choices: Balancing Benefits and Risks. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11762.
×

Cholera, 155

Cholesterol, 281.

See also High-density lipoprotein cholesterol;

Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol

concentrations of, 94

high blood, 20

Chromium, risks associated with seafood consumption, 138

Chronic diseases, 67.

See also Adult chronic disease studies

Ciguatera, 168170, 281

Clinical Guide to Preventive Services, 250251

Clostridium botulinum, reducing risk of seafoodborne illness from, 165

Clotting factors, 102103

Cochrane reviews, 85, 94, 281

on allergy effects in infants and children of mothers who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 388389

on blood pressure, 602603

on cognitive and motor development effects in infants supplemented with omega-3 fatty acids in formula, 420421

on secondary prevention, with cardiovascular outcomes, 496497

on stroke, 560561

Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), 175

Coexposures, 152

Cognitive and developmental outcomes in infants, 73, 7983, 87

and benefits to infants from postnatal supplementation through formula, 8588

effects in infants supplemented with omega-3 fatty acids in formula, 420457

research recommendations on, 1314, 107108

Cognitive decline, age-related, 104

Cohort studies

on adult asthma and allergies, 626627

on aging and other neurological outcomes, 658667

on allergy effects in infants and children of mothers who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 386387, 412417

on arrhythmia, 614615

on blood pressure, 608609

on cancer, 632655

on cognitive and motor development effects in infants supplemented with omega-3 fatty acids in formula, 450451

on development effects in infants of mothers who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 350365

on gestation and birth weight effects in infants of mothers who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 330335

on lipid profiles, 600601

on postpartum depression effects in women who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 314319

on preeclampsia effects in women who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 304305

on secondary prevention, with cardiovascular outcomes, 522549

on stroke, 562577

Collaborative approaches, 266

in federal coordination and communicating health messages through nontraditional partners, 269270

Committee on EPA’s Exposure and Human Health Reassessment of TCDD and Related Compounds, 140141

Committee on Nutrient Relationships in Seafood, 129

Committee on the Implications of Dioxin in the Food Supply, 146

Committee on the Toxicological Effects of Methylmercury, 128

Committee on Toxicity (COT) of Chemicals in Food, Consumer Products and the Environment, 24

Communication tools for information about seafood consumption

research recommendations on developing more effective, 15, 241

supporting informed decision-making, pretest and post hoc evaluation of, 270

synergism in, 271

Confidence intervals, 130

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2007. Seafood Choices: Balancing Benefits and Risks. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11762.
×

Confidentiality, 225

Confounding factors, 137, 282

multiple, 144

Congeners, 143, 282

patterns of, 148

Congenital Miamata Disease, 124125

Conservation, of seafood, 689690

Consolidated advice, need for, 12, 240241

Consultation on Diet, Nutrition and the Prevention of Chronic Disease, 21

Consumer-based benefit-risk analyses needed, 12, 240

Consumer-centered information design, 259

Consumer decision-making

as the basis for the design of consumer guidance, 10, 217247

findings, 239240

food choice behavior, 218230

impact of information on, 230238

recommendations on, 240241

research recommendations on, 241

setting the stage for designing consumer guidance, 238239

Consumer guidance, 10

example of decision pathways for, 254

prior fragmentation of, 11

tools regarding nutritional benefits, recommendations for using the decision pathway to develop, 12, 271

Consumer Reports, 259

Consumer seafood consumption decision-making

as the basis for the design of consumer guidance, research recommendations on understanding, 241

decision path needed, tailored to individual circumstances, 12, 240, 254

developing a seafood information program, 248

recommendations for supporting, 1113

research recommendations on designing better consumer advice, 15, 241

right-to-know perspective, 266

Consumption. See Seafood consumption

Contaminants of concern in seafood, 17, 5559.

See also individual contaminants

impact of toxicants on selenium status, 5859

levels among types of fish, research recommendations on distribution of, 14, 178179

methylmercury, 5557

naturally occurring or introduced, 17

persistent organic pollutants, 5758

waters known to contain, 37

Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII), 69, 146

Continuous Performance Test, 126127

Cooperative Extension network, 270

Coordination, across agencies, 266

Cord blood, 76, 132

Core states, Vibrio vulnificus Management Plan, table of compliance for, 161

Coronary artery disease (CAD), 93

Coronary heart disease (CHD), 67, 91, 94, 135, 200

COT. See Committee on Toxicity of Chemicals in Food, Consumer Products and the Environment

Council for State and Territorial Epidemiologists, 155

Country of origin labeling, 223224

Coxsackie virus, 292

Cross-contamination issues, 173

Cross-sectional studies

on adult asthma and allergies, 626627

on allergy effects in infants and children of mothers who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 418419

on arrhythmia, 614615

on blood pressure, 610611

on development effects in infants of mothers who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 366369

on diabetes, 624625

on postpartum depression effects in women who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 7172, 320321

Crypthecodinium cohnii, 54

CSF. See Cancer slope factor

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2007. Seafood Choices: Balancing Benefits and Risks. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11762.
×

CSFII. See Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals

CSPI. See Center for Science in the Public Interest

Current information environment influencing seafood choices, 221230

advertising and promotion, 225

improving, 249

labels and other point-of-purchase information, 222224

Northern Contaminants Program, 228230

summary of, 236237

Web-based health information, 225229

Current seafood intake

by American Indian/Alaskan Native and First Nations populations, 4041

by Asian American populations, 3940

by the general population, 3437

multiethnic cohort study of, 3839

by population subgroups, 3742

by sport and subsistence fishers, 4142

Current seafood safety hazards, controls, and risks, 156157

CVD. See Cardiovascular disease

Cytokines, 83, 282

D

DALY. See Disability adjusted life years

Danish Diet, Cancer, and Health Study, 101

DART. See Diet and Angina Randomized Trial

Data tables, 297682

FDA and US EPA safety levels in regulations and guidance, 680682

recommendations for seafood and EPA/DHA consumption, 678679

studies on adult chronic diseases, 494677

studies on women, infants, and children, 298493

DDE. See Dichlorodiphenyl dichloroethane

DDST. See Denver Developmental Screening Test

DDT. See Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane

Decision-making, knowledge about and interest in, 10

Decision pathways

balancing benefits and risks associated with seafood consumption, 9, 11, 212

for consumer guidance, example of, 254

for seafood meal analysis, example of, 255

Decision support for consumers, communications to support informed decision-making, 251258

Decision trees, 211

Denmark, 7476, 91, 235

Denver Developmental Screening Test (DDST), 8283, 127

Department of Agriculture (USDA), 1819, 33, 153, 207, 228, 269

Department of Commerce, 26, 30

Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS), 7, 1819, 21, 178

Depression, research recommendations on, 14, 108

Depression Era, 31

Designing communications to support informed decision-making, 250271

collaborative approaches, 269270

decision support for consumers, 251258

embedding consumer advice within a larger consumer information program, 270271

interactive health communication, 250251

need for pretest and post hoc evaluation, 270

presenting quantitative benefit-risk information, 258269

research recommendations on, 15

Detoxification mechanisms, 152

Development in infants and children, 7784

associated with prenatal omega-3 fatty acid intake, 7784

cognitive, 7983

and infant and child allergies, 8384

in infants of mothers who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 338377

and sleep patterns, 83

visual acuity and sensory-motor development, 7879

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2007. Seafood Choices: Balancing Benefits and Risks. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11762.
×

Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration, 126

DGA. See Dietary Guidelines for Americans

DGAC. See Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee Report

DHA. See Docosahexaenoic acid

DHHS. See Department of Health and Human Services

Diabetes, 174

Diabetes studies, 618625

cross-sectional studies, 624625

randomized controlled trials, 618623

Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning (DSP), 170

Dichlorodiphenyl dichloroethane (DDE), 150

Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), 22, 174

Diet, Nutrition and the Prevention of Chronic Diseases, 26

Diet and Angina Randomized Trial (DART), 100

Dietary guidance, 10

for the general population, 7, 107

receiving new, 218

Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee (DGAC) Report, 19, 49, 201

recommendations from, 18

Dietary Guidelines for Americans (DGA), recommendations from, 19, 68, 70

Dietary practices, and vulnerable populations, 689

Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs), 21, 69

Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act (DSHEA), 175

Dietary supplements.

See also Fish oil supplementation

as sources of EPA and DHA, 5455

Dietitians of Canada, 20

Dioxins and dioxin-like compounds (DLCs), 2122, 25, 58, 121, 139141, 174, 203, 251, 282

adverse health effects, 141

bioaccumulation in seafood, 141

classified as “carcinogenic,” 141

exposure limits in foods, 146

exposures from seafood, 146147, 199

impact on selenium status, 58

recent declines in, 140

“Dirty dozen” (of POPs in United Nations Environment Programme), 139140

Disability adjusted life years (DALY), 196, 260

Distribution of seafood consumed, by place it was consumed, 38

DLCs. See Dioxins and dioxin-like compounds

Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), 18, 2022, 26, 30, 45, 4855, 6780, 83108, 134135, 290.

See also EPA/DHA

dietary intake of, 5051

food sources of, 53

supplementation with, 86

Docosapentaenoic acid (DPA), 72, 75, 135

Doctor diagnoses, 72.

See also Health care providers

Dopamine, 89

Dose-effect relationship curve, 143

Dose-response relationships, 95, 129, 282

between chemical contaminants and adverse health effects, research recommendations on, 14, 179

studies of EPA/DHA in pregnant and lactating women, research recommendations on, 13, 107

DPA. See Docosapentaenoic acid

Draft Reassessment, 146

DRIs. See Dietary Reference Intakes

DSHEA. See Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act

DSP. See Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning

Duration of gestation and birth weight, 7377

associated with prenatal omega-3 fatty acid intake, 7377

and EPA/DHA intake from seafood and other food sources, 7577

and fish oil supplementation, 7475

Dutch studies. See The Netherlands

Dyslexia, 89

Dyslipidemia, 99

E

EAR. See Estimated Average Requirement

Ecological studies

on allergy and asthma effects in children supplemented with omega-3 fatty acids in foods, 482485

on secondary prevention, with cardiovascular outcomes, 558559

on stroke, 580581

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2007. Seafood Choices: Balancing Benefits and Risks. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11762.
×

Economic considerations, associated with food choice behavior, 219, 221

Edinburgh Postpartum Depression Scale (EPDS), 72

EFSA. See European Food Safety Authority

Eggs, nutrients in, 4647, 52

eHealth, 225

Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), 18, 2022, 26, 30, 45, 4855, 6780, 84, 87108, 290.

See also EPA/DHA

dietary intake of, 5051

food sources of, 52

Electrodiagnostic studies, 133

Electronegativities, 292

Ends objectives networks, developing, 196

Environmental chemical risks associated with seafood consumption, 121151

arsenic, 138

cadmium, 138

chromium, 138

lead, 138

levels of POPs in seafood, 149150

manganese, 138

methylmercury, 122138

persistent organic pollutants, 138150

Environmental influences, on food consumption decisions, 219

EPA. See Eicosapentaenoic acid;

US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA/DHA, 4555, 195, 202203, 252, 260, 265, 267268

consumption of high compared to low EPA/DHA content seafood, 4954, 238239

intake from seafood and other food sources, and duration of gestation and birth weight, 7577

non-animal sources of omega-3 fatty acids, 5254

qualified health claims labeling, 222223

sources of, 4849, 199

EPA/DHA supplementation

adverse effects associated with, 174

content of, 5557

dietary, 5455

research recommendations on the potential effect on various conditions, 14, 108

EPDS. See Edinburgh Postpartum Depression Scale

EPIC. See European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition

Epidemiological studies, 282

assessing intake of specific species of seafood, research recommendations on, 14, 108

Faroe Islands Study, 126127

on methylmercury, 126127

New Zealand Study, 127

Seychelles Child Development Study, 126

Erythrocytes, 75, 282

Essentiality, of selenium, 292293

Estimated Average Requirement (EAR), 69

Estimation

of EPA/DHA in seafood portions, 261264, 267268

of methylmercury in seafood portions, 262264, 267268

of total cases for different foodborne bacterial illnesses based on actual reported cases, 158

European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), 25

advice on seafood consumption, 25

European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC), 100

Evidence-based recommendations, 1112, 104, 240

Expenditure elasticity, 219

Experts

distrusting, 252

identifying target populations, 251252

F

Factor VII activity, 102

Factor VIII activity, 102103

Family Seafood Selection Scenario, 239, 686

FAO. See Food and Agriculture Organization

Farmed fish. See Aquaculture

Faroe Islands Study

epidemiological study on methylmercury, 7576, 125128, 132133, 136137, 153

Fast-food restaurants, seafood consumption in, 36, 224

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2007. Seafood Choices: Balancing Benefits and Risks. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11762.
×

Fatty acids.

See also Highly unsaturated fatty acid;

Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids;

Omega-3 fatty acids;

Saturated fats;

individual fatty acids

dietary intake of, 5051

FDA. See Food and Drug Administration

FDCA. See Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act

Federal advisories about seafood consumption, 2123

committees on, 266

impact of, 232234

Federal Register, 224

Fetal development, 77

benefits of seafood consumption for, 25

retardation in, 7374

FFQ. See Food Frequency Questionnaire

Fibrinogen, 102, 283

Findings

on balancing benefits and risks of seafood consumption, 213214

on benefits associated with nutrients from seafood, 45

on benefits for prevention of adult chronic disease, 106107

on benefits to women, infants, and young children associated with omega-3 fatty acids, 8990

on consumption patterns and composition of seafood, 34, 5960

on health risks associated with seafood consumption, 6, 176178

on understanding consumer decision-making as the basis for the design of consumer guidance, 11, 239240

Finland, 134, 235

First Nations populations, 133, 283

current seafood intake by, 4041

Fish, 17.

See also Aquaculture

carnivorous, 43

conservation and sustainability, 689690

fatty, 21

feed from, 149, 203

freshwater, 17, 133134, 166

locally caught, 22

nutrients in, 4647

as traditional foods, 40

types consumed in the US, 48

types high and low in EPA/DHA, 49, 290

types high in methylmercury, 22

wild-caught, 149, 213

Fish advisories. See Advisories and warnings about seafood consumption

Fish-oil supplementation, 45, 5455, 67, 70, 71, 79, 83, 100, 101102, 175, 258

contents of, 142

and duration of gestation and birth weight, 7475, 77, 89

Fishery Management Councils (8 regional), 43

Flaxseed oil, 21, 46, 53, 150

feeding to hens, 52

Florida, 168

a “core state” for management plan to reduce Vibrio vulnificus illness, 159, 162

Fluorinated compounds, potential hazards from, 139

Focus groups, 250

Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FDCA), 223

Food allergies, foods most commonly implicated in, 173

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (United Nations), 21

Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 7, 21, 54, 146, 149, 167, 178, 199, 207

focus groups, 250

guidelines for voluntary point-of-purchase nutrition information program, 222

recommended controls to reduce or eliminate potential parasite hazards from seafood, 168, 174

and US EPA safety levels in regulations and guidance, 680682

Food choice behavior, 10, 218230

understanding consumer decision-making as the basis for the design of consumer guidance on, 218230

Food consumption decisions, 218219

economic considerations associated with food choice behavior, 219, 221

environmental influences, 219

identification of factors influencing, 218219

impact of, 221

individual influences, 218

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2007. Seafood Choices: Balancing Benefits and Risks. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11762.
×

Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ), 38, 283

Food intolerances, 173

Food sources among the US population

of DHA, 53

of EPA, 52

of selenium, 293294

Food Standards Agency (FSA) (UK), 24, 259

FoodLink database, 33

Framework, for factors influencing healthy eating and physical activity behaviors, 220

Free amino acids, 170

Frequency of seafoodborne illnesses, estimating, 154155

Freshwater fish, 17, 133134, 166

FSA. See Food Standards Agency (UK)

Functional foods, 283

research on qualified health claims as applied to, 235238

Future seafood supplies, 4245

changes in supply and demand, 4243

impact of aquaculture on seafood supplies, 4243

trends in, 4345

G

Generally recognized as safe (GRAS), 54

Germany, 143

Gestation

case-control studies, 336337

cohort studies, 330335

effects in infants of mothers who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 322337

randomized controlled trials, 322329

GISSI-Prevenzione. See Gruppo Italiano per lo Studio della Sopravvivenza nell’Infarto Miocardico trial

Global mercury pollution, 122

Global production, 283

of fish oil, 54

Global tests, 86

Glucose tolerance in diabetes, indicators of, 103

Governmental agencies, 217

Graphical presentation of information, substitute question approach with, 257

GRAS. See Generally recognized as safe

Great Lakes, fish from, 150

Grooved Pegboard, 126

Gruppo Italiano per lo Studio della Sopravvivenza nell’Infarto Miocardico (GISSI-Prevenzione) trial, 93

Guidance.

See also Previous seafood consumption guidance

overall, role of, 248

Guidance for Industry and FDA: Interim Procedures for Qualified Health Claims in the Labeling of Conventional Human Food and Human Dietary Supplements, 223

Gyrus

differentiating, 125

precentral, 287

H

HACCP. See Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point

Harvard Vanguard Medical Associate, 81

HAV. See Hepatitis A infections

Hawaii, 165, 168

Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP), 164, 166168, 170, 173174

Hazard ratio (HR), 95, 101, 283

HDL-C. See High-density lipoprotein cholesterol

Head Start, 269

Health and Human Services. See Department of Health and Human Services

Health Belief Model, describing health behavior, food choice, and behavior change, 684

Health benefits associated with nutrients in seafood, 67120

associated with omega-3 fatty acids, 6970

to the general population associated with nutrients in seafood, 6869

and optimal intake levels for EPA and DHA, 6970

for prevention of adult chronic disease, 91107

to women, infants, and young children associated with omega-3 fatty acids, 7190

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2007. Seafood Choices: Balancing Benefits and Risks. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11762.
×

Health care providers

advice from, 10

large networks of, 266

Health effects of methylmercury

cardiovascular toxicity, 133135

on critical target organs, 124135

neurological toxicity, 124133

research recommendations on, 14, 108

Health risk appraisals (HRAs), 250251, 284

recommendations on, 1112, 240

Health risks associated with seafood consumption, 121194

environmental chemicals, 121151

findings, 176178

interactions between nutrients and contaminants in seafood, 152153

recommendations on, 178

research recommendations on, 1415, 178179

risks associated with more acute seafoodborne hazards, 153176

selenium and seafood contaminants, 152153

Healthfulness

choosing, 218

claims of, 235

in eating pattern, 222

Healthy People objectives, 19

Heavy metals, 21

Heparin-binding proteins, 153

Hepatitis A (HAV) infections, 165

HHS. See Department of Health and Human Services

High-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), 94, 99, 285

Highly unsaturated fatty acid (HUFA), 76

Histamine poisoning, 169, 284.

See also Scombroid poisoning

Hopkins Symptom Check List (HSCL), 72

HR. See Hazard ratio

HRAs. See Health risk appraisals

HSCL. See Hopkins Symptom Check List

HUFA. See Highly unsaturated fatty acid

Human pathogens, associated with seafood, 163

Hyperglycemics, 174

I

IARC. See International Agency for Research on Cancer

IFT. See Institute of Food Technologists

IgE. See Immunoglobin E

IHC. See Interactive health communication

IL. See Interleukin

Immunoglobin E (IgE), 83

Immunosuppressive effects, 174

Impact of aquaculture on seafood supplies, future, 4243

Impact of federal fish advisories, 232234

Impact of information on consumer decision making, 230238

evaluating the effects of previous seafood consumption guidance, 232238

understanding consumer decision-making as the basis for the design of consumer guidance, 230238

Impact of state fish advisories, 234

Impact of toxicants on selenium status, 5859

dioxin, 58

polychlorinated biphenyls, 5859

in seafood, 5859

Implementation, embedding consumer advice within a larger consumer information program, 270271

IMT. See Intima-media thickness

Inconsistencies in sampling and analysis methodology, recommendations on, 7, 178

Indian Study on Infarct Survival, 94

Indigenous peoples, 10, 40.

See also individual indigenous peoples

Individual influences, on food consumption decisions, 218

Infants and children of mothers who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake

allergy effects in, 8384, 378387

animal studies, 418419

Cochrane reviews, 388389

cohort studies, 386387, 412417

cross-sectional studies, 418419

meta-analysis, 390393

randomized controlled trials, 378385, 394411

review studies, 388389, 410411

studies on allergy effects in, 378387

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2007. Seafood Choices: Balancing Benefits and Risks. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11762.
×

Infants’ studies, 298493

on allergy effects in infants and children of mothers who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 378387

on allergy effects in infants supplemented with omega-3 fatty acids in formula, 458461

on cognitive and motor development effects in infants supplemented with omega-3 fatty acids in formula, 420457

on development effects in infants of mothers who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 338377

on gestation and birth weight effects in infants of mothers who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 322337

research recommendations, 1314, 265

Information environment

influences on food choice, 10

using alternative formats, 256

Ingredient and nutrition labeling, 222

Institute of Food Technologists (IFT), 172

Institute of Medicine (IOM), 26, 146, 292

Intake, acceptable ranges of, 15, 179

Integration of data, from the New Zealand, Faroe Islands, and Seychelles studies of prenatal methylmercury neurotoxicity, 129131

Intelligence quotient (IQ), 87, 129130, 138

Intention scores, 87

Interactions between nutrients and contaminants in seafood, health risks associated with, 152153

Interactive health communication (IHC)

online, 225

to support informed decision-making, 250251

Interagency task force to coordinate seafood issues, recommendations for developing, 12, 271

Interagency Working Group on Mercury Communications, 232

Interleukin (IL), 83, 88

International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), 141

International Conference on Emerging Infections and Diseases, 161

Interstate Shellfish Sanitation Conference (ISSC), 159, 162

Vibrio vulnificus Management Plan, table of compliance for core states, 161

Intima-media thickness (IMT), 134, 284

Inuit, 41, 101, 229, 270, 284

IOM. See Institute of Medicine

IQ. See Intelligence quotient

Iraq, mass poisoning episode in, 128129

Irradiation, 161

ISSC. See Interstate Shellfish Sanitation Conference

Iterative processes, 197, 249

J

Japan, PCB poisoning in, 144

Japanese Americans, in the MEC Study, 3839

Jargon, used by experts, 252

JECFA. See Joint Expert Committee on Food Additives and Contaminants

Joint Expert Committee on Food Additives and Contaminants (JECFA) (FAO/WHO ), 26, 125, 148

K

Keshan disease, 292

L

LA. See Linoleic acid

Labels and other point-of-purchase information, 10, 222224

country of origin and other labeling, 223224

and the current information environment influencing seafood choices, 222224

effectiveness and effects of health claims, 234238

ingredient and nutrition labeling, 222

new requirements, 176

qualified health claims labeling, 222223

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2007. Seafood Choices: Balancing Benefits and Risks. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11762.
×

regulated point-of-purchase information, 224

restaurant and fast-food menu information, 224

Laotian Americans, 40

Latinos, in the MEC Study, 3839

LCPUFA. See Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids

LDL-C. See Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol

Lead, risks associated with seafood consumption, 138

Life Course Perspective, describing health behavior, food choice, and behavior change, 219, 684

Lifetime effects, 136

Linear regression analyses, 95, 284

Linoleic acid (LA), 78

Lipid profiles, 9899

Lipid profiles studies, 582601

cohort studies, 600601

randomized controlled trials, 582599

Lipid stores, 284, 290

Lipophilic compounds, 141, 174, 265, 284

Lipoprotein (a) (Lp[a]), 99, 285

Listeria monocytogenes (Lm), 285

reducing risk of seafoodborne illness from, 164165

Local public health departments, 269

Locally caught fish, 22

Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFA), 51, 54, 59, 75, 78, 98

Longitudinal studies of beneficial outcomes to women and children from seafood consumption, 8182

Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children, 8182

Project Viva, 81

Louisiana, a “core state” for management plan to reduce Vibrio vulnificus illness, 159, 162

Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), 99, 174, 285

Low infant birth rate, 73

Lp(a). See Lipoprotein (a)

Luncheon meats, nutrients in, 4647

M

MacArthur Communicative Development Inventory (MCDI), 82, 8687

Malignant melanomas, 144

Manganese, risks associated with seafood consumption, 138

Marine animals, 17

Massachusetts, 80

Matching familiar figures test (MFFT), 87

Maternal health outcomes, 67, 72

Maximum likelihood, 129, 285

McCarthy Scales of Children’s Abilities, 127

MCDI. See MacArthur Communicative Development Inventory

MDI. See Bayley Scales of Infant Development Mental Index

MEC. See Multiethnic Cohort Study

MeHg. See Methylmercury (MeHg)

Melanomas, malignant, 144

Mental Processing Composite (MPCOMP), 79

Mercury, 22.

See also Methylmercury

burdens in the US population, 123124

forms of, 152

and mine workers, 152

online calculators of, 226229, 250

Mercury-to-selenium ratio, 152

Meta-analyses, 85, 9597, 285

on allergy effects in infants and children of mothers who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 390393

on assessing outcomes other than cardiovascular, research recommendations on, 14, 108

on blood pressure, 602603

on secondary prevention, with cardiovascular outcomes, 494495, 498499, 516519

on stroke, 560561

Metalloid elements, 291

Methylmercury (MeHg), 21, 121138, 251, 265, 285.

See also Health effects of methylmercury

blood levels, 133

concentrations in seafood, 5657

fish types high in, 22

hair levels, 123, 126127, 129, 136

major epidemiological studies on, 126127

mercury burdens in the US population, 123124, 133

prenatal exposure, 129

reference dose, 135137, 199

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2007. Seafood Choices: Balancing Benefits and Risks. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11762.
×

risks associated with seafood consumption, 122138, 152

in seafood, 5557, 260

summary of evidence, 137138

warnings of potential danger from, 18, 45

MFFT. See Matching familiar figures test

MI. See Myocardial infarction

Microalgae, 21

Microbiological hazards, 153168

estimating frequency of seafoodborne illnesses, 154155

reducing risk of seafoodborne illness, 155, 159168

risks associated with, 153168

Mini-Mental Status Examination, 133

Mollusks, 17, 154155, 165, 176, 285

Monitoring of methylmercury and POPs.

See also Biomonitoring

by federal agencies, recommendations for increasing, 7, 178

Monte Carlo analysis, 137, 286

Mortality, all-cause, 93

Mothers. See Women

MPCOMP. See Mental Processing Composite

Multiethnic Cohort (MEC) Study, current seafood intake by, 3839

Multipliers, 154, 286

Myocardial infarction (MI), 93, 100, 134, 138, 286

MyPyramid food guidance system, 19, 286

recommendations from, 19

N

National Academies, 27, 135

National associations, 269

National Fish Meal and Oil Association, 175

National Food and Nutrient Analysis Program, 207

National Food Consumption Survey, 219

National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), 27, 33, 36, 49, 57, 123124

National Institutes of Health (NIH), 207, 249

National Listing of Fish Advisories database, 22

National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), 26, 3033, 43

disappearance data by seafood type, 32

Science Board, 26

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), 7, 2627, 178

National Report of Human Exposure to Environmental Chemicals, 144

National Research Council (NRC), 128, 135, 140

National School Lunch Program, 19

National Shellfish Sanitation Program, 162

National Uniformity for Food Act, 223

Native American populations.

See also Indigenous peoples

current seafood intake by, 4041

Native Hawaiians, in the MEC Study, 3839

Naturally occurring toxins, 168171

ciguatera and scombroid, 168170

risks associated with, 168171

shellfish toxins, 170171

Navigator, 259

NCP. See Northern Contaminants Program

The Netherlands, 72, 143

Neurodevelopmental effects, as children mature, 137, 143, 197

Neurological outcomes

mechanisms of methylmercury impact on, 689

studies on, 104, 129, 658669

Neurological toxicity of methylmercury, 124133, 689

nutritional factors moderating, 137

Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning (NSP), 170

Neurotoxins, 55

Neurotransmitters, 89

New Jersey, 138

New Zealand Study, epidemiological study on methylmercury, 125, 127, 129, 136137

Newark Bay Complex anglers, 4142

NGOs. See Nongovernmental organizations

NHANES. See National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey

NIH. See National Institutes of Health

NLV. See “Norwalk-like” viruses

NMFS. See National Marine Fisheries Service

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2007. Seafood Choices: Balancing Benefits and Risks. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11762.
×

No observed adverse effect level (NOAEL), 128, 148

NOAA. See National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

NOAEL. See No observed adverse effect level

Non-animal sources of omega-3 fatty acids, 5254

Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), 217

Norovirus, 155, 286

Northern Contaminants Program (NCP), and the current information environment influencing seafood choices, 228230

Northern Dwellers, 4041, 229, 286

Northern Finland Birth Cohort, 72

“Norwalk-like” viruses (NLV), 165

Norway, 74, 79

Novelty preference, 87

NRC. See National Research Council

NSP. See Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning

Numerical information, presenting graphically, 259

Nunavik, 76, 101, 286

Nurses’ Health Study, 97, 103, 286

Nutrient benefits from seafood, 689

Nutrient profiles of seafood compared to other foods in the diet, 4555

beef, 4647

eggs, 4647

fish, 4647

pork, 4647

poultry, 4647

sausages and luncheon meats, 4647

Nutrient relationships in seafood

dietary practices and vulnerable populations, 689

mechanisms of methylmercury impact on neurological outcomes, 689

nutrient benefits from seafood, 689

seafood as a dietary component, 688

seafood conservation and sustainability, 689690

selections to balance benefits and risks, 687690

Nutrition Business International, 54

Nutrition Facts panel, 222

O

OA. See Oleic acid

Observational studies, 104, 286

of blood pressure, 100101

of seafood or EPA/DHA intake in the general population, 9496

Oceans Alive, 225

OCs. See Organochlorine compounds

Odds ratio (OR), 95, 134, 286

Oleic acid (OA), 78

Omega-3 fatty acids (n-3 fatty acids), 26, 30, 45, 67, 287, 289290

AHA intake recommendations, 20

and coronary heart disease, 9296

derivation of, 290

observational studies of seafood or EPA/DHA intake in the general population, 9496

randomized controlled trials in high risk populations, 9294

sources of, 199

WHO intake recommendations, 150

Omega-6 fatty acids (n-6 fatty acids), 26, 287

Online consumer information and advocacy sites which include mercury calculators, 226229, 250

Online seafood information and advocacy, 225, 228

Open session agendas, 687690

Open trials, on postpartum depression effects in women who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 312313

Optimal intake levels for EPA and DHA, 6970

better defining, 14, 108

Optimistic Bias, describing health behavior, food choice, and behavior change, 684

OR. See Odds ratio

Organic mercury. See Methylmercury (MeHg)

Organochlorine compounds (OCs), 58

Orkney Islands, 75

Oxford Centre for Evidence-based Medicine, 104105

Oxidative stress, modulation of, 58

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2007. Seafood Choices: Balancing Benefits and Risks. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11762.
×

P

PAHs. See Polyaromatic hydrocarbons

Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP), 170

Parasites and products involved in documented incidences of parasitic infection, 166

reducing risk of seafoodborne illness from, 166168

Paratyphoid, 164

Partnerships, between federal agencies and community organizations and individual health care providers, recommendations for developing, 1213, 271272

PBDEs. See Polybrominated diphenyl ethers

PCBs. See Polychlorinated biphenyls

PCDDs. See Polychlorinated

di-benzo-p-dioxins

PCDFs. See Polychlorinated di-benzofurans

PDI. See Psychomotor Developmental Index

PEN-3, describing health behavior, food choice, and behavior change, 684

People’s League of Health, 74

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs), 121, 138150, 251, 287

body burdens of POPs, 150151

dioxins and dioxin-like compounds, 139141

polybrominated diphenyl ethers, 147148

polychlorinated biphenyls, 142145

risks associated with seafood consumption, 138150

in seafood, 5758, 149150

Stockholm agreement (2003), 139

toxicity and recommended intake limits for dioxins, DLCs, and PCBs, 145147

Phospholipid (PL)-associated fatty acid, 72, 101

PHP. See Post-harvest processing

“Pink Book,” 249

PL. See Phospholipid

Plasma lipids, 98, 287

Platelets, 287

aggregations of, 103

Point estimates, 130

Point-of-purchase nutrition information, 10, 271

FDA guidelines for voluntary program of, 222, 224

Polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), 174

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), 58, 147148

adverse health effects, 148

bioaccumulation of, 147148

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), 2122, 25, 58, 76, 121122, 142145, 174, 199200, 251

adverse health effects of, 143145

bioaccumulation of, 142143, 230

dioxin-like, 58

exposures to, 144

impact on selenium status, 5859

Polychlorinated di-benzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), 58

Polychlorinated di-benzofurans (PCDFs), 58

POPs. See Persistent organic pollutants

Population subgroups

balancing benefits and risks, 8

current seafood intake by, 3742

Pork, nutrients in, 4647

Portions.

See also Seafood portions

number needed to consume 100 mg EPA/DHA in animal protein foods, 202

Post-harvest processing, procedures, 160161

Post hoc evaluation, need for, 270, 287

Postnatal supplementation through formula, benefits to infants from, 8489

Postpartum depression

and benefits to women during and after pregnancy, 7172

in women who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 312321

Postpartum depression studies, 312321

cohort studies, 314319

cross-sectional studies, 320321

open trials, 312313

randomized controlled trials, 312313

review studies, 312313

Poultry, nutrients in, 4647

Precentral gyrus, 287

Preeclampsia, 288

and benefits to women during and after pregnancy, 71

effects in women who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 71, 298311

Preeclampsia studies, 298311

case-control studies, 306311

cohort studies, 304305

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2007. Seafood Choices: Balancing Benefits and Risks. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11762.
×

randomized controlled trials, 298303

review studies, 298299

Pregnant women or women who may become pregnant, 10, 22, 45, 164, 238239

benefits to, 7173

case scenario, 683

recommendations for, 7, 107

research recommendations for, 13

Prenatal omega-3 fatty acid intake, benefits to infants and children associated with, 7384

Presentation, of quantitative benefit-risk information, 258269

Preterm delivery, 74

Pretest evaluation, need for, 270

Prevention of adult chronic disease, recommendations concerning seafood benefits for, 107

Previous seafood consumption guidance, 232238

impact of federal fish advisories, 232234

impact of state fish advisories, 234

labeling effectiveness and effects of health claims, 234238

research on qualified health claims as applied to functional foods, 235238

Previously cooked food, 164

Problem-solving, 87

Program evaluation, 249250, 259

Project Viva, 8081

Promotions, and the current information environment influencing seafood choices, 225

Proposition 65 (California), 223224

challenge to, 223

Prospective cohort studies, 288.

See also European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition

Protein sources, 198

Provisional Tolerable Weekly Intake, 148, 288

PSP. See Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning

Psychobiological factors, 219

Psychomotor Developmental Index (PDI), 8586

Public Health Service Act, 269, 288

Public Media Center, 224

Q

QALYs. See Quality Adjusted Life Years

Qualified health claims

as applied to functional foods, research on, 235238

labeling, 222223

Quality Adjusted Life Years (QALYs), 196, 233, 260

Quantitative characterization

of dose-response relationships, research recommendations on, 15, 179

risk information, 249

R

Randomized clinical trials (RCTs), 84

Randomized controlled trials (RCTs), 71, 100, 104, 221

on ADHD effects in children supplemented with omega-3 fatty acids, 462471

on allergy and asthma effects in children supplemented with omega-3 fatty acids, 474475

on allergy effects in infants and children of mothers who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 378385, 394411

on allergy effects in infants supplemented with omega-3 fatty acids in formula, 460461

on arrhythmia, 612613

on blood pressure, 100, 604609

on cancer, 628629

on cardiac indicators, 616617

on cognitive and motor development effects in infants supplemented with omega-3 fatty acids in formula, 424447

on development effects in infants of mothers who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 338347

on diabetes, 618623

on gestation and birth weight effects in infants of mothers who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 322329

in high risk populations, 9294

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2007. Seafood Choices: Balancing Benefits and Risks. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11762.
×

on lipid profiles, 582599

on postpartum depression effects in women who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 312313

on preeclampsia effects in women who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 71, 298303

on secondary prevention, with cardiovascular outcomes, 500515

Raw seafood, 162, 167168, 176

RCTs. See Randomized clinical trials;

Randomized controlled trials

RDA. See Recommended Dietary Allowance

Ready-to-eat (RTE) food, 164

Recalls. See 24-hour recalls of dietary intake

Recommendations.

See also Research recommendations

on balancing benefits and risks, 7

better tools for consumers to be developed by federal agencies, 1112, 240

for consistently revising analytical data, 7, 178

on consolidated advice needed to bring benefit and risk considerations together, 12, 240241

for consumer-based benefit-risk analyses, 12, 240

for a consumer-directed decision path, tailored to individual circumstances, 12, 240

on developing an interagency task force to coordinate seafood issues, 12, 271

on developing partnerships between federal agencies and community organizations and individual health care providers, 1213, 271272

evidence-based, 1112, 240

for health risk appraisals, 1112, 240

on health risks associated with seafood consumption, 178

on inconsistencies in sampling and analysis methodology, 7, 178

on increasing monitoring of methylmercury and POPs by federal agencies, 7, 178

for pregnant females or females who may become pregnant, 7, 107

on seafood benefits for prevention of adult chronic disease, 107

on servings, 42

for supporting consumer seafood consumption decisions, 1113

for testing consumer messages to identify spillover effects for non-targeted population segments, 12, 241

on understanding consumer decision-making as the basis for the design of consumer guidance, 240241

on using the decision pathway to develop consumer guidance tools regarding nutritional benefits, 12, 271

Recommendations for seafood and EPA/DHA consumption, 1821, 678679

American Dietetic Association, 2021

American Heart Association Dietary Guidelines, 1920

consumption advice, on staying within applicable advisories, 7, 107

dietary advice to the general population, 7, 107

Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee, 18

Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 19, 68, 70

MyPyramid food guidance system, 19

seafood as a component of a healthy diet, 7, 107

Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA), 69, 222

Recreational fishery, 44, 170

“Red-amber-green” traffic light labeling, 259

Reference Dose (RfD), 128, 135137, 146, 199, 235, 250, 288

Reference levels, for fetal exposure to methylmercury, 128

Regression coefficient, 130, 288

Regulated point-of-purchase information, 224

Relative rates, of laboratory-confirmed cases of Yersina, Escherichia coli, Campylobacter, and Salmonella, 159

Relative risk (RR), 95, 288

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2007. Seafood Choices: Balancing Benefits and Risks. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11762.
×

Research recommendations, 1315

for additional data needed to assess benefits and risks of consumption for population subgroups, 13, 60

for adults at risk for chronic disease, 14

on Alzheimer’s disease, 14, 108

on better defining optimum intake levels of EPA/DHA for infants and toddlers, 14, 108

on better designing studies about EPA/DHA supplementation in children with behavioral disorders, 14, 108

on biomarkers of contaminant exposures, 15, 179

on cancer, 14, 108

for children, 14

on cognitive and developmental outcomes in infants, 1314, 107108

on comparing outcomes for US women consuming EPA/DHA and those in other countries, 13, 107

on consumption patterns and composition of seafood, 60

on data needed on distribution of contaminant levels among types of fish, 14, 178179

on depression, 14, 108

on designing better consumer advice, with understanding of consumer decision-making, 15, 241

on developing more effective communication tools for information about seafood consumption, 15, 241

on dose-response relationships between chemical contaminants and adverse health effects, 14, 179

for dose-response studies of EPA/DHA in pregnant and lactating women, 13, 107

for epidemiological studies assessing intake of specific species of seafood, 14, 108

on the health effects of contaminants like methylmercury, 14, 108

on health risks associated with seafood consumption, 1415, 178179

for infants and toddlers, 1314

on meta-analyses needed to assess outcomes other than cardiovascular, 14, 108

on obtaining larger analytic samples of the most common seafood types, 13, 60

on the potential effect of seafood consumption and/or EPA/DHA supplementation on various conditions, 14, 108

for pregnant and lactating women, 13

on quantitative characterization of dose-response relationships, 15, 179

on seafood benefits for prevention of adult chronic disease, 107108

on seafood consumption, 13

on stroke, 14, 108

on systematic surveillance studies of targeted subpopulations, 13, 60

on understanding consumer decision-making as the basis for the design of consumer guidance, 241

Restaurant information, 224

Review studies

on ADHD effects in children supplemented with omega-3 fatty acids in foods, 462463

on allergy and asthma effects in children supplemented with omega-3 fatty acids in foods, 476479

on allergy effects in infants and children of mothers who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 388389, 410411

on allergy effects in infants supplemented with omega-3 fatty acids in formula, 458459

on arrhythmia, 612613

on cancer, 628631, 656657

on cognitive and motor development effects in infants supplemented with omega-3 fatty acids in formula, 420423, 448449

on development effects in infants of mothers who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 338339, 346349

on postpartum depression effects in women who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 312313

on preeclampsia effects in women who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 71, 298299

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2007. Seafood Choices: Balancing Benefits and Risks. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11762.
×

on secondary prevention, with cardiovascular outcomes, 498499, 520521

on stroke, 580581

RfD. See Reference Dose

Rice oil, contaminated, 144

Risk of seafoodborne illness

acute, 56, 153176

adverse effects associated with omega-3 supplementation, 174175

assessing, 288

and chemotherapeutants, 171174

from Clostridium botulinum, 165

from Listeria monocytogenes, 164165

from microbiological hazards, 153168

from naturally occurring toxins, 168171

from parasites, 166168

reducing, 155, 159168

“risk-relationship” analysis, 197198

“risk-risk” analysis, 197

“risk-trade-off” analysis, 197

from Salmonella, 164

from seafood allergens, 172174

summary of evidence, 175176

from Vibrio-associated illness, 155, 159162

from viruses, 165

Risk Specific Dose (RsD), 146

Ross Laboratories, 87

RR. See Relative risk

RsD. See Risk Specific Dose

RTE. See Ready-to-eat food

S

S-adenosylmethionine (SAM), 153

SACN. See Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition (UK)

Safe Eating Guidelines (state), 22, 24

Salmonella spp., 288

reducing risk of seafoodborne illness from, 164

SAM. See S-adenosylmethionine

Saturated fats, 288

content in commonly consumed animal food products, 69

Sausages, nutrients in, 4647

SCDS. See Seychelles Child Development Study

Schizochytrium sp., 54

SCID-CV. See Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Axis I Disorders—Clinical Version

Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition (SACN), advice on seafood consumption, 24

Scientific benefit-risk analysis for seafood consumption, 198213

acknowledging limitations of the benefit-risk analysis, 211213

balancing the benefits and risks to arrive at specific guidance for healthy consumption, 207211

evaluating changes in benefits and risks associated with changes in consumption patterns, 200207

identifying and determining the magnitude of the benefits and risks, 198200

identifying important benefits and risks in the balancing process, 200

Scombroid poisoning, 168170, 288

Scotland, 75

Seafood allergens

misidentifications of, 173

risks associated with, 172174

Seafood consumption, 3042, 688.

See also Fish

advice from outside the US, 2426

contaminants of concern in, 5559

and coronary heart disease, 9296

current intake by population subgroups, 3742

current intake by the general population, 3437

current safety hazards, controls, and risks, 156157

daily totals, 3637

EPA and DHA, 4555

estimates by EPA/DHA content classification, 50

in fast-food restaurants, 36, 224

future seafood supplies, 4245

general trends and predictions for supply and sources of popular fish, 44

health risks associated with, 121194

with high versus low EPA/DHA content, 4954

individualizing messages about for different groups, 10

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2007. Seafood Choices: Balancing Benefits and Risks. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11762.
×

major types of seafood, 3134

nutrient profiles of seafood compared to other foods in the diet, 4555

recommendations on, 1821

regional differences in, 33

research recommendations on, 1314, 60, 108

selecting a variety of, 22, 138

staying within applicable advisories, 7, 107

trends over time, 3031

in the US, 34

Seafood meal analysis, example of decision pathways for, 255

Seafood portions

EPA/DHA in, estimating, 261264, 267268

methylmercury in, estimating, 262264, 267268

number needed to consume 100 mg EPA/DHA in animal protein foods, 202

Seafoodborne illnesses

estimating frequency of, 154155

reducing risk of, 155, 159168

traced to molluscan shellfish, 158

Second World War, 31

Secondary prevention studies with cardiovascular outcomes, 494559

case-control studies, 550557

Cochrane reviews, 496497

cohort studies, 522549

ecological studies, 558559

meta-analysis, 494495, 498499, 516519

randomized controlled trials, 500515

review studies, 498499, 520521

Selenide, 153, 293

Selenium, 45, 152, 202, 290294

deprivation of, 59, 292

essentiality of, 292293

food sources of, 293294

methylation of, 294

plants accumulating, 294

and seafood contaminants, health risks associated with, 152153

toxicity of, 294

Selenoproteins, 58

and biological functions, 293294

Selenosis, 294

Self-rating questionnaire, 72

Serotonin, 89

Serving size.

See also Seafood portions

recommendations on, 42, 240

Seychelles Child Development Study (SCDS), epidemiological study on methylmercury, 125126, 128, 136138, 153

Shellfish, 17, 288.

See also Mollusks

Shellfish toxins, 170171

Silver, risks associated with seafood consumption, 152

Sleep patterns, and development in infants and children, 83

Slogans, role of, 248

Sources

of EPA and DHA, 4849

of protein, 198

Soy oil, 21, 150

Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC), 19, 269

Spillover effects, for non-targeted population segments, recommendations for testing consumer messages to identify, 12, 232, 241

Sport and subsistence fishers, current seafood intake by, 4142

State advisories about seafood consumption, 22, 24, 269

about Vibrio vulnificus, 159

impact of, 234

Stereoacuity, 79

Stroke, 9698

hemorrhagic, 97

ischemic, incidence of, 96

research recommendations on, 14, 108

Stroke studies, 560583

case-control studies, 578579

Cochrane reviews, 560561

cohort studies, 562577

ecological studies, 580581

meta-analysis, 560561

review studies, 580581

Structured Clinical Interview for Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Axis I Disorders–Clinical Version (SCID-CV), 72

Studies

on adult chronic diseases, data tables, 494677

on women, infants, and children, data tables, 298493

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2007. Seafood Choices: Balancing Benefits and Risks. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11762.
×

Subsistence fishers, 10, 219

current seafood intake by, 4142

Substitution analysis, 207, 253

with graphical presentation of information, 257

impact on selected contaminants of changes in consumption patterns, 202203

impact on selected nutrients of changes in consumption patterns, 201202

with tabular presentation of information, 256

Succinic dehydrogenase, 294

Sulfiting agents, exposure to, 173

Supplementary information on nutrients of special interest in seafood, 289295

omega-3 fatty acids, 289290

selenium, 290294

Supplements. See Dietary supplements;

Fish-oil supplementation

Surveillance studies, of targeted subpopulations, research recommendations on systematic, 13, 60

Sustainability, of seafood, 689690

Sweden, 133, 139, 147

Symptoms

of seafoodborne illness, early onset of, 154

of selenium deficiency, 292

Synergism, 143

T

Tabular presentation of information, substitute question approach with, 256

TACs. See Teller Acuity Cards

Taiwan, PCB poisoning in, 144

Target populations, 1011, 238, 250, 266

expert identification of, 251252

Taste, 219

TCDD. See 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin

TDI. See Tolerable Daily Intake

Technical jargon, used by experts, 252

TEFs. See Toxicity Equivalency Factors

Teller Acuity Cards (TACs), 79, 85

TEQ. See Toxicity Equivalency

Test of Oral Language Development, 127

2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD), 58, 140141, 145146

Texas, a “core state” for management plan to reduce Vibrio vulnificus illness, 159, 162

TG. See Triglycerides

Theoretical models describing health behavior, food choice, and behavior change, 684

Health Belief Model, 684

Life Course Perspective, 684

Optimistic Bias, 684

PEN-3, 684

Transtheoretical Model, 684

Thermal abuse, 169170, 289

Third National Report on Human Exposure to Environmental Chemicals, 124

Thresholds, 143

Toddlers’ research recommendations, 1314, 67, 265

Tolerable Daily Intake (TDI), 146, 206

Tools for consumers, to be developed by federal agencies, recommendations for improving, 1112, 240

Total Diet Study, 146

analyses of dioxin-like compounds in seafood, 59

Total seafood, percentage of persons using food, and quantities consumed in a day, 3637

Toxic Substance Control Act (TSCA), 142

Toxicity, 289

DLC exposure limits in foods, 146

DLC exposures from seafood, 146147

neurological, of methylmercury, 124133

and recommended intake limits for dioxins, DLCs, and PCBs, 145147

of selenium, 294

Toxicity Equivalency Factors (TEFs), 140, 145, 289

values from WHO, 145

Toxicity Equivalency (TEQ), 145

Toxins, 289.

See also Neurotoxins

naturally occurring, 168171

in shellfish, 170171

Trade-offs, 197, 231, 238

Traditional foods, 4041, 231

Transfers, of maternal DNA to the fetus or breastfeeding infant, associated with prenatal omega-3 fatty acid intake, 73

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2007. Seafood Choices: Balancing Benefits and Risks. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11762.
×

Transplacental gradient, 78

Transtheoretical Model, describing health behavior, food choice, and behavior change, 684

Trends

in future seafood supplies, 4345

in seafood consumption, 3031

Triacylglycerol concentrations, 94

Triglycerides (TG), 98, 289

TSCA. See Toxic Substance Control Act

Tumor promoters, 141

Tuna, light vs. white, 3435, 203, 266

24-hour recalls of dietary intake, 33, 280

U

Uncertainty factor (UF), 211, 213, 289

in substitution analysis, and changes in consumption patterns, 203, 207

UNEP. See United Nations Environmental Programme

United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP), 122, 139

US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), 7, 2123, 122, 135137, 140141, 144, 146, 178, 199

national fishing advisories from, 2223, 232233

USDA. See Department of Agriculture

USEPA. See US Environmental Protection Agency

V

Value trade-offs, 10, 289

Variety of seafood, selecting for consumption, 22, 138

Vegetarians, 21

VEP. See Visual evoked potential

Vibrio parahaemolyticus, 155, 162

Vibrio vulnificus, 154155, 289

cases of illness involving commercial oyster products, 160

reducing risk of seafoodborne illness from, 155, 159162

state reports for, 159

Vibrio vulnificus Management Plan, table of compliance for core states, 161

Viruses, reducing risk of seafoodborne illness from, 165

Visual acuity, 79

and benefits to infants from postnatal supplementation through formula, 85

and sensory-motor development, 7879

Visual evoked potential (VEP) acuity procedure, 85

Visual information, superiority over text or numbers, 258

Visual recognition memory (VRM), 82

W

Walnut oil, 21, 4546, 53, 150

Warnings. See Advisories and warnings about seafood consumption

Waters, known to contain contaminants, 37

Web-based health information, 22, 30, 225229, 249, 253

and the current information environment influencing seafood choices, 225229

interactive health communication, 225

online seafood information and advocacy, 225, 228

Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, 126127

Whites, in the MEC Study, 3839

WHO. See World Health Organization

WIC. See Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children

Wild-caught fish, 149, 213

Women

of childbearing age, 22

Inuit, 41

postpartum depression, 312321

preeclampsia, 298311

who are or may become pregnant or who are breast-feeding, specific guidance for healthy consumption, 8, 207, 209, 265

who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 298321

Women’s studies, 298493

on allergy effects in infants and children of mothers who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 378387

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2007. Seafood Choices: Balancing Benefits and Risks. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11762.
×

on development effects in infants of mothers who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 338377

on gestation and birth weight effects in infants of mothers who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 322337

on postpartum depression effects in women who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 312321

on preeclampsia effects in women who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 298311

Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Achievement, 126

Workshop presentations, 27

agendas of, 687690

World Health Organization (WHO), 125, 140, 145146

advice on seafood consumption, 21, 26, 128, 150

World War II, 31

Z

Zero tolerance policy, 164, 171172

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The fragmented information that consumers receive about the nutritional value and health risks associated with fish and shellfish can result in confusion or misperceptions about these food sources. Consumers are therefore confronted with a dilemma: they are told that seafood is good for them and should be consumed in large amounts, while at the same time the federal government and most states have issued advisories urging caution in the consumption of certain species or seafood from specific waters.

Seafood Choices carefully explores the decision-making process for selecting seafood by assessing the evidence on availability of specific nutrients (compared to other food sources) to obtain the greatest nutritional benefits. The book prioritizes the potential for adverse health effects from both naturally occurring and introduced toxicants in seafood; assesses evidence on the availability of specific nutrients in seafood compared to other food sources; determines the impact of modifying food choices to reduce intake of toxicants on nutrient intake and nutritional status within the U.S. population; develops a decision path for U.S. consumers to weigh their seafood choices to obtain nutritional benefits balanced against exposure risks; and identifies data gaps and recommendations for future research.

The information provided in this book will benefit food technologists, food manufacturers, nutritionists, and those involved in health professions making nutritional recommendations.

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