National Academies Press: OpenBook
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2007. Improving the Efficiency of Engines for Large Nonfighter Aircraft. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11837.
×

IMPROVING THE EFFICIENCY OF ENGINES FOR LARGE NONFIGHTER AIRCRAFT

Committee on Analysis of Air Force Engine Efficiency Improvement Options for Large Non-fighter Aircraft

Air Force Studies Board

Division on Engineering and Physical Sciences

NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES

THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS

Washington, D.C.
www.nap.edu

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2007. Improving the Efficiency of Engines for Large Nonfighter Aircraft. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11837.
×

THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS

500 Fifth Street, N.W. Washington, DC 20001

NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competencies and with regard for appropriate balance.

This study was supported by Grant F49620-01-1-0269 between the U.S. Air Force and the National Academy of Sciences. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the view of the organizations or agencies that provided support for the project.

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-309-10399-2

International Standard Book Number-10: 0-309-10399-1

Limited copies are available from:

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Additional copies are available from:

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Copyright 2007 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2007. Improving the Efficiency of Engines for Large Nonfighter Aircraft. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11837.
×

THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES

Advisers to the Nation on Science, Engineering, and Medicine


The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Ralph J. Cicerone is president of the National Academy of Sciences.


The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government. The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. Charles M. Vest is president of the National Academy of Engineering.


The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the responsibility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal government and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of medical care, research, and education. Dr. Harvey V. Fineberg is president of the Institute of Medicine.


The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy’s purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Ralph J. Cicerone and Dr. Charles M. Vest are chair and vice chair, respectively, of the National Research Council.

www.national-academies.org

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2007. Improving the Efficiency of Engines for Large Nonfighter Aircraft. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11837.
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COMMITTEE ON ANALYSIS OF AIR FORCE ENGINE EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT OPTIONS FOR LARGE NON-FIGHTER AIRCRAFT

KENNETH E. EICKMANN, Chair,

U.S. Air Force (retired)

NATALIE W. CRAWFORD, Vice Chair,

The RAND Corporation

DILIP R. BALLAL,

University of Dayton, Ohio

MEYER J. BENZAKEIN,

Ohio State University

JOHN-PAUL B. CLARKE,

Georgia Institute of Technology

DAVID E. (ED) CROW,

University of Connecticut

ALAN H. EPSTEIN,

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

FRANK C. GILLETTE, JR., Independent Consultant

WILFRED GOODSON,

STR, L.L.C.

JEFFREY W. HAMSTRA,

Lockheed Martin Aeronautics Company

S. MICHAEL HUDSON, Independent Consultant

CLYDE KIZER,

Airbus Service Company, Inc.

NEIL E. PATON,

Liquidmetal Technologies

JONATHAN PROTZ,

Duke University

RENE G. RENDON,

Naval Postgraduate School

ELI RESHOTKO,

Case Western Reserve University (emeritus)

RAYMOND VALEIKA, Independent Consultant

ALAN VAN WEELE,

Northrop Grumman

FRANCIS VELDMAN,

The Boeing Company

OBAID YOUNOSSI,

The RAND Corporation

Staff

JAMES C. GARCIA, Study Director

DANIEL E.J. TALMAGE, JR., Program Officer

CARTER W. FORD, Associate Program Officer

MARTA VORNBROCK, Associate Program Officer

LaNITA R. JONES, Program Associate

LINDSAY D. MILLARD, Research Associate

DIONNA ALI,

Anderson Commonweal Intern

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2007. Improving the Efficiency of Engines for Large Nonfighter Aircraft. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11837.
×

AIR FORCE STUDIES BOARD

LAWRENCE J. DELANEY, Chair,

Titan Corporation (retired)

TAYLOR W. LAWRENCE, Vice Chair,

Raytheon Company

FRANK J. CAPPUCCIO,

Lockheed Martin Corporation

THOMAS DARCY,

EADS North America Defense Company

STEVEN D. DORFMAN,

Hughes Electronics (retired)

PAMELA A. DREW,

Boeing Integrated Defense Systems

KENNETH E. EICKMANN,

U.S. Air Force (retired)

JOHN V. FARR,

Stevens Institute of Technology

RAND H. FISHER,

Titan Corporation

JACQUELINE GISH,

Northrop Grumman

KENNETH C. HALL,

Duke University

WESLEY L. HARRIS,

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

LESLIE KENNE,

LK Associates

DONALD J. KUTYNA,

U.S. Air Force (retired)

GREGORY S. MARTIN,

GS Martin Consulting

DEBASIS MITRA,

Bell Laboratories

CHANDRA N. KUMAR PATEL,

University of California

ROBERT F. RAGGIO,

Dayton Aerospace, Inc.

GENE W. RAY,

GMT Ventures

LOURDES SALAMANCA-RIBA,

University of Maryland

MARVIN R. SAMBUR,

Headquarters, U.S. Air Force (retired)

LYLE H. SCHWARTZ,

Air Force Office of Scientific Research (retired)

EUGENE L. TATTINI,

Jet Propulsion Laboratory

Staff

MICHAEL A. CLARKE, Director

JAMES C. GARCIA, Senior Program Officer

DANIEL E.J. TALMAGE, JR., Program Officer

CARTER W. FORD, Associate Program Officer

MARTA VORNBROCK, Associate Program Officer

DETRA BODRICK-SHORTER, Administrative Coordinator

CHRIS JONES, Financial Associate

LaNITA R. JONES, Program Associate

LaSHAWN N. SIDBURY, Program Associate

WILLIAM E. CAMPBELL, Senior Program Associate

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2007. Improving the Efficiency of Engines for Large Nonfighter Aircraft. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11837.
×

Preface and Acknowledgments

This study was requested by the Secretary of the Air Force and the Commander of the Air Force Materiel Command to identify opportunities to address the impact of rapidly increasing aircraft fuel costs. The committee sincerely hopes that this report—the culmination of an extremely focused effort on a short schedule—will enable the Air Force to make informed decisions on improving fuel efficiency for the large nonfighter aircraft inventory. We applaud the committee members for their commitment and diligence, which enabled us to complete the task successfully.

This report has been reviewed in draft form by individuals chosen for their diverse perspectives and technical expertise, in accordance with procedures approved by the National Research Council’s (NRC’s) Report Review Committee. The purpose of this independent review is to provide candid and critical comments that will assist the institution in making its published report as sound as possible and to ensure that the report meets institutional standards for objectivity, evidence, and responsiveness to the study charge. The review comments and draft manuscript remain confidential to protect the integrity of the deliberative process. We wish to thank the following individuals for their review of this report:

James L. Bettner, Propulsion Consultant

Pierre Chao, Center for Strategic and International Studies

Lawrence J. Delaney, Private Consultant

Jack L. Kerrebrock, Massachusetts Institute of Technology

James O’Connor, Pratt & Whitney (retired)

Frank Pickering, GE Aircraft Engines (retired)

Charles F. Tiffany, The Boeing Company (retired)

Robert C. Turnbull, T.K. Engineering Associates, Inc.

Although the reviewers listed above provided many constructive comments and suggestions, they were not asked to endorse the conclusions or recommendations, nor did they see the final draft of the report before its release. The review of this report was overseen by William G. Agnew, General Motors (retired), NAE. Appointed by the NRC, he was responsible for making certain that an independent

Page viii Cite
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2007. Improving the Efficiency of Engines for Large Nonfighter Aircraft. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11837.
×

examination of this report was carried out in accordance with institutional procedures and that all review comments were carefully considered. Responsibility for the final content of this report rests entirely with the authoring committee and the institution.

The committee acknowledges and appreciates the contribution of the members of the Air Force Studies Board (AFSB) of the NRC for developing the study statement of task in concert with the Air Force sponsor. The AFSB was established in 1996 by the National Academies at the request of the United States Air Force. The AFSB brings to bear broad military, industrial, and academic scientific, engineering, and management expertise on Air Force technical challenges and other issues of importance to senior Air Force leaders. The board discusses potential studies of interest, develops and frames study tasks, ensures proper project planning, suggests potential committee members and reviewers for reports produced by fully independent ad hoc study committees, and convenes meetings to examine strategic issues. The board members listed on page vi were not asked to endorse the committee’s conclusions or recommendations, nor did they review the final draft of this report before its release, although board members with appropriate expertise may be nominated to serve as formal members of study committees or as report reviewers.

The committee is very grateful to the Air Force for its dedicated support throughout the study and for the efforts of National Research Council staff members Michael Clarke, Jim Garcia, Daniel Talmage, Carter Ford, Marta Vornbrock, Detra Bodrick-Shorter, LaNita Jones, LaShawn Sidbury, Bill Campbell, Lindsay Millard, and Dionna Ali.

Kenneth E. Eickmann, Chair

Natalie W. Crawford, Vice Chair

Committee on Analysis of Air Force Engine Efficiency Improvement Options for Large Non-fighter Aircraft

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2007. Improving the Efficiency of Engines for Large Nonfighter Aircraft. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11837.
×
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2007. Improving the Efficiency of Engines for Large Nonfighter Aircraft. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11837.
×
   

 Plausibility of Significant Improvements,

 

22

   

 Treatment of Additional Operational Benefits,

 

23

   

 List of Candidate Aircraft and Methodology for Selection,

 

23

   

 Summary Candidates for Study,

 

25

   

 References,

 

25

3

 

PROPOSED ENGINE MODIFICATIONS AND RE-ENGINING

 

26

   

 KC-135 R/T Aircraft,

 

26

   

 C-130 Aircraft,

 

29

   

 B-1 Aircraft,

 

33

   

 Modification,

 

33

   

 Re-engining,

 

33

   

 Fuel Consumption,

 

36

   

 KC-10 Aircraft,

 

36

   

 Background,

 

36

   

 Technology Infusion Benefits,

 

36

   

 High-Pressure Turbine Upgrades,

 

37

   

 Commonality Considerations for the Air Force Engine Fleet,

 

37

   

 Commonality Issues for the Commercial Engine Fleet,

 

37

   

 Summary,

 

38

   

 C-17 Aircraft,

 

38

   

 References,

 

39

4

 

TF33 SERIES POWERED AIRCRAFT

 

40

   

 Introduction,

 

40

   

 E-8C JSTARS Weapons System,

 

41

   

 E-3 AWACS Platform,

 

45

   

 B-52 Aircraft,

 

48

   

 KC-135 Aircraft,

 

50

   

 References,

 

53

5

 

RECURRING AND NONRECURRING COST ESTIMATIONS

 

55

   

 Analysis Approach,

 

55

   

 Nonrecurring Costs,

 

56

   

 Recurring Costs,

 

56

   

 Costs and Benefits to Operations and Support,

 

56

   

 Maintenance and Fuel Savings,

 

57

   

 Methodology and Basis for the Estimate,

 

57

   

 Fuel Consumption,

 

58

   

 Engine Repair Cost,

 

59

   

 Assumptions, Inputs, and Data,

 

59

   

 Net Present Value Analysis,

 

63

   

 Summary,

 

65

   

 References,

 

68

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2007. Improving the Efficiency of Engines for Large Nonfighter Aircraft. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11837.
×

6

 

OTHER CONSIDERATIONS

 

69

   

 Aerodynamic Modifications,

 

69

   

 Winglets,

 

69

   

 Laminar Flow Nacelles,

 

72

   

 Airframe Modifications for Fuel Savings Unique to the C-130,

 

72

   

 Optimization of Operations,

 

73

   

 Maintenance Practices,

 

74

   

 On-Wing Programs,

 

76

   

 Engine Maintenance Programs,

 

77

   

 Information, Data Requirements, and Organizational Structure,

 

77

   

 Operational Practices,

 

78

   

 Aircraft Weight Management,

 

79

   

 Other Benefits of Re-engining,

 

80

   

 Operational Benefits,

 

80

   

 Environmental Considerations and Implications,

 

83

   

 References,

 

85

7

 

ALTERNATIVE FUELS

 

87

   

 Background,

 

87

   

 Synthetic Fuel Properties, Specifications, and Re-engining,

 

88

   

 Challenges to Producing Domestic Alternative Fuels,

 

90

   

 Strategy for Qualifying Alternative Fuels,

 

93

   

 Coal-to-Liquid Fuel Technology Promotion Act,

 

94

   

 Summary,

 

95

   

 References,

 

95

8

 

TECHNOLOGY PREPAREDNESS AND INSERTION

 

96

   

 Introduction,

 

96

   

 Turbine Engine Science and Technology Overview,

 

97

   

 Potential for Specific Fuel Consumption Improvement,

 

99

   

 Component Improvement and Engine Model Derivative Programs,

 

100

   

 Turbine Engine Science and Technology Funding,

 

103

   

 References,

 

104

9

 

ACQUISITION, FINANCING, AND SUPPORT

 

106

   

 Introduction,

 

106

   

 Overview of Options,

 

107

   

 Options in Group 1,

 

107

   

 Option 1: Maintain All Commercial Derivative Engines to FAA Standards,

 

109

   

 Option 2: Compete All Maintenance Contracts,

 

110

   

 Option 3: Create a Line Item in the Defense Budget,

 

111

   

 Option 4: Implement a Fuels Savings Performance Contract Strategy,

 

111

   

 Options in Group 2,

 

113

   

 Option 5: Re-engine Air Force Aircraft with Commercial Engines and Lease or Resell the Engines When the Airframe Is Retired,

 

113

   

 Option 6: Create a Spare Engine and Parts Pool,

 

116

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2007. Improving the Efficiency of Engines for Large Nonfighter Aircraft. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11837.
×
Page xiii Cite
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2007. Improving the Efficiency of Engines for Large Nonfighter Aircraft. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11837.
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Acronyms

AAFRF assured aerospace fuels research facility

AD airworthiness directive

ADANS Airlift Deployment Analysis System

AFRL Air Force Research Laboratory

AFSAB Air Force Scientific Advisory Board

AFTOC Air Force Total Ownership Cost

ALBEN augmented load-balanced exhaust nozzle

AMC Air Mobility Command

APU auxiliary power unit

ATOW average time on wing

AWACS Advanced Warning and Control System

BMW/RR Bavarian Motor Works/Rolls-Royce

CAIG Cost Analysis Improvement Group

CALCM Conventional Air Launched Cruise Missile

CAMPS Consolidated Air Mobility Planning System

CCI capability-to-cost index

CER cost-estimating relationship

CIP component improvement program

CO2 carbon dioxide

CRAF Civil Reserve Air Fleet

CTL coal to liquid

DER Designated Engineering Repair

DESC Defense Energy Support Center

DLR depot-level reparable

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2007. Improving the Efficiency of Engines for Large Nonfighter Aircraft. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11837.
×

DoD Department of Defense

DOE Department of Energy

DSB Defense Science Board

ECM electronic countermeasure

EGT exhaust gas temperature

EMDP Engine Model Derivative Program

EOC engine overhaul costs

EPA Environmental Protection Agency

ESPC Energy Savings Performance Contract

FAA Federal Aviation Administration

FAR Federal Acquisition Regulation

FCF functional check flight

FOB free on board

FOFSD follow-on full-scale development

FSD full-scale development

FSPC Fuel Savings Performance Contract

FT Fischer-Tropsch (process)

GSA General Services Administration

HPT high-pressure turbine

ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization

IHPTET Integrated High Performance Turbine Engine Technology

IPT integrated product team

JSTARS Joint Surveillance and Target Attack Radar System

L/D lift/drag

LCC life-cycle cost

LPT low-pressure turbine

LRS long-range strike

ManTech Manufacturing Technology (DoD program)

MDS mission design series (designator)

MQT military qualification test

NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration

NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization

NECPA National Energy Conservation Policy Act

NOx nitrogen oxide

NPV net present value

NRC National Research Council

NRE nonrecurring engineering

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2007. Improving the Efficiency of Engines for Large Nonfighter Aircraft. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11837.
×

O&S operating and support

OEM original equipment manufacturer

OEW operating empty weight

ORNL Oak Ridge National Laboratory

OSD Office of the Secretary of Defense

P&W Pratt & Whitney

PAH polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon

PMA Production Manufacturing Authority

R&D research and development

RFI request for information

ROI return on investment

RR Rolls-Royce

S&T science and technology

SAF/US Secretary of the Air Force/United States

SFC specific fuel consumption

SiS Share in Savings

SLEP service life extension program

SPR Strategic Petroleum Reserve

STOL short takeoff and landing

T/W thrust to weight ratio

TACC Tanker Airlift Control Center

TER total engine removal

TOW takeoff weight

TRL Technology Readiness Level

TSFC thrust-specific fuel consumption

UAS unmanned aircraft system

UEET ultraefficient engine technology

USAF United States Air Force

VAATE Versatile Affordable Advanced Turbine Engine

WE weight empty

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Because of the important national defense contribution of large, non-fighter aircraft, rapidly increasing fuel costs and increasing dependence on imported oil have triggered significant interest in increased aircraft engine efficiency by the U.S. Air Force. To help address this need, the Air Force asked the National Research Council (NRC) to examine and assess technical options for improving engine efficiency of all large non-fighter aircraft under Air Force command. This report presents a review of current Air Force fuel consumption patterns; an analysis of previous programs designed to replace aircraft engines; an examination of proposed engine modifications; an assessment of the potential impact of alternative fuels and engine science and technology programs, and an analysis of costs and funding requirements.

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