Index
A
Acetone-butanol-ethanol process, 253
ActaCell, 163
Advanced materials, 29, 74, 87, 184, 190, 281, 282, 513, 581
Air-quality standards, 88
Air transportation
air-traffic management, 157
consumption of energy, 157, 167
demand, 170
energy efficiency improvements, 45, 167, 170
Algal biodiesel, 75, 89, 252-253
All Cell Technologies, 163
Altair Nanotechnologies, 163
Alternative transportation fuels.
See also Biofuels;
Cellulosic ethanol;
Coal-and-biomass-to-liquid fuels;
Coal-to-liquid fuels;
Corn ethanol;
Light-duty vehicles
barriers to deployment, 93-94, 250-252
biochemical conversion, 67, 90-91, 93, 219, 220-225, 234, 235-236, 237, 238, 241-242, 243, 244-245, 247, 248-249, 251, 252, 253, 256-258
carbon capture and storage, 4, 5, 64, 65, 66, 72, 73, 78, 94, 212, 220, 224-225, 226, 227, 228, 229-230, 231-233, 236, 237-238, 239, 250-251
carbon price, 38 n.1, 93, 234, 237, 238, 239-240, 244, 252, 371, 406
CO2 emissions, 4, 62, 71-73, 222, 224-225, 227-228, 232, 233-239, 243-244, 248-249, 262
coal liquefaction, 91, 211-212, 220-221, 226, 227, 230-232, 261, 335
compressed natural gas, 94, 258, 259-261
conversion technologies, 90-92, 219-233;
see also Biochemical;
Thermochemical
costs, 66-67, 92-93, 233-244, 252, 265-266
deployment scenarios, 93-94, 244-248, 252-267
dimethyl ether, 94, 258, 262-263
environmental impacts (non-greenhouse), 212, 248-249
feedstock supply, 213-219, 233-234, 235, 236, 241-244
findings, 3-4, 62-67, 73, 217-218, 224-225, 231-233, 243-244, 246-248
hydrogen, 4, 5, 6, 30, 44, 45, 67, 73, 74, 75, 84, 85, 94, 158, 160, 161, 164, 165, 166, 173, 174, 195, 258, 263-267
infrastructure for distribution, 90, 93, 221, 223, 224, 226, 251-252, 253, 254, 256, 259, 260, 263
methanol, 72, 94, 226, 258-259, 262
petroleum substitution potential, 73, 212, 245, 265-267
supply, 233-234, 235, 236, 241-244
synthetic (GTL) diesel fuel, 94, 223, 258, 261, 263
technologies ready beyond 2020, 252-258
technologies ready beyond 2020 and 2035, 258-267
Aluminum industry, 175, 176, 179, 190, 185, 312
American Electric Power, 100, 314, 573, 602, 603, 625
American Iron and Steel Institute, 87, 182
American Lung Association, 404
American Recovery and Reinvestment Act, 272, 273, 274
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, 152 n.12, 194
American Wind Energy Association, 272, 310
Ammonia, 249, 401, 402, 422, 423, 431, 432, 434-435, 512
Appliances and electronics
availability, 153
biomass-fueled, 322
consumer-targeted programs, 200
demand for, 137
energy-efficiency standards, 154 n.13, 192, 193-194, 197, 198, 200
improvements in, 142
information availability, 87-88
lifespan, 141
load management technologies, 84, 153, 585, 597, 605-606, 617, 630
manufacturing, 175
potential savings, 146, 147, 148
remanufactured, 185
tax credits, 195
wood-burning, 322
Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, 344, 345, 351, 354, 355
Argonne National Laboratory, 163, 370 n.21, 388, 523 n.19
Arsenic, 249
Australia, 20, 286, 485, 486, 535, 538, 540
Automotive Energy Supply joint venture, 163
B
Battery technologies
deployment timeframe, 116, 163, 626
industry alliances and partnerships, 163
for LDVs, 4, 5, 6, 76, 85, 159, 160, 162-163, 174, 263-264
lithium ion, 162-163, 625, 627
nickel cadmium, 627
nickel metal hydride, 625, 627
performance capabilities, 85, 159, 163, 165
R&D opportunities, 6, 30, 76, 79, 85, 625-626
size/weight considerations, 159, 160
status of, 162
for T&D system storage, 6, 51, 61, 78, 291, 307, 309, 582, 584, 601, 616, 634, 625-626, 627
ZEBRA, 627
Behavior. See Consumer behavior
Biobutanol, 89, 213, 220, 221, 253-254
Biochemical conversion of fuel
biobutanol, 253
carbon capture and storage, 220, 224-225, 236, 237-238
cellulosic ethanol, 67, 90-91, 93, 221-225, 234, 235-236, 237, 244-245, 251
corn ethanol, 90, 91, 219-220, 234, 241-242
costs, 90, 92-93, 222, 223, 224, 234, 237, 238, 241, 251, 252
genomics applications, 225, 256-257
and greenhouse gases, 90, 222, 224-225, 234, 248-249
metabolic and bioprocess engineering applications, 256, 257-258
supply of fuel from, 90-91, 241-242, 243, 244-245
synthetic biology applications, 257
technical challenges, 225, 251
technology improvement scenarios, 222-225, 251, 256-258
transport and distribution challenges, 90, 221, 223
water use, 248
Biodiesel, 37, 62 n.17, 75, 89, 213, 252-253
Biofuels.
See also Biochemical conversion;
Biomass;
Biomass-to-liquid fuels;
Cellulosic ethanol;
Coal-and-biomass-to-liquid fuels;
Corn ethanol
algal biodiesel, 75, 89, 252-253
bacteria- and yeast-based direct routes to, 255-256
biobutanol, 89, 213, 220, 221, 253-254
greenhouse gas emissions, 212, 213, 224-225
hydrocarbon fuels from biomass, 3-4, 225, 254-255
potential of, 66, 73, 212, 245
Biomass
co-fed coal, see Coal-and-biomass-to-liquid fuel
cost of energy from, 58
on CRP lands, 89, 214, 215, 218, 234
diesel fuel components, 255
distance from conversion plant, 215-216, 217
electricity generation, see Biopower
environmental impacts of crops, 248
food/feed crop displacement, 89, 213, 217, 233, 289, 299
gasification technologies, 226, 227, 228, 229, 232, 361-362 n.15, 386, 422
greenhouse gas emissions, 69, 72, 212
hydrocarbon fuels from, 254-255
incentives for growers, 89-90, 216-217, 218
non-electricity applications, 32, 321-322
price delivered to conversion plant, 215
supply, 32, 37, 66, 77, 89-90, 211, 213-217, 221, 229-230, 233, 235
sustainable production, 89, 214-215, 217-218
systems approach to production, 216-217
Biomass-to-liquid fuels.
See also Biochemical conversion
costs, 67, 91, 217, 222-223, 224, 234, 237-238, 239-240, 241, 251, 252
environmental concerns, 212
greenhouse gas emissions, 71, 91, 212, 227, 234, 237-238, 239
supply of fuel from, 37, 241-242, 243, 244-245
thermochemical conversion, 91, 226, 227, 228, 229, 232, 239-240
Biopower
build time, 128
carbon balance, 69, 288, 386-390
co-firing with coal, 361-362 n.15, 391
cost estimates, 57, 58, 126, 294-295, 390
employment, 304
environmental impacts, 101, 288, 302
feedstock supply, 32, 287-288, 289, 299
landfill gas fuel, 97, 272 n.2, 287, 288, 387
land-use values, 301
market share, 304
municipal solid waste fuel, 89, 97, 213-214, 217, 235, 235, 272, 273, 287
oxygen-blown gasification, 288-289, 386, 419, 421
policies, 273
pretreatment step, 221, 222, 224, 288-289, 251, 288
readiness for deployment, 291, 317
supply of electricity, 36, 51, 271-272, 288, 316, 317, 385-386
technology description, 97, 287-289
Biotechnology, 4, 254, 255-258
Brazil, 20
Buildings sector.
See also Appliances;
Commercial;
Residential
capital investment needs, 83, 148, 152-154
combined heat and power production, 83, 144, 155
conservation supply curves, 40, 82, 83, 140, 144, 145-149
consumption of energy, 2, 14, 83, 137, 139, 141-142
cooling and heating systems, 14, 41, 47, 83, 145, 149, 150, 193
cost-effectiveness of improvements, 41, 148, 155
cost of conserved energy, 45-46, 47, 48-49, 145, 146-148, 149
drivers for improving, 84, 154, 155
electricity consumption, 41, 42, 47, 139, 141, 146-147, 155
electricity generation capacity, 154-155
end-use and technology approach, 145, 150
energy codes, 38-39 n.1, 40, 50, 88, 146, 153, 154, 192, 194, 198, 199, 200, 201, 319
energy efficiency, 2, 38-39 n.1, 40-41, 42, 47-49, 87-88, 136-137, 140, 141-155, 193, 194, 195, 197
integrated (whole-building) approaches, 84, 143-144, 145, 149-152, 155
lighting, 47, 50, 83, 84, 142, 143-144, 146, 147, 149, 150-151, 153, 154 n.12, 155, 193, 194, 195, 197
limitations of studies, 143, 155
natural gas consumption, 14, 15, 17, 24, 37, 41, 48-49, 139, 146-147, 155, 259, 331
payback period for technologies, 82, 148, 153
petroleum consumption, 17, 24, 139
potential energy savings, 47-49, 50, 83, 143-145, 155
projected energy demand, 41, 42
regulatory policies, 87, 152-153
retail price of energy, 47-48, 83, 148, 149, 152
services for improving energy efficiency, 153-154
stock of buildings, 141
windows, 84, 144, 149, 150-151, 155, 194-195, 197
Bureau of Land Management, 351, 352
Bush (George H.W.), administration, 26, 458 n.34
Bush (George W.), administration, 26, 458 n.34, 461, 470, 492, 510
Business-as-usual reference case, xi, 36
alternative transportation fuels, 93-94, 247
buildings sector, 2, 141, 145-146
deployment of technologies, 93-94
energy efficiency improvement, 2, 141, 145-146, 177, 178-179, 186
energy supply and consumption, 12, 36
fossil fuels, 11
industrial sector, 2, 141, 177, 186
transmission and distribution system, 635
transportation sector, 2, 141, 247
C
California
air emission standards, 263, 393-394, 404
electricity demand, 617
electricity T&D, 567, 581 n.22, 617
energy efficiency standards, 191, 193, 196, 198, 199-200
geologic storage of CO2, 340
Canada
carbon capture and storage, 424
crude oil resources, 416
electricity T&D interconnections, 567, 573
methane hydrate mining, 418
natural gas exports, 15, 102-103, 336 n.3, 346
nuclear power, 507
tar sand resources, 340, 408-409
Cap and trade programs, 38 n.1, 189, 252, 393-394, 406
Carbon accounting, 230, 251, 368, 387-388
Carbon capture and storage (CCS).
See also Geologic storage of CO2;
specific energy sources
in biochemical conversion of fuel, 220, 224-225, 236, 237-238
chemical looping, 364, 365, 421, 430, 431
CO2 compression, 69-70, 105, 106 n.13, 224, 226, 227, 363, 424-425, 431, 434, 435
CO2 separation, 267, 363, 364-365, 397, 422, 423, 430-431, 434
co-capture of CO2 and other pollutants, 364, 365, 424
costs, 52, 67, 91, 212, 227-230, 360, 364, 368, 369-370, 434-435
and costs of electricity, 16, 425
demonstration of commercial viability, 5, 6, 39, 51-52, 65, 66, 68, 70, 73, 74, 91, 92, 107, 108-109, 212, 225, 227, 228, 230, 232-233, 250-251, 361, 360, 365, 378, 382-383, 397, 398, 431, 432
energy requirements, 367
and greenhouse gas emissions, 69, 72, 300
industrial sector, 183
infrastructure, 339
NCGG plants, 365
oxygen-blown gasification, 288-289, 386, 419, 421
parallel programs, 225
pipelines for CO2, 60, 109, 339, 368, 377 n.24, 382, 396, 397, 402, 406-407, 419, 420-421, 435, 439
policy environment, 230, 251, 368, 382
R&D, 107-108, 364-365, 431-432
retrofitting plants for, 3, 5, 51, 53-54, 69-70, 72, 104, 105, 367, 369, 381-382, 383, 384, 392, 395
safety issues, 16, 212, 406-407, 436
thermochemical conversion of biofuels and, 74, 91-92, 94, 226, 227, 228, 229-230, 231-233, 250-251
Carbon controls, 78, 38 n.1, 189, 244, 393-394, 406.
See also Cap and trade;
Carbon price
Carbon dioxide emissions.
See also Carbon capture and storage;
Geologic storage of CO2;
Greenhouse gas emissions;
individual energy sources and sectors
alternative transportation fuels, 62, 64, 66
annual U.S. emissions, 68
biochemical conversion processes, 234
cap and trade programs, 38 n.1, 189, 393-394, 406
carbon prices, 28, 38 n.1, 52, 93, 234, 237, 238, 239-240, 244, 252, 371, 406
by energy source, 72
negative, 69, 71, 72, 91, 227, 230, 232, 237, 238, 362, 389, 391, 395
policies and regulations, 33, 52, 252, 361
timeframe for reducing, 68, 71
trends, 11
Carbon dioxide feedstock, 75
Carbon dioxide injection for enhanced oil recovery, 91, 224, 227, 338-340, 341, 342, 343, 396, 397, 398, 401, 402, 407, 424, 435-437
Carbon price/taxes, 28, 38 n.1, 52, 93, 105, 234, 237, 238, 239-240, 244, 252, 371, 378, 390, 402, 406
Carter administration, 26, 458 n.34
Cellulosic ethanol
barriers to deployment, 250, 251
carbon capture and storage, 5, 65, 66, 224-225, 236, 237-238
commercial development, 221-222, 224, 251
conversion technologies, 3, 67, 89, 90-91, 93, 221-225, 234, 235-236, 237, 244-245, 251
costs, 92-93, 125, 127, 222-223, 224, 237-238, 240, 251
deployment, 92-93, 125, 127, 222, 244-245
economic competitiveness, 66, 67, 92-93
environmental impacts, 248
feedstock, 4, 213-217, 222-223
greenhouse gas emissions, 5, 66, 71-72, 213, 224-225, 236, 238, 239
infrastructure issues, 221, 223-224, 225, 251-252, 254
petroleum replacement potential, 3-4, 63, 66, 90, 91, 221-222
supply potential, 63, 66, 129, 241-242
systems approach, 250
waste-heat and waste-materials as energy sources, 221
Cement industry, 44, 86, 87, 175, 178, 182-183, 186, 402, 423
Cesium, 461, 519, 522, 523, 552
Chemical Engineering Plant Construction Cost Index, 372
Chemical manufacturing, 86, 175, 176, 178, 180, 184, 186, 190, 226, 331 n.2
China, 20, 77 n.19, 135, 175, 319, 504, 505, 509, 572, 605, 630
Chernobyl accident, 446
Chlorofluorocarbons, 11 n.3
Chrysler, 163
Clean Air Act, 26, 78, 384, 405
Clean Air Act Amendments, 189
Clean Air Interstate Rule, 40, 404 n.39
Clean Air Scientific Advisory Committee, 404
Clean-Fuel Fleet Program, 261
Clinton administration, 26, 458 n.34
Clostridium beijernickii BA101, 253
Coal
air-blown PC plants, 106, 121, 124, 126, 128, 228, 361-365, 366, 369-379, 380, 381, 382, 383-385, 387, 388, 389, 395, 406-407, 419, 420, 425, 428, 430, 432
as alternative fuel source, 74,
see also Coal-and-biomass-to-liquid;
Coal-to-liquid
attributes, 332
carbon capture and storage, 3, 39, 51, 53, 58, 68, 69-70, 366-379, 421-426, 430-441
CO2 emissions, 16, 24, 68, 69-70, 356, 360
co-fed biomass and, 91, 235, 237-238, 242, 245-246
consumption, 14, 17, 18, 21, 22, 36, 218, 332, 336
costs, 16, 52, 57, 58, 219, 420-421
electricity generation, 3, 13, 14, 16, 17, 23, 24, 36, 49, 51, 53, 57, 58, 68, 69, 71, 74, 189, 218, 331, 358, 360, 366-379, 381-385, 419-430
environmental impacts, 16, 52, 92, 219, 249, 408
industry use, 14, 17, 24, 176, 180, 182
infrastructure constraints, 13, 16, 23, 218
integrated gasification and combined cycle (IGCC) plants, 70, 74, 104, 106, 121, 124, 126, 128, 228, 361, 363-364, 365, 367, 369-373, 376, 377-378, 380, 381, 382, 383, 384, 385, 386, 387, 388, 389-390, 395, 406, 410, 419, 421, 425, 426, 428, 431, 432
liquefaction, 91, 211-212, 220-221, 226, 227, 230-232, 261, 335;
see also Coal-to-biomass-to-liquid fuels;
Coal-to-liquid fuels
locations of power plants, 398
mining, 16, 60, 218, 219, 249, 355, 408
new plants with CCS, 53, 381-385
oxyfuel plants, 70, 74, 104, 364, 365, 367, 395, 419, 423-424
oxygen-blown gasification, 288-289, 386, 419, 421
pollution control, 189
prices, 16, 25, 59, 235, 355, 358
production (domestic), 66, 336, 355
pulverized coal (PC) plants, 106, 121, 124, 126, 128, 228, 361-365, 366, 367, 369-379, 380, 381, 382, 383-385, 387, 388, 389, 395, 406-407, 419, 420, 425, 428, 430, 432
RD&D, 6, 64, 74, 221-222, 224, 430-441
reserves and resources, 16, 89, 92, 218-219, 336, 355-356, 357, 358
retirement of plants, 69, 105, 381, 382, 383, 394-395, 419, 426, 427, 428-429
retrofitted/repowered plants with CCS, 53, 69-70, 71, 77
safety management, 408
supercritical PC, 105, 361, 362, 367, 373, 419
supply curves, 234
T&D system, 16
timeframe for deployment of clean technology, 430-441
ultrasupercritical PC, 70, 74, 104-105, 128, 362, 363, 367, 419, 430-431
Coal-and-biomass-to-liquid fuels
carbon capture and storage, 4, 65, 66, 73, 91-92, 94, 230, 239
conversion technologies, 3-4, 74, 91-92, 227, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, 235, 237-238, 242, 245-246, 247-248, 249
costs, 67, 91, 92-93, 227, 228, 229, 230, 231, 240
environmental impacts, 4, 92, 249
feedstock requirements, 66, 92, 246
greenhouse gas emissions, 4, 66, 71-72, 91-92, 227, 232, 239
petroleum replacement potential, 4, 65, 66
production capacity, 5, 91, 92
supply, 32, 37, 63-64, 65, 211
Coal-to-liquid fuels
capacity build, 245
carbon capture and storage, 64, 65, 72, 73, 94, 212, 230, 239
costs, 66, 67, 92-93, 228-231, 236-237, 240
direct liquefaction, 220, 230-231
environmental impacts, 249
greenhouse gas emissions, 64, 72, 211-212, 227, 239, 245
thermochemical conversion, 220, 227, 228-229, 230-231
Coastal Zone Management Act, 305
Combined-heat-and-power systems (cogeneration), 44, 51, 86, 87, 88, 144, 176, 177, 178, 179, 181, 183, 186, 187, 190, 196, 198, 452
Commercial buildings.
See also Lighting
barriers to technology investments, 152, 153
combined heat and power systems, 144
consumption of energy, 17, 22, 36-37, 138, 141-142
cooling and heating systems, 193
energy efficiency savings, 40-41, 47-49, 140, 144, 147, 148
energy management and control systems, 83-84, 142
lease structures, 153
low-energy buildings, 84, 144, 152
natural gas consumption, 140, 148
price of energy, 149
solar voltaic systems, 144
whole-building approach, 144
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act, 405
Concentrating solar power
backup capability, 284
dish-Stirling engine systems, 97, 284, 285
electricity generating capacity, 96, 272, 276-277
employment, 304
greenhouse gas emissions, 69
high-temperature chemical processing, 97, 101, 285
molten salt receivers, 285
non-electricity applications, 284, 285
parabolic troughs, 97, 284, 285
technology description, 97, 284-285
Conoco Phillips, 261
Conservation Reserve Program (CRP), 89, 214, 215, 218, 234
Conservation supply curves, 40, 82, 83, 140, 144, 145-149
Consumer behavior
economic factors, 136-137, 154, 156, 172, 173
education, training, and technical assistance, 196-197, 200, 201
energy-efficient technologies, 49, 50, 79, 136-137, 154, 156, 172, 192
information/awareness factors, 136, 137, 154, 155
policies targeting, 196-197, 200, 201
preferences, 136, 137, 156, 192
and transportation energy efficiency, 136, 156, 172
Consumption. See Energy consumption
Context for the report
current U.S. energy system, 11-25
panel reports, 31
strategy of the committee, 30-33
timeframes, 30
Cooling systems, 14, 41, 47, 83, 145, 149, 150, 193.
See also Heating and cooling systems
Corn ethanol
biochemical conversion, 220-221, 234 n.6, 241-242
CO2 emissions, 72, 236, 238, 239
grain supply, 233
price of corn, 235
production capacity, 90-91, 129, 245
social and environmental concerns, 63, 89, 213
supply, 233, 241-242, 243, 331
Cost-effectiveness of energy-efficiency technologies, 2, 40-41, 49, 82, 148, 154, 155, 181
Costs.
See also specific sectors, resources, and technologies
before-tax discount rate, 126-127
comparison of power plant capital costs, 374-376
conditional assumptions, 32-33
of conserved energy, 45-46, 47, 48-49, 145, 146-148, 149
externalities, 14 n.7, 29, 252, 299
feedstock and food costs, 121, 124-125
financing period, 122, 126-127
levelized cost of electricity, 55-60, 293-297, 369-379, 380, 381, 390
methodologies for estimating, 32-33, 55-56, 120-131
projections for evolutionary nuclear plants, 526-532
reference scenario, 120
simultaneous expansion and modernization of T&D system, 61
site-dependent impacts, 57
source of supply estimates, 122, 126-127
uncertainties in estimates, 56, 59
underlying assumptions, 32
Council on Environmental Quality, 403 n.35
Critical technologies, 30
D
Demand. See Energy demand;
Electricity demand
Demand-side management, 88
smart meters, 9 n.1, 45, 60, 118, 153, 292, 578, 579, 580, 589, 591, 598, 603, 605-606, 632
state/utility policies, 196, 199-200
Demonstrations. See Research, development, and demonstrations
Deployment of new technologies, general.
See also specific technologies and energy sources
accelerated, 6, 35, 37-38, 39, 76-79
barriers to, 60, 76-79, 87-88, 93-94, 136-137, 152-154, 155, 172-173, 185-189, 191-192, 202, 250-252, 447, 477-482, 494-495, 497-498
consumer resistance to, 35, 50
coupling energy-supply and supporting technologies, 78
“crash” effort, 35
economic effects on end-users, 35, 50
industrial capacity and personnel for, 77-78
parallel tracks, 30, 57, 174, 225, 400, 605
portfolio approach, 68
timeframes for, 35
turnover rate of infrastructure and, 77
Diesel fuel
components from biomass, 255
freight transport, 171
synthetic (GTL), 223, 258, 261, 263
supply, 37
thermal efficiency, 262
thermochemical conversion, 228
Dimethyl ether, 94, 258, 262-263
Dimethyl furan, 254
DuPont, 254
E
EaglePicher, 163
Eastern Wind Integration and Transmission Study/Joint Coordinated System Planning Study, 100, 314-315
Economic growth, 25
Economic recession, xii, 15, 77, 95, 222, 272, 526
Electric motors, 145, 159, 162, 180, 184, 193, 263
Electric Power Research Institute, 293, 382, 420, 527 n.24, 531, 550 n.62, 592, 632
Electricity consumption
energy efficiency savings, 40-41, 140, 146-147, 150, 154
per capita, 199
projected, 146
by sector, 41, 42, 47, 139, 140, 141, 146-147, 155, 180, 181, 184
time-of-use pricing programs, 186
Electricity demand
building sector, 155
charges and demand-response incentives, 189
electrified vehicle fleet and, 4, 44-45, 155, 366
energy-efficiency technologies and, 32, 44-45, 155, 189
T&D system and, 27
Electricity generation.
See also Nuclear energy
age of baseload plants, 23
air-blown PC plants, 106, 121, 124, 126, 128, 228, 361-365, 366, 369-379, 380, 381, 382, 383-385, 387, 388, 389, 395, 406-407, 419, 420, 425, 428, 430, 432
carbon capture and storage, 78, 107-108, 360-361, 362-369, 421-426, 430-441
CO2 emissions, 333, 358-359, 360, 362-365, 366, 428-429
coal-fired plants, 3, 13, 14, 16, 17, 23, 24, 36, 49, 51-52, 53, 57, 58, 59, 68, 69, 71, 74, 104-105, 189, 218, 331, 358, 359, 360, 365-369, 381-385, 395, 419-430
combined-heat and power plants, 51
competitiveness of technologies, 51, 59
consumption of liquid fuels, 37
costs, 55-60, 105-107, 360, 366, 369-379, 380, 395, 420-421, 428
fossil fuel, 51, 58, 104-107, 358-396
fuel costs, 57, 58-59, 365-366
health concerns, 60
integrated gasification and combined cycle (IGCC) plants, 70, 74, 104, 106, 121, 124, 126, 128, 228, 361, 363-364, 365, 367, 369-373, 376, 377-378, 380, 381, 382, 383, 384, 385, 386, 387, 388, 389-390, 395, 406, 410, 419, 421, 425, 426, 428, 431, 432
investment barriers, 359-361, 366
mix of coal, natural gas, and biomass plants, 391-394, 395, 425-426
natural gas, 3, 13, 14, 15, 16, 23, 24, 36, 51, 55, 57-58, 59, 68-69, 105-106, 259, 273, 314, 358, 360, 365-366, 425-426
NGCC plants, 23, 57-59, 69, 70, 105-106, 126, 128, 274, 361, 365, 366, 369-373, 377-378, 378, 380, 385, 387, 388, 389, 390, 393, 394, 426
new plants, 42, 45, 105, 359-360, 394-395, 427-428
oxyfuel plants, 70, 74, 104, 364, 365, 367, 395, 419, 423-424
petroleum, 51, 359, 360, 365-366
portfolio approach, 4-5, 51, 107-108, 396
projections, 358
renewable sources, 13, 51, 52, 57, 58, 59, 359
retail price of electricity, 47-48, 49, 56, 100, 188, 529
supply curves, 391-394, 426-430
supply from new technologies or technology mixes, 49, 51-60
from waste heat and materials, 221, 235
wholesale power markets, 56-57, 59
Electricity sector
barriers to improvement, 77
demand side technologies, 45, 60
energy efficiency improvements, 40-41
greenhouse gas emissions, 4, 5, 16, 24, 68-69, 70, 73
Electricity supply curves, 140
Electricity transmission and distribution (T&D) systems
AC and DC lines and cables, 580-581
accommodating all generation and storage options, 51, 60, 61, 576, 614-615
advanced equipment and components, 116, 579-584, 604
barriers to deployment, 78, 117-118, 599-602, 606-607
benefits of modernization, 3, 60-61, 118, 594-599
cascading failures and blackouts, 60
characteristics of a modern grid, 611
communications system, 116-117, 586-587, 631-632
costs of connecting, 293 n.5, 296-297, 298, 317
costs of modernization, 58-59, 61, 117, 592-594, 606, 632-636
cultural and communication barriers, 601-602, 607
custom power, 116, 578, 580, 583, 603, 622-623
customer motivation and involvement, 61, 617
decision-support tools, 117, 579, 589, 590, 591, 599, 603-604, 605, 613, 618, 633
deployment of a modern system, 602-604, 605-606
distribution system, 61, 605-606, 611
economic benefits, 115, 595-596
electrified vehicle fleet and, 4, 597-598
emergency response capability, 611
environmental benefits, 116, 596-599
FACTS technology, 116, 578, 579-580, 583, 588, 602-603, 617, 621-622
grid visualization, 117, 589, 590, 591, 613, 631
HVDC, 571, 572, 579, 580-581, 598, 603, 615, 616, 619, 623-624
integrating intermittent/renewable resources integrated in, xiii, 3, 27, 34, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 98-99, 116, 118, 133, 290, 291, 292, 296-297, 298, 305-307, 308, 314-315, 316, 322, 563, 576, 581-582, 584, 597, 604, 607, 614-615, 620, 624, 625
intelligent control and communications, 291, 292, 297, 322-323, 576-577, 586-588, 604, 611
investment barriers, 78, 600, 606
market accommodations, 61
modern system characteristics, 575-579
Northeast blackout of 2003, 573
operations planning and design, 590-591, 613-614
optimization and efficiency, 577, 613, 619-620
personnel and equipment shortages, 605
potential for deployment, 583-584, 588-589, 591
public safety benefits, 599
regional ownership and regulation, 78, 152-153
regulatory and legislative barriers, 78, 152-153, 600-601, 606-607
reliability measures, 61, 611, 612
restoration after an emergency, 613
security, 115, 577, 579, 582, 587, 594-595, 596, 600, 601, 604, 618
self-healing, 576, 577, 579-580, 587, 616-617, 618, 621
sensing and measurements, 116-117, 584-585, 604, 628-630
smart meters, 9 n.1, 45, 60, 118, 292, 578, 579, 580, 589, 591, 598, 603, 605-606, 632
storage, 6, 51, 61, 78, 291, 307, 309, 581-583, 584, 601, 616, 624-626, 627, 634
systems operator training, 590
technologies, 116-117, 578-592, 604-605
terrorist threats, 618
transformers, 193, 375, 564 n.1, 571, 583, 598-599, 618, 620, 621, 622, 626-628, 633
transmission system, 60, 61, 314-315, 317, 564, 605, 606
wholesale power markets, 576, 615-616
Electronics. See Appliances and electronics
Emergency Economic Stabilization Act, 273
Endangered Species Act, 40, 405
Energy conservation, xiii, 33, 40 n.3, 61, 135 n.1, 145 n.7
Energy consumption.
See also Electricity consumption;
specific fuels
buildings sector, 2, 14, 83, 137, 139, 141-142
business-as-usual reference case, 2, 21, 36-37
comparison of sectors, 17, 22, 36-37
factors affecting, 142
energy efficiency technologies and, 2, 11-12, 137-138
by fuel source, 17, 18, 21, 22, 36-37, 139, 332
industry, 14, 15, 17, 22, 36-37, 44, 136-137, 138, 139, 175-176, 180-183, 186
international comparison, 11-12, 20, 135, 138, 140
per dollar of GDP, 19, 20, 137-138, 140
total, 22
Energy costs. See Costs
Energy demand.
See also Electricity demand
drivers of, 138
economic conditions and, 15, 25
impacts of technology development, 32
potential energy sources relative to, 13
Energy-efficient technologies.
See also Appliances;
Buildings;
Industrial;
Light-duty vehicles;
Lighting;
Transportation
availability, 82, 138-139, 140, 155, 191
barriers to deployment, 6, 76-77, 78, 87-88, 136-137, 152-154, 155, 172-173, 185-189, 191-192, 202
baseline/reference cases, 83, 177
capital investment needs, 83, 148
combined heat and power production, 44, 51, 86, 87, 88, 144, 176, 177, 178, 179, 181, 183, 186, 187, 190, 196, 198, 452
conservation distinguished from, 135 n.1, 145 n.7
conservation supply curves, 40, 82, 83, 140, 144, 145-149
consumer behavior, 49, 50, 79, 136-137, 154, 156, 172, 192
cost of conserved energy, 45-46, 47, 48-49, 145, 146-148, 149
cost-effectiveness, 2, 40-41, 49, 82, 148, 154, 155, 181
and demand for electricity, 32, 44-45, 155, 189
drivers of, 84, 88, 154, 155, 175, 189-190
dynamic nature of, 135, 149, 201-202
economic disincentives, 152-153
electricity generation capacity, 154-155
electricity savings, 40-41, 140, 146-147, 150, 154
end-use and technology approach, 145
findings, 1-2, 3, 4, 40-49, 50, 154-155, 173-174, 190-191, 202
informational and education needs, 87-88, 153, 187-188, 191
infrastructure considerations, 86, 88, 156-157, 160, 171, 174
integrated approaches, 84, 85, 143-144, 145, 149-152, 155, 200
international comparisons, 157, 170, 175, 176, 190
limitations of studies, 143, 155
natural gas savings, 43, 45 n.8, 48-49, 139, 140 146-147, 148, 154
potential savings in energy, 1-2, 25, 40-49, 50, 62, 82, 83, 84, 88, 135, 137-138, 140-141, 143-145, 154, 155, 156, 157-169, 173, 192-198, 202
price of energy and, 47-48, 82, 83, 84, 88, 148, 149, 152, 156, 157, 165, 176, 186, 188, 189, 192, 197
public policies and programs, 82, 86, 88, 148, 152, 154, 172-173, 189, 191-202
R&D, 6, 74, 85, 150, 174, 192, 194-195, 197, 200, 201
rates of return, 41, 43 n.6, 47, 49, 77, 78, 82, 83, 177, 190
regulations and standards, 27, 28, 38-39 n.1, 40, 45, 46, 62, 78-79, 85, 87, 88, 142, 152-153, 154, 157, 166-167, 188-189, 191, 192-193, 197, 198, 267
societal benefits, 40
Energy Independence and Security Act (EISA) of 2007, 27, 45, 46, 62, 131, 157, 166, 167, 173, 174, 193, 245 n.8
Energy Information Administration (EIA), 271
business-as-usual reference case, 2, 11, 12, 36, 45, 57, 82, 141, 145-146, 177, 293
energy consumption projections, 2, 40, 45, 333
resource reserve estimates, 219
Energy intensity
defined, 11
industrial sector, 175, 176, 179, 181-182, 184, 190
measurement, 141
price of energy and, 197
reducing, 179, 184, 190, 192, 197
trends, 11, 142, 176, 182, 197
Energy Policy Act of 2005, 27, 109 n.14, 113, 245 n.8, 466, 468, 530, 565, 601
Energy savings
energy efficiency improvements, 1-2, 25, 40-49, 50, 62, 82, 83, 84, 88, 135, 137-138, 140-141, 143-145, 154, 155, 156, 157-169, 173, 192-198, 202
methods and assumptions, 130-131
public policies and, 88, 192-198
Energy security, 1, 10, 12-13, 25-26, 55, 89, 92, 103, 135, 218, 219, 232, 247, 267, 596
Energy sources.
See also Primary;
Useful
access issues, 12
flows of energy, 12
stored, 12
ENERGY STAR® program, 88, 142, 150, 151, 154 n.13, 196-197, 198
Energy storage.
See also Battery technologies
dispatchable, for T&D systems, 61, 78, 291, 307, 309, 601, 616, 625
fuel cells, 4, 5, 6, 30, 44, 45, 67, 73, 74, 75, 84, 85, 94, 158, 160, 161, 164, 165, 166, 173, 174, 179, 195, 258, 263-267, 431, 621
LDVs, 4, 5, 6, 76, 85, 159, 160, 162-163, 174, 263-264
Energy supply.
See also individual energy sources
barriers to deployment of technologies, 77
business-as-usual reference case, 36-37
Energy-supply and end-use technologies
competitiveness, 33
defined, 9 n.1
integrated assessment, 32
role in transforming energy system, 27-30, 32
Energy system. See U.S. energy system
EnerSys, 163
Envia Systems, 163
Environmental impacts.
See also Carbon dioxide;
Greenhouse gas emissions
biochemical conversion processes, 248-249
biomass profuction, 248
carbon capture and storage, 406-407
challenges in transforming energy systems, 25-26, 88
findings, 410
land-use impacts, 101-102, 248, 300-303, 313
life-cycle assessment, 300
monetized estimates, 405
nitrogen oxide emissions, xi, 11 n.3, 19, 159, 189, 248, 249, 260, 262-263, 288, 300 n.7, 301, 302, 313, 322, 333, 359, 363-364, 421
particulate emissions, 159, 249, 263, 288, 322, 333, 404, 405, 408, 541
policies and legislation, 26, 88, 302-303, 405, 407, 408-409, 410
in price of energy, 152
sulfur oxides, xi, 189, 249, 288, 301, 313, 333, 369, 408
water supply/pollution, 101, 301, 313, 408, 409-410, 539-541
weather/climate, 301
wildlife and ecosystems, 301-302
Ethanol.
See also Cellulosic ethanol;
Corn ethanol energy produced compared to gasoline, 223
greenhouse gas emissions, 72
European Union, 11, 20, 144, 157, 170, 506.
See also individual countries
Exports of energy, trends, 20.
See also individual sources
ExxonMobil, 226
F
Federal Renewable Electricity Production Tax Credit, 95, 99, 101, 273, 274, 298, 299, 307, 308, 317, 447 n.7, 468, 489
Feedstocks. See Biomass;
Coal
Fischer-Tropsch process, 67, 72, 93, 220, 226, 228, 229, 230-231, 235, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240, 242, 252, 261
Fish and Wildlife Service, 403 n.35
FMC, 163
Ford administration, 26, 458 n.34
Ford Motor Co., 163
Fossil fuels.
See also Coal;
Natural gas;
Oil;
Petroleum
carbon capture and storage, 2, 300-301, 406-407
CO2 emissions, 11, 16, 25, 300-301, 333, 358-359
economic importance, 14, 331-332
electric power generation, 3, 16, 104-107, 358-396, 418-419
environmental and safety issues, 11, 16, 25-26, 108-109, 300, 301, 333, 403-410
findings, 2, 356-358, 394-396, 401-402, 410
geologic storage of CO2, 396-402, 406-407
resources and reserves, 13, 334-358, 415-418
supply and demand, 25, 357-358
for transportation, 108
France
energy consumption, 140
geothermal projects, 286
greenhouse gas emissions, 533
nuclear fuel production and recycling, 519, 522, 533
nuclear power, 446, 453, 457 n.30, 504, 505, 508, 510 n.10, 519
Freight transportation
consumption of fuel, 156, 157, 171
intermodal transfers, 157, 171
potential energy efficiency improvements, 45, 171, 174
truck transport, 85-86, 156, 170, 171
waterborne, 171
Fuel-cell technologies, 4, 5, 6, 30, 44, 45, 67, 73, 74, 75, 84, 85, 86, 94, 158, 160, 161, 164, 165, 166, 173, 174, 179, 195, 258, 263-267, 431, 621
Fuels. See Alternative transportation fuels
G
Gasification technologies
biomass, 226, 227, 228, 229, 232, 361-362 n.15, 386, 422
carbon capture and storage, 360, 387, 397, 406, 421, 425, 431
cellulosic ethanol production, 221-222
coal, 227, 228-229, 230-231, 360, 368, 386, 397, 406
co-fed coal and biomass, 3-4, 91, 227, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, 235, 237-238, 242, 245-246, 422
integrated gasification combined cycle plants, 70, 74, 104, 106, 121, 124, 126, 128, 228, 361, 363-364, 365, 367, 369-373, 376, 377-378, 380, 381, 382, 383, 384, 385, 386, 387, 388, 389-390, 395, 406, 410, 419, 421, 425, 426, 428, 431, 432
oxygen-blown, 288-289, 386, 419, 421, 423-424
Gasoline.
See also Light-duty vehicles;
Oil;
Petroleum
consumption in U.S., 167
costs with and without carbon price, 93
taxes, 192
General Electric, 163
General Motors, 163
Genetics, 74
Genomics, 74
Geologic storage of CO2.
See also Carbon capture and storage
characteristics of suitable sites, 399-400
coal-bed, 70, 107, 396, 398, 399, 433, 434
environmental issues, 407
monitoring, 441
oil and gas reservoirs, 70, 91, 107, 224, 224, 227, 338-340, 341, 342, 343, 396, 397, 398, 399, 401, 402, 407, 424, 433, 434, 435-437
regulation, 92, 339-341, 407, 410
saline aquifers, 70, 107, 226, 396-398, 399, 433, 434, 437, 438-439
subsurface retention of CO2, 339, 438-439
technologies, 400
Georgia Power, 187
Geothermal heat flux, 278
Geothermal power
consumption, by sector, 17
electricity generating capacity, 6, 13, 17, 57, 58, 97, 272, 279, 286, 316
employment, 304
enhanced geothermal systems, 6, 97, 278, 286, 292, 301
environmental impacts, 301
flash plants, 286
greenhouse gas emissions, 69
hydrothermal, 97, 128, 278, 285-286, 291, 301, 317
non-electricity applications, 320-321
resource base, 278
steam plants, 286
technology description, 97, 285-286
Germany, 140, 286, 446, 509, 535, 540, 572, 581 n.23
Glass, 175, 285, 312, 318, 320
Greenhouse gas emissions.
See also Carbon dioxide;
Methane;
specific sectors, technologies, and energy sources
certifying biofuel benefits, 250
consumer awareness, 154
defined, 11 n.3
and global warming, xi, 11 n.3, 29, 40
life-cycle emissions, 212 n.1, 224-225
see also Carbon capture
portfolio approach to reducing, 68-73
timeframe for reducing, 68, 71, 73
transportation sector, 4, 5, 16, 73, 84, 156, 160, 211
U.S. trends, 19
GS Yuasa, 163
H
Heating and cooling systems
cogeneration, 44, 51, 86, 87, 88, 144, 176, 177, 178, 179, 181, 183, 186, 187, 190, 196, 198, 452
electric heat pumps, 321
geothermal heat pumps, 320-321
Heritage Foundation, 404 n.38
Home electronics. See Appliances and electronics
Homes. See Residential
Hybrid hydrogen-carbon process, 254
Hydrocarbon fuels from biomass, 3-4, 225, 254-255
Hydrogen fuel
and greenhouse gas emissions, 267
industry use, 182
LDVs, 4, 5, 6, 30, 44, 45, 67, 73, 74, 75, 84, 85, 94, 158, 160, 161, 164, 165, 166, 173, 174, 195, 258, 263-267
petroleum replacement potential, 94, 265-267
supply and fueling infrastructure, 160
Hydropower
electricity generating capacity, 13, 18, 51, 52, 95, 98, 128, 197, 271, 290, 292
employment, 304
environmental impacts, 97, 287, 301-302
greenhouse gas emissions, 69, 300
marine and hydrokinetic, 97, 128, 273-274, 278-279, 287
ocean thermal energy conversion, 287
price of electricity from, 464
R&D, 292
salinity gradient powet, 287
T&D system, 597
I
Imports of energy, trends, 20.
See also individual sources
Independent power producers, 95, 128, 271, 359, 361, 465, 466, 467, 473, 473, 496, 527, 528, 529, 530, 531, 564, 566
India, 20, 452, 453, 504, 506, 524, 572
Industrial sector
advanced materials, 87, 184, 190
barriers to improving, 88, 185-189
capital market barriers, 188
carbon capture and storage, 183
cement, 44, 86, 87, 175, 178, 182-183, 186, 402, 423
chemical manufacturing, 86, 175, 176, 178, 180, 184, 186, 190
CO2 emissions, 175, 182, 183, 333
coal use, 14, 17, 24, 176, 180, 182
combined heat and power, 44, 86, 87, 176, 177, 178, 179, 181, 183, 186, 187, 190
consumption of energy, 14, 15, 17, 22, 36-37, 44, 136-137, 138, 139, 175-176, 180-183, 186
corporate sustainability, 190
cost-effectiveness of improvements, 181
costs of improvements, 186
crosscutting technologies, 87, 183-185, 190
demand charges and demand-response incentives, 189
electricity use, 139, 180, 181, 184
energy-intensity, 175, 176, 179, 181-182, 190
external benefits and impacts, 186, 189
fabrication processes and materials, 87, 176, 179, 184-185
hydrogen fuel, 182
information barriers, 187-188, 191
international comparisons, 175, 176, 190
investment barriers, 188
iron and steel, 43-44, 86, 87, 175, 177-178, 181-182, 186, 402, 423
major energy-consuming industries, 175
natural gas use, 14, 15, 17, 24, 37, 139, 176, 180, 183, 184, 259
on-demand manufacturing, 86
petroleum refining, 86, 87, 175, 176, 178, 180, 182, 184, 186, 188, 254-255, 334, 403, 423, 512
petroleum use, 17, 24 139, 175, 176, 180
policy and regulatory issues, 38-39 n.1, 177, 188-189, 198, 307
pollution control, 184-185, 186, 188-189, 190
potential for energy savings, 2, 43-44, 82, 86-87, 176-179, 190
price of energy, 186, 188, 189
pulp and paper, 43-44, 86, 87, 175, 177-178, 181
reference case, 44, 86, 141, 178-179, 186
remanufacturing of used products, 87, 185
renewable energy use, 176
resource recovery and utilization, 86, 179, 186
return on investments, 82, 177, 190
risks of adopting new technology, 185-186
sensors and control systems, 87, 176, 180, 183, 185, 190
separation processes, 87, 176, 180, 181, 184, 190
steam heating and process heating, 180, 181, 184
thermochemical conversion, 74, 231, 247
time-of-use electricity pricing, 187
waste-heat and waste-materials as energy sources, 86, 87, 181, 182
Informational and education needs
energy efficiency, 87-88, 153, 187-188, 191
Infrastructure issues, 31.
See also Electricity transmission
energy-efficient technologies, 86, 88, 156-157, 160, 171, 174
International
comparisons, 157, 170, 175, 176, 190
cooperation, 29
International Atomic Energy Agency, 446-447, 491-492
International Energy Agency, 333, 397
International Energy Conservation Code, 194
Investment in clean energy
asset renewal or replacement, 13, 78
barriers to deployment of technologies, 77, 78, 136-137, 152-154, 185-189, 191
capital constraints, 95, 154, 188, 191, 274, 307
consumer resistance to, 49, 50, 79, 136-137, 192
energy efficiency technologies, 82, 83, 136-137, 142, 148, 152-154
externalities, 186
incentives for, 78
information barriers, 187-188, 191
life-cycle costs and, 136
mandatory, 188
market risks, 188
payback period, 82, 148, 153, 186
price of fuel and, xii, 82, 172, 192, 366
public sector, 78
regulatory policies and, 152-153, 188-189
renewable resources, 95, 274, 307
research, development, and demonstrations, 39, 74-76
returns on, 41, 43 n.6, 47, 49, 77, 78, 82, 83, 177, 190
risk perceptions, 71, 185-186, 192
tax credits, 38 n.1, 188, 195-196, 273-274
T&D systems, 78
trends, 27
Iron and steel industry, 43-44, 86, 87, 175, 177-178, 181-182, 186, 402, 423
J
Japan
CO2 emissions, 535
electric transmission equipment exports, 571-572
energy consumption, 11, 20, 140, 170
industrial energy intensity, 190
LNG price to, 350
nuclear fusion, 463
nuclear power, 350 n.12, 446, 452, 457 n.30, 482, 492 n.108, 504, 505, 508, 509, 510, 522, 535
recycling used fuel, 522
transportation sector, 170
Japan Steel Works, 482
Johnson Controls-Saft, 163
L
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 310
Legislation.
See also individual statutes
and development of new energy supplies, 40
energy, 27
piecemeal approach, 26
LG Chem, 163
Light-duty vehicles.
See also Alternative liquid fuels
battery-electric, 4, 45, 74, 78, 84, 85, 158, 159, 160, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 168, 174, 366, 597, 598
battery technology, 4, 5, 6, 76, 85, 159, 160, 162-163, 174, 263-264
body designs, 84, 85, 161, 173
CAFE standards, 28, 45 n.7, 46, 85, 157, 166-167, 192-193, 197, 198, 267
consumer preferences, 136, 156, 172
costs of improvements, 161, 165, 173, 264-265
demand for electricity, 44-45, 155, 366
deployment scenarios, 85, 164-167, 168-169, 173
diesel compression-ignition engines, 45, 84, 158, 159, 161, 164, 166, 263
electrification, 4, 44, 62, 67, 73
engine improvements, 84, 158-160, 164, 173, 195
environmental impacts of new technologies, 44, 73
EPA limit on truck weight, 46
fuel efficiency improvements, 3, 4, 40, 41, 44-46, 67, 73, 140, 156, 158 n.19, 161, 164, 168
gasoline hybrid-electric, 45, 85, 86, 158, 159, 161, 162, 166, 267
gasoline spark-ignition engines, 45, 84, 158, 161, 164, 166, 263
greenhouse gas emissions, 5, 16, 73, 85, 160, 161, 164
hydrogen fuel-cell, 4, 5, 6, 30, 44, 45, 67, 73, 74, 75, 84, 85, 94, 158, 160, 161, 164, 165, 166, 173, 174, 195, 258, 263-267
international comparisons, 157
market share, 164-165, 166, 168
nonpropulsion system improvements, 84, 85, 161, 166
petroleum consumption, 67, 89, 164, 167, 243
plug-in hybrid-electric, 4, 45, 74, 78, 84, 85, 158, 159-160, 161-164, 165, 174, 263-264, 598
potential for energy efficiency improvements, 44-46, 62, 84, 157-169, 173
power and size offsets, 40, 45, 46, 84, 85, 158, 161, 166-167, 173, 193
price of gasoline, 84, 156, 165
product development times, 173
production capability, 88
remanufactured parts, 185
tax credits, 195
transmission improvements, 84, 85, 160, 170, 173
travel reductions, 46, 167, 192
weight reductions, 161, 166, 173, 174
Lighting
compact fluorescent lamps, 50, 142, 149, 153, 154 n.12, 194
costs, 149
daylight, 84, 143-144, 150-151
energy savings, 47, 83, 142, 146, 147, 150-151
luminaires, 144
R&D, 195
regulations and standards, 41, 193, 194, 197
solid-state (light-emitting diodes), 83, 149, 155, 194
Liquefied natural gas, 15, 350, 380, 409
Liquefied petroleum gas, 262
Liquid transportation fuels, consumption, 331.
See also Alternative transportation fuels;
Biofuels;
Cellulosic ethanol;
Coal-and-biomass-to-liquid fuels;
Coal-to-liquid fuels;
Diesel;
Gasoline;
Petroleum
Lithium ion batteries, 162-163, 625, 627
M
Manufacturing Energy Consumption Survey, 188
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 222, 278, 470
Mercury, 149, 152, 249, 369, 408, 425, 482, 533, 596-597
Metabolic and bioprocess engineering, 256, 257-258
Methane
coal-bed, 103, 346, 347, 398, 402, 433, 435, 438
emissions, 11, 19, 259, 359, 368, 671
greenhouse forcing potential, 258, 260
hydrates, 75, 94, 258, 261, 346-347, 416-418
landfill gas power plants, 288
natural gas vehicles, 258
Methanol, 94
Methanol-to-gasoline technology, 67, 72, 93, 220, 226-227, 228, 229, 235, 236-237, 238, 239, 240, 252, 258-259, 262, 263
Micro-grids, 617
Micro-manufacturing, 179
MicroSun, 163
Microwave technologies, 179, 190, 291, 628-829
Mobius Power, 163
Molecular biology, 74
Municipal solid waste, 89, 97, 213-214, 217, 235, 235, 272, 273, 287
N
Nanotechnology and nanomaterials, 179, 184, 185, 190, 283, 284, 291, 454, 513, 581
National Academies, 404 n.38
National Energy Technology Laboratory, 362 n.16, 368 n.19, 370
National Environmental Policy Act, 26, 352, 405
National Mining Association, 404 n.37
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 403 n.35
National Petroleum Council, 341-342, 343, 344 n.8, 345, 349, 354, 404 n.36
National Petroleum Reserve, 351, 355
National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 310, 313
National Science Foundation, 76
Natural gas.
See also Liquefied natural gas;
Methane
access issue, 12, 71, 103, 348, 350-355
age of power plants, 23
attributes, 332
buildings sector, 14, 15, 17, 24, 37, 43, 48-49, 139, 146-147, 155, 259, 331
carbon capture and storage, 58, 69, 70, 71, 379-380, 422-423
CO2 emissions, 3, 16, 24, 68, 69, 70, 71, 102, 259-260, 360
combined cycle (NGCC) plants, 23, 57-59, 69, 70, 105-106, 126, 128, 274, 361, 365, 366, 369-373, 377-378, 378, 380, 385, 387, 388, 389, 390, 393, 394, 426
combustion turbine, 273
competitiveness, 105-106, 273, 314, 379-380, 406
constraints on production, 338
consumption, 17, 18, 21, 22, 37, 139, 146-147, 259, 332-333, 335, 351
economic importance, 15
electricity generation, 3, 13, 14, 15, 16, 23, 24, 36, 51, 55, 57-58, 59, 68-69, 105-106, 259, 273, 314, 358, 365-366, 425-426
energy efficiency savings, 43, 45 n.8, 48-49, 139, 140, 146-147, 148, 154
environmental impacts, 355
exploration and production technology, 336, 343, 347-348
feedstock for fuel, 94, 258, 261
findings, 3
industrial use, 14, 15, 17, 24, 37, 139, 176, 180, 183, 184, 259
import dependence (potential), 3, 15, 16, 25, 37, 71, 103, 259, 314, 336, 350, 358
methane emissions, 259
new plants, 70
offshore, 346, 347, 348, 351-352, 353
pipelines, 109, 332, 334, 406, 407, 409
potential, 16
prices, 3, 15, 25, 48, 49, 57-58, 59, 71, 103, 188, 260, 261, 348, 349, 350, 360, 372
production (domestic), 15, 16, 37, 259, 335, 346-350, 351, 357
reserves and resources, 2, 3, 15, 37, 102-103, 149, 259, 332, 335, 336, 346-350, 351-355, 357, 416-418
retrofitted plants with CCS, 70, 71
safety management, 260, 409, 418
shales, 15, 103, 105-106, 342, 343, 346, 347-348, 349, 350, 355, 358, 385, 405, 426
single-cycle plants, 23
“stranded,” 261
supply and demand, 103, 106, 354-355, 358, 361, 379-380, 426
tight gas sands, 15, 103, 346, 347
transportation fuel, 37, 139, 259-260
Natural Resources Defense Council, 404 n.7
NEC, 163
New Source Performance Standards, 78, 189, 384
New York, energy efficiency programs, 193, 198, 199, 200
New Zealand, 226
Nickel cadmium batteries, 627
Nickel metal hydride batteries, 625, 627
Nigeria, 261
Nissan, 163
Nitrogen oxide emissions, 11 n.3, 19, 159, 189, 248, 249, 260, 262-263, 288, 300 n.7, 301, 302, 313, 333, 359, 363-364, 421
Nixon administration, 26, 458 n.34
Nuclear energy
accidents, 446, 453, 480, 489-491, 503, 553-555, 556-557
aging/retirement of plants, 13, 23, 53-54, 112, 447, 448, 472, 473, 474 n.70, 475, 481, 483, 497
barriers to deployment, 113-114, 447, 477-482, 494-495, 497-498
capacity factor, 54, 445, 448, 528
cogeneration, 452
consumption, 17, 18, 21, 22, 332
costs, 57, 58, 113, 198, 447, 463-471, 496, 526-532
demonstration needs and constraints, 55
downtime decreases, 110, 449, 451
economic barriers, 70-71, 113, 477-478, 497
environmental impacts, 114-115, 482-489
federal incentives, 39 n.2, 55, 58, 59, 447, 468-469, 532 n. 31
findings, 2, 3, 39, 70-71, 494-499
fossil fuel power plants compared, 467
greenhouse gas emissions, 16, 69, 70-71, 445, 482-484, 498, 533-536
improvements to existing plants, 52-53, 110, 448-451, 463-464, 474-475, 497
international interest, 446-447
new plants, 3, 51, 53, 445, 467
operating license extensions, 53-55, 110, 112, 450-451, 463-464, 473, 476, 497, 515, 546, 548
personnel and parts shortages, 481-482, 498
potential for deployment, 3, 13, 70-71, 112-113, 471-477
power uprates, 52-53, 110, 449-450, 474-475, 497
proliferation risk, 111, 458-459, 460, 462, 489, 491-492, 496, 499, 504, 518, 519, 522, 524
public concerns, 113-114, 447, 479-481, 497-498
regulatory and legislative issues, 113, 478-479, 498
safety and security, 115, 480, 489-492
share of electricity generation, 447-448
supply of electricity, 3, 14, 49, 51, 52-55, 114, 197, 447, 496-497
technologies, 110-112, 448-463;
see also Nuclear reactors
Nuclear Energy Advisory Committee, 456 n.27
Nuclear fuel cycle.
See also Uranium
alternative, 111, 113, 456-462, 470-471, 491, 499, 524-525, 551
breeding, 111, 456, 458, 507, 508, 510, 517, 518, 521-522, 523 n.19, 524
burning, 456, 457, 458, 459 n.41, 460-461, 462, 495, 496, 508, 510-511, 517, 518-519, 520, 521-522, 525
closed, 111, 410, 458-459, 461, 462, 471, 485-486, 510, 517-521, 523-525, 539, 540
defined, 458 n.32
disposal of spent fuel, 60, 486-489, 496
high burn-up fuel, 455, 487, 499, 514, 551
inert matrix fuel (IMF), 462, 519-520, 521, 525
limited recycle, 458 n.14, 461, 462, 470-471, 519, 520, 521, 525
mining and milling impacts, 60, 301, 484-485
mixed-oxide fuel (MOX), 462, 495, 470, 471, 519, 520, 521
once-through, 458, 459 n.40, 462, 464 n.52, 470, 471, 485, 491, 492, 499, 517, 520, 524, 525, 534 n.35, 539, 540, 542
R&D opportunities, 455, 460-461, 524-525
recycling used fuel, 458, 459, 460, 461, 462, 470-471, 491, 495-496, 517, 519, 520, 521-523, 525, 539
separations technologies, 111, 459, 460, 462, 470, 471, 491, 495, 520, 522, 531-523
simulation and modeling, 525
transuranic targets, 458 n.23, 462, 521
Nuclear reactors
advanced boiling-water reactor, 453, 454 n.20, 474, 504, 505-506
advanced pressurized water, 453-454, 474, 504, 505, 506
advanced simulation codes, 515-516, 525
alternative designs, 111, 452-453, 455-457, 470-471, 503, 504-508, 509-510, 512, 524-525
boiling-water, 452, 453, 472-473, 475, 505
coolants and cooling systems, 452, 453, 454, 485-486, 489-490, 499, 503, 506, 508, 512-513, 514, 539-540, 553, 554, 556
degradation phenomena, 450, 514-515
demonstration of commercial viability, 5, 6, 68, 70-71
design certification, 453, 454, 478, 479, 505, 506, 507, 509-510, 511
digital instrumentation and control, 455, 515
economic simplified boiling-water reactor (ESBWR), 453, 474
European pressurized water, 503, 504
evolutionary designs, 2, 5, 6, 39, 49, 68, 70-71, 110, 112, 113, 115, 124, 446-447, 448, 452, 453, 455, 463, 464-470, 472 n.68, 473, 486, 490, 494, 503-506, 509, 512, 513, 526-532, 540
fast, 111, 453, 456, 457, 461, 462, 470, 471, 506-507, 508, 521, 525
gas-cooled, 455 n.24, 504 n.5, 507, 508, 509, 511
heat transfer materials, 454, 499, 513-514
light water, 452, 453, 455, 456, 457, 459, 461, 462, 467, 470, 472, 503, 504, 509, 511, 512, 513, 514, 518, 519-521, 522, 524, 525, 544
pressurized water, 452, 453, 503, 504, 473, 475, 505, 549
R&D opportunities, 6, 454-455, 457, 512-516
readiness for deployment, 39
small modular reactors, 456, 506-507, 509-510
sodium-cooled, 455 n.24, 457 n.30, 470, 504 n.5, 506 n.7, 507, 508, 509, 510, 511, 513
thermal, 452, 453, 456, 458 n.33, 462, 486, 506-507, 508, 519, 521
U.S. evolutionary power, 453, 454, 474, 503, 504, 505
very-high-temperature, 456, 506-507, 508, 511-512
Nuclear waste management, 60
burning fuel cycles and, 518-519
decommissioning wastes, 486-487, 528, 542, 543, 548, 550-551
environmental impacts, 486-489
final disposal, 480-481, 545-547
high-level wastes, 115, 436, 458 n.34, 486, 487-488, 496, 518, 545-547, 552
interim storage, 115, 488-489, 541, 543, 549, 547-548
low-level wastes, 461, 520, 543, 548-550
other operating wastes, 543, 548-550
public concerns, 447, 480-481, 498
used fuel disposal, 455, 542-544
Yucca Mountain high-level-waste storage, 115, 436, 458 n.34, 486, 487-488, 496, 545-547, 552
O
Obama administration, 27, 41 n.4, 45 n.7, 62, 85 n.7, 157 n.18, 166 n.22, 193 n.24, 457 n.31, 458, 488, 492, 496, 510, 511, 545
Oil.
See also Gasoline;
Petroleum
access issue, 12, 344, 345, 350-355
Alaska production, 343, 351, 353
Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, 344, 345, 351, 354, 355
carbon capture and storage, 341, 402
CO2 enhanced oil recovery, 91, 224, 227, 338-340, 341, 342, 343, 396, 397, 398, 401, 402, 407, 424, 435-437
constraints on production, 338, 341-343
crisis, 137
demand, 15
environmental impacts/management, 341, 342, 355, 408-409
exploration and production technology, 336, 337, 343
heavy oil, 171, 337, 339, 340, 342
liquid fuel consumption, 62-65, 171
offshore resources, 339, 343, 344, 345, 347, 349, 350, 351, 352-353, 354, 355
prices, xii, 15, 67, 152, 211, 342, 344, 345, 354-355, 360
production (domestic), 14 n.8, 211, 335, 341-342, 344-346, 351, 356-357
reserves and resources, 13, 102, 335, 336, 338-346, 350-355, 415-416
shales, 75, 102, 108, 109, 339, 340-341, 342, 357, 406, 408-409
steam injection, 340
supply and demand, 354-355, 357-358
tar sands, 108, 109, 339, 340, 341, 342, 357, 406, 408-409
timeframe for recovery, 339
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), 336, 354
Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act, 405
P
Pakistan, 452
Panasonic/Sanyo, 163
Particulate emissions, 159, 249, 263, 288, 322, 333, 404, 405, 408, 541
Passenger transportation
consumption of energy, 156
systemic improvements, 171-172
vehicular, see Light-duty vehicles
Petroleum.
See also Fossil fuels;
Oil
attributes, 332
CO2 emissions, 16, 24, 72, 156
consumption, 17, 18, 21, 22, 24, 62, 89, 102, 139, 137, 138, 155-157, 243, 332
dependence, xi, 25, 63, 67, 89
economic importance, 14
electricity generation, 36, 360
energy efficiency improvements and, 67
import dependence, 3, 14, 16, 17, 24, 25, 26, 62, 84, 89, 93, 139, 156, 160, 180, 211, 212, 243
industrial sector, 17, 24, 139, 175, 176, 180
production rates (domestic), 3, 14, 62-63, 102
refining, 86, 87, 175, 176, 178, 180, 182, 186, 188, 254-255, 334, 403, 423, 512
replacement or reduction, 3, 14, 62-67, 73, 160, 212, 245, 265-266
resources and reserves, 332
transportation fuel, 3, 14, 16, 17, 24, 62, 84, 89, 108, 139, 156, 180, 211, 243, 331
Photovoltaics industry roadmap, 310, 316
Plutonium, 111, 459, 460, 462, 470, 471, 491, 495, 517, 519, 520, 522, 531-523
Policies and programs.
See also Legislation;
Regulations and standards;
individual statutes
barriers to adoption of technologies, 6, 76-77, 78, 152, 191-192
California experience, 191, 193, 196, 198, 199-200
carbon controls, 78, 38 n.1, 189, 244, 393-394, 406
combined heat and power systems, 196, 198
consumer education, training, and technical assistance, 196-197, 200, 201
energy savings estimates, 88, 192-198
energy efficiency, 82, 86, 88, 148, 152, 154, 172-173, 189, 191-202
ENERGY STAR® program, 88, 142, 150, 151, 154 n.13, 196-197, 198
fiscal, 152, 172, 188, 200, 307
incentives and grants, 6, 38 n.1, 200, 201, 264-265, 273
investment impacts, 307
lessons learned, 201
New York experience, 193, 198, 199, 200
RD&D, 88, 194-195, 197, 200, 201
state/utility, 88, 154, 191, 192, 193, 194, 196, 198, 199-200, 273
tax credits, 38 n.1, 51, 95, 99, 101, 144, 188, 192, 195-196, 273, 274, 298, 299, 307, 308, 317, 447, 468, 530
Population
distribution considerations, 142, 171-172, 291, 319, 407, 540, 581, 598, 607
growth, 11-12, 25, 83, 409-410, 540
Potential energy sources
defined, 13
Power grid. See Electricity transmission and distribution systems
Price of energy
and energy-efficient technology adoption, 47-48, 82, 83, 84, 88, 148, 149, 152, 156, 157, 165, 176, 186, 188, 189, 192, 197
environmental and social costs, 152
Primary energy sources, 12, 21, 22, 33
Princeton Environmental Institute, 124, 125, 227-228, 369-370, 374-375, 376, 385, 420
Production of energy, trends, 20.
See also individual sources
Public Utilities Regulatory Policies Act, 88, 196, 197, 198
Pulp and paper industry, 43-44, 86, 87, 175, 177, 178, 181
PUREX, 111, 459, 460, 462, 470, 471, 491, 495, 520, 522, 531-523
Q
R
Reagan administration, 26, 458 n.34
Regulations and standards.
See also Legislation;
individual statutes
appliance efficiency standards, 88, 154 n.13, 192, 193-194, 197, 198, 200, 201
building energy codes, 38-39 n.1, 40, 50, 88, 146, 152-153, 154, 192, 194, 198, 199, 200, 201, 319
CAFE, 28, 45 n.7, 46, 85, 157, 166-167, 192-193, 197, 198, 267
barriers to technology investments, 152-153, 188-189
energy efficiency, 27, 28, 38-39 n.1, 40, 45, 46, 62, 78-79, 85, 87, 88, 142, 154, 157, 166-167, 188-189, 191, 192-193, 197, 198, 267
environmental, 26-27, 78, 88, 189, 322, 384
performance-oriented, 6, 78, 189, 200, 384
renewables portfolio standards, 28, 39 n.2, 51, 95, 273, 299
Renewable energy.
See also Biopower;
Geothermal;
Hydropower;
Solar;
Wind 20% electricity generation, 13, 95, 98-99, 305-306, 309-316, 317
atmospheric emissions, 300-302, 313
combined energy-waste-and-water plants, 291
competitiveness, 97-98, 289, 290, 299
consumption of energy from, 21, 22, 332
co-siting of different technologies, 98, 290, 306-307, 308-309, 315-316
costs, 33, 51, 99-100, 273, 274, 292-299
deployment barriers, 12, 97-98, 101
development potential, 97-99, 303-309
electricity generation capacity, 2, 31, 51, 94-96, 271-274, 279-292
electricity generation costs, 293-297
employment, 304
environmental impacts, 101-102, 299-303
findings, 2, 291-292, 297, 299, 302-303, 307-309, 317
greenhouse gas emissions, 16, 101, 300, 302, 313, 317
human and materials resource constraints, 101, 303-304, 308, 323
industry use, 176
integration in T&D systems, xiii, 3, 27, 34, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 98, 99, 101, 116, 118, 133, 290, 291, 292, 296-297, 298, 305-307, 308-309, 314, 316, 322-323, 563, 576, 581-582, 584, 597, 604, 614-615, 620, 624, 625
land-use impacts, 101-102, 300-303, 313
levelizied cost estimates, 293-297
market factors, 307
non-electricity (distributed), 99-100, 318-322
policy setting, 101, 273-274, 279, 302, 307, 317
production constraints, 304-305
R&D, 98, 289-290, 296, 307-308
speculative technologies, 291-292
supply of electricity, 13, 51, 52, 197
technology descriptions, 96-97, 280-289
timeframes for deployment of technologies, 289-292
Renewable Fuel Standard, 245
Research, development, and demonstrations (RD&D)
advanced materials, 76
alternative liquid fuels, 74-75, 221, 247, 255, 265, 267
battery technologies, 6, 30, 76, 79, 85, 625-626
biofuels, 74-75, 90, 221-222, 224
biosciences, 74
CCS demonstrations, 5, 6, 39, 51-52, 65, 66, 68, 70, 73, 74, 91, 92, 107, 108-109, 212, 225, 227, 228, 230, 232-233, 250-251, 361, 360, 365, 378, 382-383, 397, 398, 431, 432
cellulosic ethanol demonstrations, 6, 64, 74, 90, 221-222, 224
climate-related, 75
CO2 recycling, 75
coal technologies, 6, 64, 74, 221-222, 224, 430-441
electricity generation, 395-396
energy efficiency, 6, 74, 85, 150, 174, 192, 194-195, 197, 200, 201
evolutionary nuclear reactor demonstrations, 5, 6, 68, 70-71, 74
federal support, 76, 194-195, 296
geoengineering, 75
geothermal power, 75
national effort, 28
natural gas from hydrates, 75
nuclear fuel cycle, 75
oil shale extraction technologies, 75
opportunities for, 6, 30, 73-76, 79, 85, 625-626
portfolio approach, 5-6, 73, 201, 267, 378-379
radioactive waste management, 75
scale of demonstrations, 28
social science research, 75
wind energy, 75
Reserves.
See also individual energy sources
defined, 13
Residential buildings.
See also Appliances;
Buildings;
Lighting
consumption of energy, 17, 22, 36-37, 138, 141, 146
electricity, 140
energy efficiency savings, 40-41, 47-49, 140, 144, 147, 150
ENERGY STAR® new homes, 142
heating and cooling, 144
low-energy and zero-net-energy new homes, 84, 144, 151
price of energy, 149
rental units, 50, 87, 136-137, 153
solar power at point of use, 59, 83, 151
tax credits, 144
weatherization assistance program, 198
whole-house approach, 144, 151
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, 405
Resources, defined, 13.
See also individual energy sources
Resources for the Future, 404 n.38
Russia, 261, 452, 457 n.30, 463, 470, 493, 494, 505, 506, 510, 511, 519 n.16, 524, 533, 538
S
Safe Drinking Water Control Act, 407
Saudi Arabia, 345
Secondary energy source. See Electricity generation
Sensor development, 87, 176, 180, 183, 185, 190
Separation processes and technologies
biofuel production, 224, 256, 258
CO2 separation, 267, 364-365, 378, 397, 422, 423-425, 430-431, 434
electrochemical, 458-459, 517, 519, 520, 522-523
industry energy efficiency measures, 87, 111, 176, 180, 181, 184, 188, 190
PUREX, 111, 456, 459, 460, 462, 470, 471, 491, 495, 520, 522, 531-523
spent nuclear fuel processing, 111, 459, 460, 462, 470, 471, 491, 495, 496, 520, 521-523, 524-525, 552
UREX+, 459, 520, 522, 523, 552
Shell, 261
Silicon, 96, 281, 283, 284, 303-304, 305
SiLyte, 163
Smart meters, 9 n.1, 45, 60, 118, 292, 578, 579, 580, 589, 591, 598, 603, 605-606, 632
Sodium-sulfur batteries, 582, 625, 627
Solar America Initiative, 310, 316
Solar Energy Industry Association, 296
Solar power, general
consumption, by sector, 17
resource base, 96, 276-278, 279
satellites collectors in space, 291
Solar power, photovoltaic (PV)
backup power, 151 n.10
costs, 58, 99-100, 101, 281, 283-284, 293, 294-295
dye-sensitized solar cell, 283, 284, 292
electricity generation capacity, 272, 277-278, 316
employment, 304
energy savings, 151
environmental impacts, 302
greenhouse gas emissions, 69
integration in power grid, 3
point-of-use (residential) installations, 59, 96, 272-273, 299
silicon flat-plate arrays, 96, 277-278, 281, 283-284, 303-304, 305
technology description, 96-97, 281, 283-284, 305
thin-film technologies, 96-97, 283-284, 305
Solar power, thermal nonelectric, 318-320.
See also Concentrating solar power
Steam heating and process heating, 180, 181, 184
Strontium, 461, 519, 522, 523, 552
Sulfur oxides, 189, 249, 288, 301, 313, 333, 369, 408
Superior Graphite, 163
Supply of energy. See Energy supply
Surface Mine Control and Reclamation Act, 405
Synthesis gas, 220, 226, 232, 242, 249, 258-259, 261, 263, 284, 289, 364, 367, 419, 425
T
Taxes
barriers to technology deployment, 88
credits, 38 n.1, 51, 95, 99, 101, 144, 188, 192, 195-196, 273, 274, 298, 299, 307, 308, 317, 447 n.7, 468, 489, 530
depreciation deductions, 152, 188, 190
Technology. See Critical technologies;
Energy-supply and end-use technologies;
Research, development, and demonstrations;
specific technologies
Texas, 338, 339, 397, 398, 401, 436, 567, 568
Thailand, 20
Thermochemical conversion
biomass-to-liquid fuel, 91, 226, 227, 228, 229, 232, 239-240, 252
carbon capture and storage, 74, 91-92, 226, 227, 228, 229-230, 231-233, 239, 250-251
co-fed biomass and coal, 3-4, 91-92, 227, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, 235, 237-238, 242, 245-246, 247-248, 249
coal-to-liquid fuel, 91, 92, 220, 227, 228-229, 230-231, 249
cost analysis, 91, 227-231, 244
direct liquefaction of coal, 230-231
environmental impacts, 249
Fischer-Tropsch process, 67, 72, 93, 220, 226, 228, 229, 230-231, 235, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240, 242, 252, 261
greenhouse gas emissions, 91-92, 227-228, 232, 236-237, 239
indirect liquefaction process, 220, 226-230, 232
methanol-to-gasoline process, 67, 72, 93, 220, 226-227, 228, 229, 235, 236-237, 238, 239, 240, 252, 258-259, 262
supply of fuel from, 92, 242-243, 244
water usage, 249
3M, 163
Townsend Advanced Energy, 163
Toxic Substances Control Act, 405
Toyota, 163
Transportation sector.
See also Air transportation;
Alternative transportation fuels;
Freight transportation;
Passenger transportation
barriers to improving energy efficiency, 172-173
baseline case, 141
consumption of energy, 137, 138, 155-157, 243
energy efficiency, 2, 3, 4, 38-39 n.1, 40, 41, 43, 44-46, 62, 82, 84-86, 88, 141, 155-174
energy intensity, 175
findings, 3, 4, 44-45, 173-174
greenhouse gas emissions, 4, 5, 16, 73, 84, 108, 156, 160, 211, 212, 333
infrastructure considerations, 86, 156-157, 160, 171, 174
intelligent systems, 86, 171-172
international comparisons, 157, 170
liquid fuel consumption, 36-37, 62-65, 139
petroleum dependence, 3, 14, 16, 17, 24, 62, 84, 89, 108, 139, 156, 180, 211, 243, 331
portfolio approach, 4, 5, 68, 71
potential for energy savings, 44-46, 62, 82, 84, 156, 157-169, 173
U
Underground Injection Control program, 407
Union of Concerned Scientists, 404
United Kingdom, 446, 463, 519, 522, 533
Ukraine, 452
Uranium
downblending, 538 n.38
enrichment, 483-484, 523 n.32, 536, 538
fuel cycle, 519
hydride fuel and moderator, 507, 509
imports, 538 n.39
mining and milling, 60, 485, 486, 536, 537-538
radioactive emissions, 541
resources and reserves, 13, 115, 458, 492-494, 496, 499, 518, 524, 535, 536
U.S. Department of Energy, 219
20% wind electricity generation scenario, 13, 95, 98-99, 305-306, 309-316
Advanced Fuel Cycle Initiative, 470, 510, 522
employment, 304
Job and Economic Development model, 313
Next Generation Nuclear Plant program, 456, 511
Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Office, 185, 293
Office of Nuclear Energy, 522
Office of Science, 76
RD&D programs, 194-195, 198, 221-222, 293
Solar America Initiative, 310, 316
U.S. Department of the Interior, 403 n.35
U.S. Department of Transportation, 219
U.S. energy system.
See also individual resources
aging of, 13
critical characteristics, 11-13
regional considerations, 31-32
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 219, 359
carbon storage regulations, 407, 441
Clean Air Interstate Rule, 404 n.39
Clean-Fuel Fleet Program, 261
coal mining standards, 408
New Source Review program, 188-189
radiation exposure limits, 546
vehicle size and weight limits, 46
websites on environmental regulation and assessments, 403 n.35, 542 n.45
U.S. Geological Survey, 340, 351
U.S. Maritime Transportation Security Act, 409
U.S. Minerals Management Service, 340, 351, 355, 403 n.35
U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 113, 114 n.18, 445, 449, 450-452, 454, 460, 472, 475, 478-479, 481, 487, 488, 490-491, 493, 496, 504, 505, 506, 507, 509-510, 541, 545, 546, 548, 550, 555, 558, 557
U.S. Office of Management and Budget, 310
Useful energy sources, defined, 12
V
Vermont, 196
W
Washington state, 196
Waste-heat and waste-materials as energy sources, 86, 87, 181, 182
Western Governors’ Association, 316
Western Wind and Solar Integration Study, 314
Windows, 84, 144, 149, 150-151, 155, 194-195, 197
Wind power
20% penetration scenarios, 13, 95, 98-99, 100, 309-316, 317
consumption, by sector, 17
costs, 57, 58, 96, 99, 100, 101, 121, 126, 274, 281, 293, 294-295, 296-299, 313-314, 317
deployment challenges, 60, 99, 101, 304-305
electricity generation capacity, 17, 27, 36, 51, 57, 95, 128, 272, 275-276, 316
employment, 304
environmental impacts, 101, 301, 302, 313
and greenhouse gas emissions, 69, 312
high-altitude kites, 291
integration in power grid, 3, 34, 57, 60, 81, 96, 99, 100, 101, 133, 280, 290, 296-297, 298, 306-307, 314-315, 317
manufacturing, materials, and labor requirements, 98, 311-313
offshore, 36, 58, 100, 126, 281, 294-295, 313-314
onshore, 36, 57, 58, 99, 100, 126, 276, 281, 293 n.5, 294-295, 297, 299
price of, 273
public policies, 95, 99, 101, 273, 274, 307, 308
resource base, 96, 128, 275-276, 279
self-erecting towers, 281
siting, 60, 101, 308-309, 315-316
storage and load management, 75, 99, 280, 281, 297, 308-309
technology description, 96, 280-281, 282
turbines, 95, 96, 100, 276, 279, 280-281, 282, 296, 304-305, 311-312, 315, 317
World GTL, 261
World Resources Institute, 404 n.38
Worldwatch Institute, 404 n.38
Z
ZEBRA battery, 627