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Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and National Research Council. 2009. America's Energy Future: Technology and Transformation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12091.
×

Index

A

Acetone-butanol-ethanol process, 253

ActaCell, 163

Advanced materials, 29, 74, 87, 184, 190, 281, 282, 513, 581

Air-quality standards, 88

Air transportation

air-traffic management, 157

consumption of energy, 157, 167

demand, 170

energy efficiency improvements, 45, 167, 170

freight, 86, 170

passenger, 86 n.8, 167, 170

Algal biodiesel, 75, 89, 252-253

Alkanes, 221, 225, 252

All Cell Technologies, 163

Altair Nanotechnologies, 163

Alternative transportation fuels.

See also Biofuels;

Cellulosic ethanol;

Coal-and-biomass-to-liquid fuels;

Coal-to-liquid fuels;

Corn ethanol;

Light-duty vehicles

barriers to deployment, 93-94, 250-252

biochemical conversion, 67, 90-91, 93, 219, 220-225, 234, 235-236, 237, 238, 241-242, 243, 244-245, 247, 248-249, 251, 252, 253, 256-258

carbon capture and storage, 4, 5, 64, 65, 66, 72, 73, 78, 94, 212, 220, 224-225, 226, 227, 228, 229-230, 231-233, 236, 237-238, 239, 250-251

carbon price, 38 n.1, 93, 234, 237, 238, 239-240, 244, 252, 371, 406

CO2 emissions, 4, 62, 71-73, 222, 224-225, 227-228, 232, 233-239, 243-244, 248-249, 262

coal liquefaction, 91, 211-212, 220-221, 226, 227, 230-232, 261, 335

compressed natural gas, 94, 258, 259-261

conversion technologies, 90-92, 219-233;

see also Biochemical;

Thermochemical

costs, 66-67, 92-93, 233-244, 252, 265-266

deployment scenarios, 93-94, 244-248, 252-267

dimethyl ether, 94, 258, 262-263

environmental impacts (non-greenhouse), 212, 248-249

feedstock supply, 213-219, 233-234, 235, 236, 241-244

findings, 3-4, 62-67, 73, 217-218, 224-225, 231-233, 243-244, 246-248

hydrogen, 4, 5, 6, 30, 44, 45, 67, 73, 74, 75, 84, 85, 94, 158, 160, 161, 164, 165, 166, 173, 174, 195, 258, 263-267

infrastructure for distribution, 90, 93, 221, 223, 224, 226, 251-252, 253, 254, 256, 259, 260, 263

methanol, 72, 94, 226, 258-259, 262

panel report, 31, 81

petroleum substitution potential, 73, 212, 245, 265-267

public policies and, 252, 264-265

RD&D, 74-75, 221, 247, 255, 265, 267

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and National Research Council. 2009. America's Energy Future: Technology and Transformation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12091.
×

supply, 233-234, 235, 236, 241-244

synthetic (GTL) diesel fuel, 94, 223, 258, 261, 263

technologies ready beyond 2020, 252-258

technologies ready beyond 2020 and 2035, 258-267

Aluminum industry, 175, 176, 179, 190, 185, 312

American Electric Power, 100, 314, 573, 602, 603, 625

American Iron and Steel Institute, 87, 182

American Lung Association, 404

American Recovery and Reinvestment Act, 272, 273, 274

American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, 152 n.12, 194

American Wind Energy Association, 272, 310

Ammonia, 249, 401, 402, 422, 423, 431, 432, 434-435, 512

Anaerobic digestion, 253, 283

Appliances and electronics

availability, 153

biomass-fueled, 322

consumer-targeted programs, 200

demand for, 137

energy-efficiency standards, 154 n.13, 192, 193-194, 197, 198, 200

energy savings, 41, 193-194

improvements in, 142

information availability, 87-88

lifespan, 141

load management technologies, 84, 153, 585, 597, 605-606, 617, 630

manufacturing, 175

in new homes, 137, 151

potential savings, 146, 147, 148

R&D, 194-195

remanufactured, 185

tax credits, 195

wood-burning, 322

Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, 344, 345, 351, 354, 355

Argonne National Laboratory, 163, 370 n.21, 388, 523 n.19

Arsenic, 249

Australia, 20, 286, 485, 486, 535, 538, 540

Automotive Energy Supply joint venture, 163

B

Battery technologies

costs, 85, 163, 168, 582, 625

deployment timeframe, 116, 163, 626

industry alliances and partnerships, 163

for LDVs, 4, 5, 6, 76, 85, 159, 160, 162-163, 174, 263-264

lead-acid, 162, 582, 627

lithium ion, 162-163, 625, 627

nickel cadmium, 627

nickel metal hydride, 625, 627

performance capabilities, 85, 159, 163, 165

R&D opportunities, 6, 30, 76, 79, 85, 625-626

reliability issues, 582, 625

size/weight considerations, 159, 160

sodium-sulfur, 582, 625, 627

status of, 162

for T&D system storage, 6, 51, 61, 78, 291, 307, 309, 582, 584, 601, 616, 634, 625-626, 627

vanadium redox, 625, 627

ZEBRA, 627

zinc bromide, 625, 627

Behavior. See Consumer behavior

Biobutanol, 89, 213, 220, 221, 253-254

Biochemical conversion of fuel

air emissions, 248-249

biobutanol, 253

carbon capture and storage, 220, 224-225, 236, 237-238

cellulosic ethanol, 67, 90-91, 93, 221-225, 234, 235-236, 237, 244-245, 251

corn ethanol, 90, 91, 219-220, 234, 241-242

costs, 90, 92-93, 222, 223, 224, 234, 237, 238, 241, 251, 252

findings, 224-225

genomics applications, 225, 256-257

and greenhouse gases, 90, 222, 224-225, 234, 248-249

metabolic and bioprocess engineering applications, 256, 257-258

plant siting, 247-248

process, 220-225

RD&D, 90, 221-222, 224

supply of fuel from, 90-91, 241-242, 243, 244-245

synthetic biology applications, 257

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and National Research Council. 2009. America's Energy Future: Technology and Transformation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12091.
×

technical challenges, 225, 251

technology improvement scenarios, 222-225, 251, 256-258

transport and distribution challenges, 90, 221, 223

water use, 248

Biodiesel, 37, 62 n.17, 75, 89, 213, 252-253

Biofuels.

See also Biochemical conversion;

Biomass;

Biomass-to-liquid fuels;

Cellulosic ethanol;

Coal-and-biomass-to-liquid fuels;

Corn ethanol

advanced, 66, 221, 224-225

algal biodiesel, 75, 89, 252-253

bacteria- and yeast-based direct routes to, 255-256

biobutanol, 89, 213, 220, 221, 253-254

from CO2 feedstocks, 74-75

consumption, 21, 37

greenhouse gas emissions, 212, 213, 224-225

hydrocarbon fuels from biomass, 3-4, 225, 254-255

potential of, 66, 73, 212, 245

production strategy, 247-248

R&D, 74-75, 221-222, 224

Biomass

carbon issues, 72, 221, 229

co-fed coal, see Coal-and-biomass-to-liquid fuel

consumption, 17, 18, 332

cost of energy from, 58

on CRP lands, 89, 214, 215, 218, 234

diesel fuel components, 255

distance from conversion plant, 215-216, 217

electricity generation, see Biopower

environmental impacts of crops, 248

findings, 217-218

food/feed crop displacement, 89, 213, 217, 233, 289, 299

gasification technologies, 226, 227, 228, 229, 232, 361-362 n.15, 386, 422

gasoline blend stock, 254-255

greenhouse gas emissions, 69, 72, 212

hydrocarbon fuels from, 254-255

incentives for growers, 89-90, 216-217, 218

industrial use, 17, 180

non-electricity applications, 32, 321-322

price delivered to conversion plant, 215

supply, 32, 37, 66, 77, 89-90, 211, 213-217, 221, 229-230, 233, 235

sustainable production, 89, 214-215, 217-218

systems approach to production, 216-217

Biomass-to-liquid fuels.

See also Biochemical conversion

competitiveness, 239-240

costs, 67, 91, 217, 222-223, 224, 234, 237-238, 239-240, 241, 251, 252

environmental concerns, 212

feedstock supply, 213-217

greenhouse gas emissions, 71, 91, 212, 227, 234, 237-238, 239

R&D, 217-218

supply of fuel from, 37, 241-242, 243, 244-245

thermochemical conversion, 91, 226, 227, 228, 229, 232, 239-240

Biopower

build time, 128

capacity, 128, 390-391

carbon balance, 69, 288, 386-390

co-firing with coal, 361-362 n.15, 391

cost estimates, 57, 58, 126, 294-295, 390

defined, 287-288

employment, 304

environmental impacts, 101, 288, 302

feedstock supply, 32, 287-288, 289, 299

landfill gas fuel, 97, 272 n.2, 287, 288, 387

land-use values, 301

market share, 304

municipal solid waste fuel, 89, 97, 213-214, 217, 235, 235, 272, 273, 287

oxygen-blown gasification, 288-289, 386, 419, 421

policies, 273

pretreatment step, 221, 222, 224, 288-289, 251, 288

prospects, 299, 385-391

readiness for deployment, 291, 317

sources, 97, 235, 272 n.2

supply of electricity, 36, 51, 271-272, 288, 316, 317, 385-386

technology description, 97, 287-289

wood-based, 97, 272 n.2, 288

Biotechnology, 4, 254, 255-258

Brazil, 20

British Petroleum, 254, 336

Buildings sector.

See also Appliances;

Commercial;

Residential

advanced technologies, 83-84, 149-152, 155

barriers to improving energy efficiency, 77, 152-154, 155

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and National Research Council. 2009. America's Energy Future: Technology and Transformation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12091.
×

capital investment needs, 83, 148, 152-154

combined heat and power production, 83, 144, 155

conservation supply curves, 40, 82, 83, 140, 144, 145-149

consumption of energy, 2, 14, 83, 137, 139, 141-142

cooling and heating systems, 14, 41, 47, 83, 145, 149, 150, 193

cost-effectiveness of improvements, 41, 148, 155

cost of conserved energy, 45-46, 47, 48-49, 145, 146-148, 149

drivers for improving, 84, 154, 155

electricity consumption, 41, 42, 47, 139, 141, 146-147, 155

electricity generation capacity, 154-155

end-use and technology approach, 145, 150

energy codes, 38-39 n.1, 40, 50, 88, 146, 153, 154, 192, 194, 198, 199, 200, 201, 319

energy efficiency, 2, 38-39 n.1, 40-41, 42, 47-49, 87-88, 136-137, 140, 141-155, 193, 194, 195, 197

energy intensity, 141-142

findings, 2, 47-49, 154-155

integrated (whole-building) approaches, 84, 143-144, 145, 149-152, 155

lighting, 47, 50, 83, 84, 142, 143-144, 146, 147, 149, 150-151, 153, 154 n.12, 155, 193, 194, 195, 197

limitations of studies, 143, 155

natural gas consumption, 14, 15, 17, 24, 37, 41, 48-49, 139, 146-147, 155, 259, 331

payback period for technologies, 82, 148, 153

petroleum consumption, 17, 24, 139

potential energy savings, 47-49, 50, 83, 143-145, 155

projected energy demand, 41, 42

RD&D, 150, 197

reference case, 141, 145-146

regulatory policies, 87, 152-153

retail price of energy, 47-48, 83, 148, 149, 152

services for improving energy efficiency, 153-154

stock of buildings, 141

tax credits, 195-196

windows, 84, 144, 149, 150-151, 155, 194-195, 197

Bureau of Land Management, 351, 352

Bush (George H.W.), administration, 26, 458 n.34

Bush (George W.), administration, 26, 458 n.34, 461, 470, 492, 510

Business-as-usual reference case, xi, 36

alternative transportation fuels, 93-94, 247

buildings sector, 2, 141, 145-146

CO2 emissions, 2, 11

deployment of technologies, 93-94

energy efficiency improvement, 2, 141, 145-146, 177, 178-179, 186

energy supply and consumption, 12, 36

fossil fuels, 11

industrial sector, 2, 141, 177, 186

nuclear power, 446-447

transmission and distribution system, 635

transportation sector, 2, 141, 247

C

California

air emission standards, 263, 393-394, 404

electricity demand, 617

electricity T&D, 567, 581 n.22, 617

energy efficiency standards, 191, 193, 196, 198, 199-200

geologic storage of CO2, 340

nuclear power, 481 n.82, 531

Canada

carbon capture and storage, 424

crude oil resources, 416

electricity T&D interconnections, 567, 573

methane hydrate mining, 418

natural gas exports, 15, 102-103, 336 n.3, 346

nuclear power, 507

tar sand resources, 340, 408-409

uranium resources, 485, 538

Cap and trade programs, 38 n.1, 189, 252, 393-394, 406

Carbon accounting, 230, 251, 368, 387-388

Carbon capture and storage (CCS).

See also Geologic storage of CO2;

specific energy sources

in biochemical conversion of fuel, 220, 224-225, 236, 237-238

capture-ready plants, 3, 39, 51, 230, 366-369

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and National Research Council. 2009. America's Energy Future: Technology and Transformation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12091.
×

chemical looping, 364, 365, 421, 430, 431

CO2 compression, 69-70, 105, 106 n.13, 224, 226, 227, 363, 424-425, 431, 434, 435

CO2 separation, 267, 363, 364-365, 397, 422, 423, 430-431, 434

co-capture of CO2 and other pollutants, 364, 365, 424

costs, 52, 67, 91, 212, 227-230, 360, 364, 368, 369-370, 434-435

and costs of electricity, 16, 425

demonstration of commercial viability, 5, 6, 39, 51-52, 65, 66, 68, 70, 73, 74, 91, 92, 107, 108-109, 212, 225, 227, 228, 230, 232-233, 250-251, 361, 360, 365, 378, 382-383, 397, 398, 431, 432

energy requirements, 367

environmental issues, 406-407

findings, 5, 39, 231-233

and greenhouse gas emissions, 69, 72, 300

importance, 30, 92, 300

industrial sector, 183

infrastructure, 339

NCGG plants, 365

nontechnical issues, 439-441

oxygen-blown gasification, 288-289, 386, 419, 421

oxygen production, 423-424

parallel programs, 225

partial capture, 368-369

pipelines for CO2, 60, 109, 339, 368, 377 n.24, 382, 396, 397, 402, 406-407, 419, 420-421, 435, 439

policy environment, 230, 251, 368, 382

R&D, 107-108, 364-365, 431-432

retrofitting plants for, 3, 5, 51, 53-54, 69-70, 72, 104, 105, 367, 369, 381-382, 383, 384, 392, 395

safety issues, 16, 212, 406-407, 436

siting, 439-440

status, 16, 39

strategies, 74, 421-426

thermochemical conversion of biofuels and, 74, 91-92, 94, 226, 227, 228, 229-230, 231-233, 250-251

Carbon controls, 78, 38 n.1, 189, 244, 393-394, 406.

See also Cap and trade;

Carbon price

Carbon dioxide emissions.

See also Carbon capture and storage;

Geologic storage of CO2;

Greenhouse gas emissions;

individual energy sources and sectors

alternative transportation fuels, 62, 64, 66

annual U.S. emissions, 68

biochemical conversion processes, 234

cap and trade programs, 38 n.1, 189, 393-394, 406

carbon prices, 28, 38 n.1, 52, 93, 234, 237, 238, 239-240, 244, 252, 371, 406

by energy source, 72

negative, 69, 71, 72, 91, 227, 230, 232, 237, 238, 362, 389, 391, 395

policies and regulations, 33, 52, 252, 361

timeframe for reducing, 68, 71

trends, 11

Carbon dioxide feedstock, 75

Carbon dioxide injection for enhanced oil recovery, 91, 224, 227, 338-340, 341, 342, 343, 396, 397, 398, 401, 402, 407, 424, 435-437

Carbon price/taxes, 28, 38 n.1, 52, 93, 105, 234, 237, 238, 239-240, 244, 252, 371, 378, 390, 402, 406

Carter administration, 26, 458 n.34

Cellulosic ethanol

barriers to deployment, 250, 251

capacity build, 244-245

carbon capture and storage, 5, 65, 66, 224-225, 236, 237-238

commercial development, 221-222, 224, 251

conversion technologies, 3, 67, 89, 90-91, 93, 221-225, 234, 235-236, 237, 244-245, 251

costs, 92-93, 125, 127, 222-223, 224, 237-238, 240, 251

deployment, 92-93, 125, 127, 222, 244-245

economic competitiveness, 66, 67, 92-93

environmental impacts, 248

feedstock, 4, 213-217, 222-223

greenhouse gas emissions, 5, 66, 71-72, 213, 224-225, 236, 238, 239

infrastructure issues, 221, 223-224, 225, 251-252, 254

petroleum replacement potential, 3-4, 63, 66, 90, 91, 221-222

production capacity, 90-91, 244-245

RD&D, 6, 64, 74, 221-222, 224

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and National Research Council. 2009. America's Energy Future: Technology and Transformation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12091.
×

sources, 235, 236

supply potential, 63, 66, 129, 241-242

systems approach, 250

waste-heat and waste-materials as energy sources, 221

Cement industry, 44, 86, 87, 175, 178, 182-183, 186, 402, 423

Cesium, 461, 519, 522, 523, 552

Chemical Engineering Plant Construction Cost Index, 372

Chemical manufacturing, 86, 175, 176, 178, 180, 184, 186, 190, 226, 331 n.2

China, 20, 77 n.19, 135, 175, 319, 504, 505, 509, 572, 605, 630

Chernobyl accident, 446

Chlorofluorocarbons, 11 n.3

Chrysler, 163

Clean Air Act, 26, 78, 384, 405

Clean Air Act Amendments, 189

Clean Air Interstate Rule, 40, 404 n.39

Clean Air Scientific Advisory Committee, 404

Clean-Fuel Fleet Program, 261

Clean Water Act, 405, 539

Climate change, 11 n.3, 25

Clinton administration, 26, 458 n.34

Clostridium beijernickii BA101, 253

Coal

air-blown PC plants, 106, 121, 124, 126, 128, 228, 361-365, 366, 369-379, 380, 381, 382, 383-385, 387, 388, 389, 395, 406-407, 419, 420, 425, 428, 430, 432

as alternative fuel source, 74,

see also Coal-and-biomass-to-liquid;

Coal-to-liquid

attributes, 332

carbon capture and storage, 3, 39, 51, 53, 58, 68, 69-70, 366-379, 421-426, 430-441

CO2 emissions, 16, 24, 68, 69-70, 356, 360

co-fed biomass and, 91, 235, 237-238, 242, 245-246

consumption, 14, 17, 18, 21, 22, 36, 218, 332, 336

costs, 16, 52, 57, 58, 219, 420-421

electricity generation, 3, 13, 14, 16, 17, 23, 24, 36, 49, 51, 53, 57, 58, 68, 69, 71, 74, 189, 218, 331, 358, 360, 366-379, 381-385, 419-430

environmental impacts, 16, 52, 92, 219, 249, 408

findings, 3, 219

future contributions, 381-385

industry use, 14, 17, 24, 176, 180, 182

infrastructure constraints, 13, 16, 23, 218

integrated gasification and combined cycle (IGCC) plants, 70, 74, 104, 106, 121, 124, 126, 128, 228, 361, 363-364, 365, 367, 369-373, 376, 377-378, 380, 381, 382, 383, 384, 385, 386, 387, 388, 389-390, 395, 406, 410, 419, 421, 425, 426, 428, 431, 432

liquefaction, 91, 211-212, 220-221, 226, 227, 230-232, 261, 335;

see also Coal-to-biomass-to-liquid fuels;

Coal-to-liquid fuels

locations of power plants, 398

mining, 16, 60, 218, 219, 249, 355, 408

new plants with CCS, 53, 381-385

oxyfuel plants, 70, 74, 104, 364, 365, 367, 395, 419, 423-424

oxygen-blown gasification, 288-289, 386, 419, 421

pollution control, 189

prices, 16, 25, 59, 235, 355, 358

production (domestic), 66, 336, 355

pulverized coal (PC) plants, 106, 121, 124, 126, 128, 228, 361-365, 366, 367, 369-379, 380, 381, 382, 383-385, 387, 388, 389, 395, 406-407, 419, 420, 425, 428, 430, 432

RD&D, 6, 64, 74, 221-222, 224, 430-441

reserves and resources, 16, 89, 92, 218-219, 336, 355-356, 357, 358

retirement of plants, 69, 105, 381, 382, 383, 394-395, 419, 426, 427, 428-429

retrofitted/repowered plants with CCS, 53, 69-70, 71, 77

safety management, 408

supercritical PC, 105, 361, 362, 367, 373, 419

supply curves, 234

supply of electricity, 36, 49

T&D system, 16

timeframe for deployment of clean technology, 430-441

ultrasupercritical PC, 70, 74, 104-105, 128, 362, 363, 367, 419, 430-431

Coal-and-biomass-to-liquid fuels

capacity build, 245-247

carbon capture and storage, 4, 65, 66, 73, 91-92, 94, 230, 239

commercial development, 227, 230

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and National Research Council. 2009. America's Energy Future: Technology and Transformation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12091.
×

conversion technologies, 3-4, 74, 91-92, 227, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, 235, 237-238, 242, 245-246, 247-248, 249

costs, 67, 91, 92-93, 227, 228, 229, 230, 231, 240

demonstrations, 66, 227

deployment, 93-94, 245-247

environmental impacts, 4, 92, 249

feedstock requirements, 66, 92, 246

findings, 246-248

greenhouse gas emissions, 4, 66, 71-72, 91-92, 227, 232, 239

petroleum replacement potential, 4, 65, 66

production capacity, 5, 91, 92

siting of plants, 92, 247-248

supply, 32, 37, 63-64, 65, 211

Coal-to-liquid fuels

capacity build, 245

carbon capture and storage, 64, 65, 72, 73, 94, 212, 230, 239

competitiveness, 236-237

costs, 66, 67, 92-93, 228-231, 236-237, 240

direct liquefaction, 220, 230-231

environmental impacts, 249

feedstock supply, 218-219

greenhouse gas emissions, 64, 72, 211-212, 227, 239, 245

supply, 37, 63-64, 65, 245

thermochemical conversion, 220, 227, 228-229, 230-231

Coastal Zone Management Act, 305

Combined-heat-and-power systems (cogeneration), 44, 51, 86, 87, 88, 144, 176, 177, 178, 179, 181, 183, 186, 187, 190, 196, 198, 452

Commercial buildings.

See also Lighting

barriers to technology investments, 152, 153

combined heat and power systems, 144

consumption of energy, 17, 22, 36-37, 138, 141-142

cooling and heating systems, 193

electricity, 140, 147

energy efficiency savings, 40-41, 47-49, 140, 144, 147, 148

energy intensity, 141-142

energy management and control systems, 83-84, 142

lease structures, 153

low-energy buildings, 84, 144, 152

natural gas consumption, 140, 148

price of energy, 149

solar voltaic systems, 144

whole-building approach, 144

Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act, 405

Concentrating solar power

backup capability, 284

cooling systems, 84, 150

costs, 58, 285, 293, 294-295

dish-Stirling engine systems, 97, 284, 285

electricity generating capacity, 96, 272, 276-277

employment, 304

greenhouse gas emissions, 69

high-temperature chemical processing, 97, 101, 285

molten salt receivers, 285

non-electricity applications, 284, 285

optical materials, 97, 285

parabolic troughs, 97, 284, 285

power towers, 97, 284-285

resource base, 276-277

storage, 276, 284

technology description, 97, 284-285

Connecticut, 196, 481 n.82

Conoco Phillips, 261

Conservation Reserve Program (CRP), 89, 214, 215, 218, 234

Conservation supply curves, 40, 82, 83, 140, 144, 145-149

Consumer behavior

economic factors, 136-137, 154, 156, 172, 173

education, training, and technical assistance, 196-197, 200, 201

energy-efficient technologies, 49, 50, 79, 136-137, 154, 156, 172, 192

information/awareness factors, 136, 137, 154, 155

policies targeting, 196-197, 200, 201

preferences, 136, 137, 156, 192

risk aversion, 136, 192, 260

and transportation energy efficiency, 136, 156, 172

Consumption. See Energy consumption

Context for the report

aspects not assessed, 31-33

challenges to sustainable transformation, 25-27

charge to the committee, 10, 30-33, 36

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and National Research Council. 2009. America's Energy Future: Technology and Transformation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12091.
×

cost estimates, 32-33

current U.S. energy system, 11-25

panel reports, 31

strategy of the committee, 30-33

technology role, 27-30

timeframes, 30

Cooling systems, 14, 41, 47, 83, 145, 149, 150, 193.

See also Heating and cooling systems

Corn ethanol

biochemical conversion, 220-221, 234 n.6, 241-242

CO2 emissions, 72, 236, 238, 239

consumption, 17, 213

costs, 67, 234-236, 237, 240

grain supply, 233

plant build rates, 90-91, 127

price of corn, 235

production capacity, 90-91, 129, 245

social and environmental concerns, 63, 89, 213

supply, 233, 241-242, 243, 331

sustainability, 89, 220-221

Cost-effectiveness of energy-efficiency technologies, 2, 40-41, 49, 82, 148, 154, 155, 181

Costs.

See also specific sectors, resources, and technologies

before-tax discount rate, 126-127

comparison of power plant capital costs, 374-376

conditional assumptions, 32-33

of conserved energy, 45-46, 47, 48-49, 145, 146-148, 149

debt/equity, 126-127

drivers of, 292-293, 379

externalities, 14 n.7, 29, 252, 299

feedstock and food costs, 121, 124-125

financing period, 122, 126-127

levelized cost of electricity, 55-60, 293-297, 369-379, 380, 381, 390

life-cycle, 50, 56, 136

limitations, 121, 124-125

methodologies for estimating, 32-33, 55-56, 120-131

overnight costs, 122, 126-127

plant life, 121, 126-127

plant maturity, 121, 124-125

plant size, 121, 124-125

projections for evolutionary nuclear plants, 526-532

reference scenario, 120

simultaneous expansion and modernization of T&D system, 61

site-dependent impacts, 57

source of, 120-121

source of supply estimates, 122, 126-127

uncertainties in estimates, 56, 59

underlying assumptions, 32

Council on Environmental Quality, 403 n.35

Critical technologies, 30

D

Delivered electricity, 42, 43

Demand. See Energy demand;

Electricity demand

Demand-side management, 88

smart meters, 9 n.1, 45, 60, 118, 153, 292, 578, 579, 580, 589, 591, 598, 603, 605-606, 632

state/utility policies, 196, 199-200

Demonstrations. See Research, development, and demonstrations

Denmark, 138, 140

Deployment of new technologies, general.

See also specific technologies and energy sources

accelerated, 6, 35, 37-38, 39, 76-79

barriers to, 60, 76-79, 87-88, 93-94, 136-137, 152-154, 155, 172-173, 185-189, 191-192, 202, 250-252, 447, 477-482, 494-495, 497-498

consumer resistance to, 35, 50

coupling energy-supply and supporting technologies, 78

“crash” effort, 35

economic effects on end-users, 35, 50

industrial capacity and personnel for, 77-78

options, 38-39

parallel tracks, 30, 57, 174, 225, 400, 605

portfolio approach, 68

readiness for, 38, 39

siting concerns, 57, 60

supply factors, 77-78

timeframes for, 35

turnover rate of infrastructure and, 77

Diesel fuel

biodiesel, 37, 62 n.17, 75, 89, 213, 252-253

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and National Research Council. 2009. America's Energy Future: Technology and Transformation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12091.
×

components from biomass, 255

freight transport, 171

synthetic (GTL), 223, 258, 261, 263

supply, 37

thermal efficiency, 262

thermochemical conversion, 228

Dimethyl ether, 94, 258, 262-263

Dimethyl furan, 254

Duke Energy, 187, 376

DuPont, 254

E

EaglePicher, 163

Eastern Wind Integration and Transmission Study/Joint Coordinated System Planning Study, 100, 314-315

Economic growth, 25

Economic recession, xii, 15, 77, 95, 222, 272, 526

Electric motors, 145, 159, 162, 180, 184, 193, 263

Electric Power Research Institute, 293, 382, 420, 527 n.24, 531, 550 n.62, 592, 632

Electricity consumption

energy efficiency savings, 40-41, 140, 146-147, 150, 154

per capita, 199

projected, 146

by sector, 41, 42, 47, 139, 140, 141, 146-147, 155, 180, 181, 184

time-of-use pricing programs, 186

Electricity demand

building sector, 155

charges and demand-response incentives, 189

electrified vehicle fleet and, 4, 44-45, 155, 366

energy-efficiency technologies and, 32, 44-45, 155, 189

price of energy and, 186, 199

T&D system and, 27

Electricity generation.

See also Nuclear energy

age of baseload plants, 23

air-blown PC plants, 106, 121, 124, 126, 128, 228, 361-365, 366, 369-379, 380, 381, 382, 383-385, 387, 388, 389, 395, 406-407, 419, 420, 425, 428, 430, 432

baseload, 57, 58-59, 60

biomass, 51, 57, 58

capacity increases, 154-155

carbon capture and storage, 78, 107-108, 360-361, 362-369, 421-426, 430-441

challenges, 359-361

CO2 emissions, 333, 358-359, 360, 362-365, 366, 428-429

coal-fired plants, 3, 13, 14, 16, 17, 23, 24, 36, 49, 51-52, 53, 57, 58, 59, 68, 69, 71, 74, 104-105, 189, 218, 331, 358, 359, 360, 365-369, 381-385, 395, 419-430

combined-heat and power plants, 51

competitiveness of technologies, 51, 59

consumption of liquid fuels, 37

costs, 55-60, 105-107, 360, 366, 369-379, 380, 395, 420-421, 428

findings, 394-396

fossil fuel, 51, 58, 104-107, 358-396

fuel costs, 57, 58-59, 365-366

health concerns, 60

integrated gasification and combined cycle (IGCC) plants, 70, 74, 104, 106, 121, 124, 126, 128, 228, 361, 363-364, 365, 367, 369-373, 376, 377-378, 380, 381, 382, 383, 384, 385, 386, 387, 388, 389-390, 395, 406, 410, 419, 421, 425, 426, 428, 431, 432

intermittent, 57, 58-59

investment barriers, 359-361, 366

mix of coal, natural gas, and biomass plants, 391-394, 395, 425-426

natural gas, 3, 13, 14, 15, 16, 23, 24, 36, 51, 55, 57-58, 59, 68-69, 105-106, 259, 273, 314, 358, 360, 365-366, 425-426

NGCC plants, 23, 57-59, 69, 70, 105-106, 126, 128, 274, 361, 365, 366, 369-373, 377-378, 378, 380, 385, 387, 388, 389, 390, 393, 394, 426

new plants, 42, 45, 105, 359-360, 394-395, 427-428

oxyfuel plants, 70, 74, 104, 364, 365, 367, 395, 419, 423-424

PC/IGCC competition, 361-365

petroleum, 51, 359, 360, 365-366

portfolio approach, 4-5, 51, 107-108, 396

projections, 358

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and National Research Council. 2009. America's Energy Future: Technology and Transformation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12091.
×

RD&D, 395-396

renewable sources, 13, 51, 52, 57, 58, 59, 359

retail price of electricity, 47-48, 49, 56, 100, 188, 529

siting of facilities, 57, 60

supply curves, 391-394, 426-430

supply from new technologies or technology mixes, 49, 51-60

from waste heat and materials, 221, 235

water use, 60, 409-410

wholesale power markets, 56-57, 59

Electricity sector

barriers to improvement, 77

demand side technologies, 45, 60

energy efficiency improvements, 40-41

greenhouse gas emissions, 4, 5, 16, 24, 68-69, 70, 73

Electricity supply curves, 140

Electricity transmission and distribution (T&D) systems

AC and DC lines and cables, 580-581

accommodating all generation and storage options, 51, 60, 61, 576, 614-615

addressing problems, 574-575

advanced equipment and components, 116, 579-584, 604

barriers to deployment, 78, 117-118, 599-602, 606-607

benefits of modernization, 3, 60-61, 118, 594-599

cascading failures and blackouts, 60

characteristics of a modern grid, 611

communications system, 116-117, 586-587, 631-632

control technologies, 587-588

costs of connecting, 293 n.5, 296-297, 298, 317

costs of modernization, 58-59, 61, 117, 592-594, 606, 632-636

cultural and communication barriers, 601-602, 607

current system, 564-569, 604

custom power, 116, 578, 580, 583, 603, 622-623

customer motivation and involvement, 61, 617

decision-support tools, 117, 579, 589, 590, 591, 599, 603-604, 605, 613, 618, 633

deployment of a modern system, 602-604, 605-606

distribution system, 61, 605-606, 611

economic benefits, 115, 595-596

electrified vehicle fleet and, 4, 597-598

emergency response capability, 611

environmental benefits, 116, 596-599

FACTS technology, 116, 578, 579-580, 583, 588, 602-603, 617, 621-622

findings, 3, 60-61, 604-607

grid visualization, 117, 589, 590, 591, 613, 631

HVDC, 571, 572, 579, 580-581, 598, 603, 615, 616, 619, 623-624

integrating intermittent/renewable resources integrated in, xiii, 3, 27, 34, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 98-99, 116, 118, 133, 290, 291, 292, 296-297, 298, 305-307, 308, 314-315, 316, 322, 563, 576, 581-582, 584, 597, 604, 607, 614-615, 620, 624, 625

intelligent control and communications, 291, 292, 297, 322-323, 576-577, 586-588, 604, 611

investment barriers, 78, 600, 606

market accommodations, 61

modern system characteristics, 575-579

Northeast blackout of 2003, 573

operations planning and design, 590-591, 613-614

optimization and efficiency, 577, 613, 619-620

personnel and equipment shortages, 605

potential for deployment, 583-584, 588-589, 591

power electronics, 579-580

power quality, 577, 619

problems, 13, 78, 569-574

public safety benefits, 599

R&D, 607-608

regional ownership and regulation, 78, 152-153

regulatory and legislative barriers, 78, 152-153, 600-601, 606-607

reliability measures, 61, 611, 612

restoration after an emergency, 613

security, 115, 577, 579, 582, 587, 594-595, 596, 600, 601, 604, 618

self-healing, 576, 577, 579-580, 587, 616-617, 618, 621

sensing and measurements, 116-117, 584-585, 604, 628-630

smart meters, 9 n.1, 45, 60, 118, 292, 578, 579, 580, 589, 591, 598, 603, 605-606, 632

storage, 6, 51, 61, 78, 291, 307, 309, 581-583, 584, 601, 616, 624-626, 627, 634

system operations, 589-590, 591, 613

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and National Research Council. 2009. America's Energy Future: Technology and Transformation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12091.
×

systems operator training, 590

technical barriers, 600, 606

technologies, 116-117, 578-592, 604-605

terrorist threats, 618

transformers, 193, 375, 564 n.1, 571, 583, 598-599, 618, 620, 621, 622, 626-628, 633

transmission system, 60, 61, 314-315, 317, 564, 605, 606

wholesale power markets, 576, 615-616

Electronics. See Appliances and electronics

Emergency Economic Stabilization Act, 273

Endangered Species Act, 40, 405

Energy conservation, xiii, 33, 40 n.3, 61, 135 n.1, 145 n.7

Energy consumption.

See also Electricity consumption;

specific fuels

air transportation, 157, 167

buildings sector, 2, 14, 83, 137, 139, 141-142

business-as-usual reference case, 2, 21, 36-37

comparison of sectors, 17, 22, 36-37

current, 2, 17, 135

factors affecting, 142

energy efficiency technologies and, 2, 11-12, 137-138

by fuel source, 17, 18, 21, 22, 36-37, 139, 332

historical, 19, 21, 137-138

industry, 14, 15, 17, 22, 36-37, 44, 136-137, 138, 139, 175-176, 180-183, 186

international comparison, 11-12, 20, 135, 138, 140

per capita, 19, 20, 138, 140

per dollar of GDP, 19, 20, 137-138, 140

projected, 2, 19, 21, 36-37

total, 22

Energy costs. See Costs

Energy demand.

See also Electricity demand

drivers of, 138

economic conditions and, 15, 25

impacts of technology development, 32

potential energy sources relative to, 13

projected, 41, 42

Energy-efficient technologies.

See also Appliances;

Buildings;

Industrial;

Light-duty vehicles;

Lighting;

Transportation

advanced, 83-84, 149-152, 155

availability, 82, 138-139, 140, 155, 191

barriers to deployment, 6, 76-77, 78, 87-88, 136-137, 152-154, 155, 172-173, 185-189, 191-192, 202

baseline/reference cases, 83, 177

capital investment needs, 83, 148

combined heat and power production, 44, 51, 86, 87, 88, 144, 176, 177, 178, 179, 181, 183, 186, 187, 190, 196, 198, 452

conservation distinguished from, 135 n.1, 145 n.7

conservation supply curves, 40, 82, 83, 140, 144, 145-149

consumer behavior, 49, 50, 79, 136-137, 154, 156, 172, 192

cost of conserved energy, 45-46, 47, 48-49, 145, 146-148, 149

cost-effectiveness, 2, 40-41, 49, 82, 148, 154, 155, 181

and demand for electricity, 32, 44-45, 155, 189

drivers of, 84, 88, 154, 155, 175, 189-190

dynamic nature of, 135, 149, 201-202

economic disincentives, 152-153

electricity generation capacity, 154-155

electricity savings, 40-41, 140, 146-147, 150, 154

end-use and technology approach, 145

findings, 1-2, 3, 4, 40-49, 50, 154-155, 173-174, 190-191, 202

informational and education needs, 87-88, 153, 187-188, 191

infrastructure considerations, 86, 88, 156-157, 160, 171, 174

integrated approaches, 84, 85, 143-144, 145, 149-152, 155, 200

international comparisons, 157, 170, 175, 176, 190

limitations of studies, 143, 155

natural gas savings, 43, 45 n.8, 48-49, 139, 140 146-147, 148, 154

panel report, 31, 81

payback period, 148, 153, 186

potential savings in energy, 1-2, 25, 40-49, 50, 62, 82, 83, 84, 88, 135, 137-138, 140-141, 143-145, 154, 155, 156, 157-169, 173, 192-198, 202

price of energy and, 47-48, 82, 83, 84, 88, 148, 149, 152, 156, 157, 165, 176, 186, 188, 189, 192, 197

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and National Research Council. 2009. America's Energy Future: Technology and Transformation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12091.
×

public policies and programs, 82, 86, 88, 148, 152, 154, 172-173, 189, 191-202

R&D, 6, 74, 85, 150, 174, 192, 194-195, 197, 200, 201

rates of return, 41, 43 n.6, 47, 49, 77, 78, 82, 83, 177, 190

regulations and standards, 27, 28, 38-39 n.1, 40, 45, 46, 62, 78-79, 85, 87, 88, 142, 152-153, 154, 157, 166-167, 188-189, 191, 192-193, 197, 198, 267

societal benefits, 40

Energy Independence and Security Act (EISA) of 2007, 27, 45, 46, 62, 131, 157, 166, 167, 173, 174, 193, 245 n.8

Energy Information Administration (EIA), 271

business-as-usual reference case, 2, 11, 12, 36, 45, 57, 82, 141, 145-146, 177, 293

energy consumption projections, 2, 40, 45, 333

resource reserve estimates, 219

surveys, 142, 188

Energy intensity

buildings sector, 141-142

defined, 11

industrial sector, 175, 176, 179, 181-182, 184, 190

measurement, 141

price of energy and, 197

reducing, 179, 184, 190, 192, 197

trends, 11, 142, 176, 182, 197

Energy Policy Act of 2005, 27, 109 n.14, 113, 245 n.8, 466, 468, 530, 565, 601

Energy savings

energy efficiency improvements, 1-2, 25, 40-49, 50, 62, 82, 83, 84, 88, 135, 137-138, 140-141, 143-145, 154, 155, 156, 157-169, 173, 192-198, 202

methods and assumptions, 130-131

public policies and, 88, 192-198

Energy security, 1, 10, 12-13, 25-26, 55, 89, 92, 103, 135, 218, 219, 232, 247, 267, 596

Energy sources.

See also Primary;

Useful

access issues, 12

flows of energy, 12

stored, 12

ENERGY STAR® program, 88, 142, 150, 151, 154 n.13, 196-197, 198

Energy storage.

See also Battery technologies

dispatchable, for T&D systems, 61, 78, 291, 307, 309, 601, 616, 625

fuel cells, 4, 5, 6, 30, 44, 45, 67, 73, 74, 75, 84, 85, 94, 158, 160, 161, 164, 165, 166, 173, 174, 179, 195, 258, 263-267, 431, 621

LDVs, 4, 5, 6, 76, 85, 159, 160, 162-163, 174, 263-264

Energy supply.

See also individual energy sources

barriers to deployment of technologies, 77

business-as-usual reference case, 36-37

calculations, 126-129

by fuel source, 36-37

by production sector, 36-37

projected, 36-37

Energy-supply and end-use technologies

build time, 123, 128-129

competitiveness, 33

defined, 9 n.1

integrated assessment, 32

role in transforming energy system, 27-30, 32

Energy system. See U.S. energy system

EnerSys, 163

Envia Systems, 163

Environmental impacts.

See also Carbon dioxide;

Greenhouse gas emissions

aesthetics, 102, 302

biochemical conversion processes, 248-249

biomass profuction, 248

carbon capture and storage, 406-407

carbon monoxide, 260, 322

challenges in transforming energy systems, 25-26, 88

findings, 410

land-use impacts, 101-102, 248, 300-303, 313

life-cycle assessment, 300

monetized estimates, 405

nitrogen oxide emissions, xi, 11 n.3, 19, 159, 189, 248, 249, 260, 262-263, 288, 300 n.7, 301, 302, 313, 322, 333, 359, 363-364, 421

noise pollution, 102, 302

particulate emissions, 159, 249, 263, 288, 322, 333, 404, 405, 408, 541

policies and legislation, 26, 88, 302-303, 405, 407, 408-409, 410

in price of energy, 152

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and National Research Council. 2009. America's Energy Future: Technology and Transformation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12091.
×

sulfur oxides, xi, 189, 249, 288, 301, 313, 333, 369, 408

water supply/pollution, 101, 301, 313, 408, 409-410, 539-541

weather/climate, 301

wildlife and ecosystems, 301-302

Ethanol.

See also Cellulosic ethanol;

Corn ethanol energy produced compared to gasoline, 223

greenhouse gas emissions, 72

supply, 37, 241-242

European Union, 11, 20, 144, 157, 170, 506.

See also individual countries

Exports of energy, trends, 20.

See also individual sources

ExxonMobil, 226

F

Federal Renewable Electricity Production Tax Credit, 95, 99, 101, 273, 274, 298, 299, 307, 308, 317, 447 n.7, 468, 489

Feedstocks. See Biomass;

Coal

Finland, 446, 453, 504, 505

Fischer-Tropsch process, 67, 72, 93, 220, 226, 228, 229, 230-231, 235, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240, 242, 252, 261

Fish and Wildlife Service, 403 n.35

Florida, 151, 193, 393

FMC, 163

Ford administration, 26, 458 n.34

Ford Motor Co., 163

Fossil fuels.

See also Coal;

Natural gas;

Oil;

Petroleum

access issue, 350-355

carbon capture and storage, 2, 300-301, 406-407

CO2 emissions, 11, 16, 25, 300-301, 333, 358-359

consumption, 14, 332

cost comparisons, 369-379

dependence on, 14-15, 25, 333

economic importance, 14, 331-332

electric power generation, 3, 16, 104-107, 358-396, 418-419

environmental and safety issues, 11, 16, 25-26, 108-109, 300, 301, 333, 403-410

findings, 2, 356-358, 394-396, 401-402, 410

geologic storage of CO2, 396-402, 406-407

prices, 2, 14, 28, 365-366

resources and reserves, 13, 334-358, 415-418

supply and demand, 25, 357-358

for transportation, 108

water use, 409-410

world resources, 334-335

France

energy consumption, 140

geothermal projects, 286

greenhouse gas emissions, 533

nuclear fuel production and recycling, 519, 522, 533

nuclear power, 446, 453, 457 n.30, 504, 505, 508, 510 n.10, 519

Freight transportation

air, 86, 170

commercial HEVs, 156, 159-160

consumption of fuel, 156, 157, 171

intermodal transfers, 157, 171

potential energy efficiency improvements, 45, 171, 174

rail, 86, 170-171

truck transport, 85-86, 156, 170, 171

waterborne, 171

Fuel-cell technologies, 4, 5, 6, 30, 44, 45, 67, 73, 74, 75, 84, 85, 86, 94, 158, 160, 161, 164, 165, 166, 173, 174, 179, 195, 258, 263-267, 431, 621

Fuels. See Alternative transportation fuels

G

Gasification technologies

biomass, 226, 227, 228, 229, 232, 361-362 n.15, 386, 422

carbon capture and storage, 360, 387, 397, 406, 421, 425, 431

cellulosic ethanol production, 221-222

coal, 227, 228-229, 230-231, 360, 368, 386, 397, 406

co-fed coal and biomass, 3-4, 91, 227, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, 235, 237-238, 242, 245-246, 422

high-pressure systems, 231, 425

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and National Research Council. 2009. America's Energy Future: Technology and Transformation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12091.
×

integrated gasification combined cycle plants, 70, 74, 104, 106, 121, 124, 126, 128, 228, 361, 363-364, 365, 367, 369-373, 376, 377-378, 380, 381, 382, 383, 384, 385, 386, 387, 388, 389-390, 395, 406, 410, 419, 421, 425, 426, 428, 431, 432

oxygen-blown, 288-289, 386, 419, 421, 423-424

Gasoline.

See also Light-duty vehicles;

Oil;

Petroleum

blend stock, 223, 261, 262

consumption in U.S., 167

costs with and without carbon price, 93

taxes, 192

General Electric, 163

General Motors, 163

Genetics, 74

Genomics, 74

Geoengineering, 29, 75

Geologic storage of CO2.

See also Carbon capture and storage

capacity for, 399-400

characteristics of suitable sites, 399-400

coal-bed, 70, 107, 396, 398, 399, 433, 434

environmental issues, 407

findings, 401-402

monitoring, 441

oil and gas reservoirs, 70, 91, 107, 224, 224, 227, 338-340, 341, 342, 343, 396, 397, 398, 399, 401, 402, 407, 424, 433, 434, 435-437

potential sites, 396-401

regulation, 92, 339-341, 407, 410

saline aquifers, 70, 107, 226, 396-398, 399, 433, 434, 437, 438-439

subsurface retention of CO2, 339, 438-439

supply curves, 401-402

technologies, 400

Georgia Power, 187

Geothermal heat flux, 278

Geothermal power

consumption, by sector, 17

costs, 57, 58, 294-295

electricity generating capacity, 6, 13, 17, 57, 58, 97, 272, 279, 286, 316

employment, 304

enhanced geothermal systems, 6, 97, 278, 286, 292, 301

environmental impacts, 301

flash plants, 286

greenhouse gas emissions, 69

heat mining, 278, 286, 292

hydrothermal, 97, 128, 278, 285-286, 291, 301, 317

non-electricity applications, 320-321

policies, 273-274

R&D opportunities, 6, 75, 97

resource base, 278

steam plants, 286

technology description, 97, 285-286

Germany, 140, 286, 446, 509, 535, 540, 572, 581 n.23

Glass, 175, 285, 312, 318, 320

Greenhouse gas emissions.

See also Carbon dioxide;

Methane;

specific sectors, technologies, and energy sources

certifying biofuel benefits, 250

consumer awareness, 154

defined, 11 n.3

and global warming, xi, 11 n.3, 29, 40

life-cycle emissions, 212 n.1, 224-225

management, 29, 186;

see also Carbon capture

portfolio approach to reducing, 68-73

timeframe for reducing, 68, 71, 73

transportation sector, 4, 5, 16, 73, 84, 156, 160, 211

U.S. trends, 19

GREET model, 370 n.31, 388

GS Yuasa, 163

H

Heating and cooling systems

biomass, 32, 321-322

cogeneration, 44, 51, 86, 87, 88, 144, 176, 177, 178, 179, 181, 183, 186, 187, 190, 196, 198, 452

electric heat pumps, 321

geothermal heat pumps, 320-321

solar thermal, 318-320

Heritage Foundation, 404 n.38

Home electronics. See Appliances and electronics

Homes. See Residential

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and National Research Council. 2009. America's Energy Future: Technology and Transformation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12091.
×

Honda, 163, 264

Hybrid hydrogen-carbon process, 254

Hydrocarbon fuels from biomass, 3-4, 225, 254-255

Hydrogen fuel

costs, 265-266

and greenhouse gas emissions, 267

industry use, 182

LDVs, 4, 5, 6, 30, 44, 45, 67, 73, 74, 75, 84, 85, 94, 158, 160, 161, 164, 165, 166, 173, 174, 195, 258, 263-267

petroleum replacement potential, 94, 265-267

public policies, 264-265

sources, 263, 284, 285, 456

supply and fueling infrastructure, 160

Hydropower

consumption, 13, 17, 18, 332

costs, 57, 97, 100, 274

electricity generating capacity, 13, 18, 51, 52, 95, 98, 128, 197, 271, 290, 292

employment, 304

environmental impacts, 97, 287, 301-302

greenhouse gas emissions, 69, 300

marine and hydrokinetic, 97, 128, 273-274, 278-279, 287

ocean thermal energy conversion, 287

policy setting, 273-274

potential, 95, 98, 290, 317

price of electricity from, 464

R&D, 292

resource base, 278-279, 287

salinity gradient powet, 287

T&D system, 597

technology, 97, 279, 287, 291

I

Imports of energy, trends, 20.

See also individual sources

Independent power producers, 95, 128, 271, 359, 361, 465, 466, 467, 473, 473, 496, 527, 528, 529, 530, 531, 564, 566

India, 20, 452, 453, 504, 506, 524, 572

Industrial sector

advanced materials, 87, 184, 190

aluminum, 175, 176, 179, 190

barriers to improving, 88, 185-189

biomass use, 17, 180

capital market barriers, 188

carbon capture and storage, 183

cement, 44, 86, 87, 175, 178, 182-183, 186, 402, 423

chemical manufacturing, 86, 175, 176, 178, 180, 184, 186, 190

CO2 emissions, 175, 182, 183, 333

coal use, 14, 17, 24, 176, 180, 182

combined heat and power, 44, 86, 87, 176, 177, 178, 179, 181, 183, 186, 187, 190

consumption of energy, 14, 15, 17, 22, 36-37, 44, 136-137, 138, 139, 175-176, 180-183, 186

corporate sustainability, 190

cost-effectiveness of improvements, 181

costs of improvements, 186

crosscutting technologies, 87, 183-185, 190

demand charges and demand-response incentives, 189

electricity use, 139, 180, 181, 184

electric motors, 180, 184

energy-intensity, 175, 176, 179, 181-182, 190

external benefits and impacts, 186, 189

fabrication processes and materials, 87, 176, 179, 184-185

feedstocks, 175, 180, 190

findings, 190-191

hydrogen fuel, 182

information barriers, 187-188, 191

innovation, 179, 190

international comparisons, 175, 176, 190

investment barriers, 188

iron and steel, 43-44, 86, 87, 175, 177-178, 181-182, 186, 402, 423

major energy-consuming industries, 175

natural gas use, 14, 15, 17, 24, 37, 139, 176, 180, 183, 184, 259

on-demand manufacturing, 86

petroleum refining, 86, 87, 175, 176, 178, 180, 182, 184, 186, 188, 254-255, 334, 403, 423, 512

petroleum use, 17, 24 139, 175, 176, 180

policy and regulatory issues, 38-39 n.1, 177, 188-189, 198, 307

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and National Research Council. 2009. America's Energy Future: Technology and Transformation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12091.
×

pollution control, 184-185, 186, 188-189, 190

potential for energy savings, 2, 43-44, 82, 86-87, 176-179, 190

price of energy, 186, 188, 189

pulp and paper, 43-44, 86, 87, 175, 177-178, 181

RD&D, 182, 190, 195

reference case, 44, 86, 141, 178-179, 186

remanufacturing of used products, 87, 185

renewable energy use, 176

resource recovery and utilization, 86, 179, 186

return on investments, 82, 177, 190

risks of adopting new technology, 185-186

sensors and control systems, 87, 176, 180, 183, 185, 190

separation processes, 87, 176, 180, 181, 184, 190

steam heating and process heating, 180, 181, 184

thermochemical conversion, 74, 231, 247

time-of-use electricity pricing, 187

waste-heat and waste-materials as energy sources, 86, 87, 181, 182

Informational and education needs

energy efficiency, 87-88, 153, 187-188, 191

Infrastructure issues, 31.

See also Electricity transmission

energy-efficient technologies, 86, 88, 156-157, 160, 171, 174

International

comparisons, 157, 170, 175, 176, 190

cooperation, 29

International Atomic Energy Agency, 446-447, 491-492

International Energy Agency, 333, 397

International Energy Conservation Code, 194

Investment in clean energy

asset renewal or replacement, 13, 78

barriers to deployment of technologies, 77, 78, 136-137, 152-154, 185-189, 191

capital constraints, 95, 154, 188, 191, 274, 307

consumer resistance to, 49, 50, 79, 136-137, 192

cost-effectiveness, 40-41, 77

depreciation rules, 152, 188

energy efficiency technologies, 82, 83, 136-137, 142, 148, 152-154

externalities, 186

incentives for, 78

information barriers, 187-188, 191

life-cycle costs and, 136

mandatory, 188

market risks, 188

nuclear plants, 70-71

payback period, 82, 148, 153, 186

price of fuel and, xii, 82, 172, 192, 366

private-sector, 27, 77, 78

public sector, 78

regulatory policies and, 152-153, 188-189

renewable resources, 95, 274, 307

research, development, and demonstrations, 39, 74-76

returns on, 41, 43 n.6, 47, 49, 77, 78, 82, 83, 177, 190

risk perceptions, 71, 185-186, 192

tax credits, 38 n.1, 188, 195-196, 273-274

T&D systems, 78

trends, 27

Iron and steel industry, 43-44, 86, 87, 175, 177-178, 181-182, 186, 402, 423

Italy, 446, 574, 603

J

Japan

CO2 emissions, 535

electric transmission equipment exports, 571-572

energy consumption, 11, 20, 140, 170

industrial energy intensity, 190

LNG price to, 350

nuclear fusion, 463

nuclear power, 350 n.12, 446, 452, 457 n.30, 482, 492 n.108, 504, 505, 508, 509, 510, 522, 535

recycling used fuel, 522

transportation sector, 170

Japan Steel Works, 482

Johnson Controls-Saft, 163

L

Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 310

Lead-acid batteries, 162, 582, 627

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and National Research Council. 2009. America's Energy Future: Technology and Transformation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12091.
×

Legislation.

See also individual statutes

and development of new energy supplies, 40

energy, 27

environmental, 26-27, 40

piecemeal approach, 26

LG Chem, 163

Light-duty vehicles.

See also Alternative liquid fuels

battery-electric, 4, 45, 74, 78, 84, 85, 158, 159, 160, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 168, 174, 366, 597, 598

battery technology, 4, 5, 6, 76, 85, 159, 160, 162-163, 174, 263-264

body designs, 84, 85, 161, 173

CAFE standards, 28, 45 n.7, 46, 85, 157, 166-167, 192-193, 197, 198, 267

consumer preferences, 136, 156, 172

costs of improvements, 161, 165, 173, 264-265

demand for electricity, 44-45, 155, 366

deployment scenarios, 85, 164-167, 168-169, 173

diesel compression-ignition engines, 45, 84, 158, 159, 161, 164, 166, 263

electrification, 4, 44, 62, 67, 73

engine improvements, 84, 158-160, 164, 173, 195

environmental impacts of new technologies, 44, 73

EPA limit on truck weight, 46

fuel economy, 157-158

fuel efficiency improvements, 3, 4, 40, 41, 44-46, 67, 73, 140, 156, 158 n.19, 161, 164, 168

gasoline hybrid-electric, 45, 85, 86, 158, 159, 161, 162, 166, 267

gasoline spark-ignition engines, 45, 84, 158, 161, 164, 166, 263

greenhouse gas emissions, 5, 16, 73, 85, 160, 161, 164

hydrogen fuel-cell, 4, 5, 6, 30, 44, 45, 67, 73, 74, 75, 84, 85, 94, 158, 160, 161, 164, 165, 166, 173, 174, 195, 258, 263-267

international comparisons, 157

manufacturing, 172-173, 175

market share, 164-165, 166, 168

natural-gas-fueled, 259-260

nonpropulsion system improvements, 84, 85, 161, 166

petroleum consumption, 67, 89, 164, 167, 243

plug-in hybrid-electric, 4, 45, 74, 78, 84, 85, 158, 159-160, 161-164, 165, 174, 263-264, 598

potential for energy efficiency improvements, 44-46, 62, 84, 157-169, 173

power and size offsets, 40, 45, 46, 84, 85, 158, 161, 166-167, 173, 193

price of gasoline, 84, 156, 165

product development times, 173

production capability, 88

R&D, 6, 74, 85, 174, 195, 265

remanufactured parts, 185

tax credits, 195

tires, 84, 161, 166

transmission improvements, 84, 85, 160, 170, 173

travel reductions, 46, 167, 192

weight reductions, 161, 166, 173, 174

Lighting

compact fluorescent lamps, 50, 142, 149, 153, 154 n.12, 194

control systems, 144, 151

costs, 149

daylight, 84, 143-144, 150-151

energy savings, 47, 83, 142, 146, 147, 150-151

luminaires, 144

R&D, 195

regulations and standards, 41, 193, 194, 197

solid-state (light-emitting diodes), 83, 149, 155, 194

Lime, 175, 176, 183

Lime kilns, 87, 181

Limestone, 176, 182, 183

Liquefied natural gas, 15, 350, 380, 409

Liquefied petroleum gas, 262

Liquid transportation fuels, consumption, 331.

See also Alternative transportation fuels;

Biofuels;

Cellulosic ethanol;

Coal-and-biomass-to-liquid fuels;

Coal-to-liquid fuels;

Diesel;

Gasoline;

Petroleum

Lithium ion batteries, 162-163, 625, 627

M

Malaysia, 20, 261

Manhattan Project, 29, 522

Manufacturing Energy Consumption Survey, 188

Massachusetts, 193, 481 n.82, 531

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and National Research Council. 2009. America's Energy Future: Technology and Transformation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12091.
×

Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 222, 278, 470

Mercury, 149, 152, 249, 369, 408, 425, 482, 533, 596-597

Metabolic and bioprocess engineering, 256, 257-258

Methane

coal-bed, 103, 346, 347, 398, 402, 433, 435, 438

emissions, 11, 19, 259, 359, 368, 671

greenhouse forcing potential, 258, 260

hydrates, 75, 94, 258, 261, 346-347, 416-418

landfill gas power plants, 288

natural gas vehicles, 258

Methanol, 94

Methanol-to-gasoline technology, 67, 72, 93, 220, 226-227, 228, 229, 235, 236-237, 238, 239, 240, 252, 258-259, 262, 263

Micro-grids, 617

Micro-manufacturing, 179

MicroSun, 163

Micro-turbines, 598, 621

Microwave technologies, 179, 190, 291, 628-829

Minnesota, 196, 404 n.39, 481

Mobius Power, 163

Molecular biology, 74

Municipal solid waste, 89, 97, 213-214, 217, 235, 235, 272, 273, 287

N

Nanotechnology and nanomaterials, 179, 184, 185, 190, 283, 284, 291, 454, 513, 581

Naphtha, 226, 228, 261

National Academies, 404 n.38

National Energy Technology Laboratory, 362 n.16, 368 n.19, 370

National Environmental Policy Act, 26, 352, 405

National Mining Association, 404 n.37

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 403 n.35

National Petroleum Council, 341-342, 343, 344 n.8, 345, 349, 354, 404 n.36

National Petroleum Reserve, 351, 355

National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 310, 313

National Science Foundation, 76

Natural gas.

See also Liquefied natural gas;

Methane

access issue, 12, 71, 103, 348, 350-355

age of power plants, 23

attributes, 332

buildings sector, 14, 15, 17, 24, 37, 43, 48-49, 139, 146-147, 155, 259, 331

carbon capture and storage, 58, 69, 70, 71, 379-380, 422-423

CO2 emissions, 3, 16, 24, 68, 69, 70, 71, 102, 259-260, 360

combined cycle (NGCC) plants, 23, 57-59, 69, 70, 105-106, 126, 128, 274, 361, 365, 366, 369-373, 377-378, 378, 380, 385, 387, 388, 389, 390, 393, 394, 426

combustion turbine, 273

competitiveness, 105-106, 273, 314, 379-380, 406

compressed, 94, 258, 259-261

constraints on production, 338

consumption, 17, 18, 21, 22, 37, 139, 146-147, 259, 332-333, 335, 351

costs, 48-49, 273, 360

economic importance, 15

electricity generation, 3, 13, 14, 15, 16, 23, 24, 36, 51, 55, 57-58, 59, 68-69, 105-106, 259, 273, 314, 358, 365-366, 425-426

energy efficiency savings, 43, 45 n.8, 48-49, 139, 140, 146-147, 148, 154

environmental impacts, 355

exploration and production technology, 336, 343, 347-348

feedstock for fuel, 94, 258, 261

findings, 3

industrial use, 14, 15, 17, 24, 37, 139, 176, 180, 183, 184, 259

import dependence (potential), 3, 15, 16, 25, 37, 71, 103, 259, 314, 336, 350, 358

methane emissions, 259

new plants, 70

offshore, 346, 347, 348, 351-352, 353

pipelines, 109, 332, 334, 406, 407, 409

potential, 16

prices, 3, 15, 25, 48, 49, 57-58, 59, 71, 103, 188, 260, 261, 348, 349, 350, 360, 372

production (domestic), 15, 16, 37, 259, 335, 346-350, 351, 357

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and National Research Council. 2009. America's Energy Future: Technology and Transformation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12091.
×

reserves and resources, 2, 3, 15, 37, 102-103, 149, 259, 332, 335, 336, 346-350, 351-355, 357, 416-418

retrofitted plants with CCS, 70, 71

safety management, 260, 409, 418

shales, 15, 103, 105-106, 342, 343, 346, 347-348, 349, 350, 355, 358, 385, 405, 426

single-cycle plants, 23

“stranded,” 261

supply and demand, 103, 106, 354-355, 358, 361, 379-380, 426

tight gas sands, 15, 103, 346, 347

transportation fuel, 37, 139, 259-260

Natural Resources Defense Council, 404 n.7

NEC, 163

New Source Performance Standards, 78, 189, 384

New York, energy efficiency programs, 193, 198, 199, 200

New Zealand, 226

Nickel cadmium batteries, 627

Nickel metal hydride batteries, 625, 627

Nigeria, 261

Nissan, 163

Nitrogen oxide emissions, 11 n.3, 19, 159, 189, 248, 249, 260, 262-263, 288, 300 n.7, 301, 302, 313, 333, 359, 363-364, 421

Nixon administration, 26, 458 n.34

Norway, 107, 437, 524

Nuclear energy

accidents, 446, 453, 480, 489-491, 503, 553-555, 556-557

aging/retirement of plants, 13, 23, 53-54, 112, 447, 448, 472, 473, 474 n.70, 475, 481, 483, 497

barriers to deployment, 113-114, 447, 477-482, 494-495, 497-498

capacity factor, 54, 445, 448, 528

cogeneration, 452

consumption, 17, 18, 21, 22, 332

costs, 57, 58, 113, 198, 447, 463-471, 496, 526-532

demonstration needs and constraints, 55

downtime decreases, 110, 449, 451

economic barriers, 70-71, 113, 477-478, 497

electricity costs, 2, 464-470

environmental impacts, 114-115, 482-489

federal incentives, 39 n.2, 55, 58, 59, 447, 468-469, 532 n. 31

findings, 2, 3, 39, 70-71, 494-499

fossil fuel power plants compared, 467

greenhouse gas emissions, 16, 69, 70-71, 445, 482-484, 498, 533-536

improvements to existing plants, 52-53, 110, 448-451, 463-464, 474-475, 497

international interest, 446-447

new plants, 3, 51, 53, 445, 467

operating license extensions, 53-55, 110, 112, 450-451, 463-464, 473, 476, 497, 515, 546, 548

personnel and parts shortages, 481-482, 498

potential for deployment, 3, 13, 70-71, 112-113, 471-477

power uprates, 52-53, 110, 449-450, 474-475, 497

proliferation risk, 111, 458-459, 460, 462, 489, 491-492, 496, 499, 504, 518, 519, 522, 524

public concerns, 113-114, 447, 479-481, 497-498

refueling outages, 110, 451

regulatory and legislative issues, 113, 478-479, 498

R&D, 451, 499

safety and security, 115, 480, 489-492

share of electricity generation, 447-448

supply of electricity, 3, 14, 49, 51, 52-55, 114, 197, 447, 496-497

technologies, 110-112, 448-463;

see also Nuclear reactors

terrorist attacks, 489-491

water use, 485-486, 539-541

Nuclear Energy Advisory Committee, 456 n.27

Nuclear fuel cycle.

See also Uranium

alternative, 111, 113, 456-462, 470-471, 491, 499, 524-525, 551

breeding, 111, 456, 458, 507, 508, 510, 517, 518, 521-522, 523 n.19, 524

burning, 456, 457, 458, 459 n.41, 460-461, 462, 495, 496, 508, 510-511, 517, 518-519, 520, 521-522, 525

closed, 111, 410, 458-459, 461, 462, 471, 485-486, 510, 517-521, 523-525, 539, 540

costs, 470-471

defined, 458 n.32

disposal of spent fuel, 60, 486-489, 496

environmental impacts, 486-489, 536-539

full recycle, 461, 496, 519, 521

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and National Research Council. 2009. America's Energy Future: Technology and Transformation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12091.
×

high burn-up fuel, 455, 487, 499, 514, 551

inert matrix fuel (IMF), 462, 519-520, 521, 525

limited recycle, 458 n.14, 461, 462, 470-471, 519, 520, 521, 525

mining and milling impacts, 60, 301, 484-485

mixed-oxide fuel (MOX), 462, 495, 470, 471, 519, 520, 521

once-through, 458, 459 n.40, 462, 464 n.52, 470, 471, 485, 491, 492, 499, 517, 520, 524, 525, 534 n.35, 539, 540, 542

R&D opportunities, 455, 460-461, 524-525

recycling used fuel, 458, 459, 460, 461, 462, 470-471, 491, 495-496, 517, 519, 520, 521-523, 525, 539

separations technologies, 111, 459, 460, 462, 470, 471, 491, 495, 520, 522, 531-523

simulation and modeling, 525

thorium, 506, 523-524

transuranic targets, 458 n.23, 462, 521

world capasity, 446-447

Nuclear fusion, 29, 463, 495

Nuclear reactors

advanced boiling-water reactor, 453, 454 n.20, 474, 504, 505-506

advanced pressurized water, 453-454, 474, 504, 505, 506

advanced simulation codes, 515-516, 525

alternative designs, 111, 452-453, 455-457, 470-471, 503, 504-508, 509-510, 512, 524-525

AP1000, 453, 454

boiling-water, 452, 453, 472-473, 475, 505

coolants and cooling systems, 452, 453, 454, 485-486, 489-490, 499, 503, 506, 508, 512-513, 514, 539-540, 553, 554, 556

costs, 70-71

degradation phenomena, 450, 514-515

demonstration of commercial viability, 5, 6, 68, 70-71

design certification, 453, 454, 478, 479, 505, 506, 507, 509-510, 511

digital instrumentation and control, 455, 515

economic simplified boiling-water reactor (ESBWR), 453, 474

European pressurized water, 503, 504

evolutionary designs, 2, 5, 6, 39, 49, 68, 70-71, 110, 112, 113, 115, 124, 446-447, 448, 452, 453, 455, 463, 464-470, 472 n.68, 473, 486, 490, 494, 503-506, 509, 512, 513, 526-532, 540

fast, 111, 453, 456, 457, 461, 462, 470, 471, 506-507, 508, 521, 525

fuel rods, 454, 455

gas-cooled, 455 n.24, 504 n.5, 507, 508, 509, 511

heat transfer materials, 454, 499, 513-514

light water, 452, 453, 455, 456, 457, 459, 461, 462, 467, 470, 472, 503, 504, 509, 511, 512, 513, 514, 518, 519-521, 522, 524, 525, 544

neutron moderator, 452, 453

pressurized water, 452, 453, 503, 504, 473, 475, 505, 549

R&D opportunities, 6, 454-455, 457, 512-516

readiness for deployment, 39

small modular reactors, 456, 506-507, 509-510

sodium-cooled, 455 n.24, 457 n.30, 470, 504 n.5, 506 n.7, 507, 508, 509, 510, 511, 513

technologies, 451-457

thermal, 452, 453, 456, 458 n.33, 462, 486, 506-507, 508, 519, 521

U.S. evolutionary power, 453, 454, 474, 503, 504, 505

very-high-temperature, 456, 506-507, 508, 511-512

Nuclear waste management, 60

burning fuel cycles and, 518-519

costs, 528, 551

decommissioning wastes, 486-487, 528, 542, 543, 548, 550-551

environmental impacts, 486-489

final disposal, 480-481, 545-547

high-level wastes, 115, 436, 458 n.34, 486, 487-488, 496, 518, 545-547, 552

interim storage, 115, 488-489, 541, 543, 549, 547-548

low-level wastes, 461, 520, 543, 548-550

other operating wastes, 543, 548-550

public concerns, 447, 480-481, 498

used fuel disposal, 455, 542-544

Yucca Mountain high-level-waste storage, 115, 436, 458 n.34, 486, 487-488, 496, 545-547, 552

NuScale, Inc., 456, 506, 509

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and National Research Council. 2009. America's Energy Future: Technology and Transformation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12091.
×

O

Obama administration, 27, 41 n.4, 45 n.7, 62, 85 n.7, 157 n.18, 166 n.22, 193 n.24, 457 n.31, 458, 488, 492, 496, 510, 511, 545

Oil.

See also Gasoline;

Petroleum

access issue, 12, 344, 345, 350-355

Alaska production, 343, 351, 353

Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, 344, 345, 351, 354, 355

carbon capture and storage, 341, 402

CO2 emissions, 341, 342

CO2 enhanced oil recovery, 91, 224, 227, 338-340, 341, 342, 343, 396, 397, 398, 401, 402, 407, 424, 435-437

constraints on production, 338, 341-343

costs, 152, 338, 339, 341

consumption, 335, 351

crisis, 137

demand, 15

environmental impacts/management, 341, 342, 355, 408-409

exploration and production technology, 336, 337, 343

heavy oil, 171, 337, 339, 340, 342

import dependence, 333, 336

in situ retorting, 340-341

light oil, 261, 338-340, 402

liquid fuel consumption, 62-65, 171

offshore resources, 339, 343, 344, 345, 347, 349, 350, 351, 352-353, 354, 355

political importance, 14-15

prices, xii, 15, 67, 152, 211, 342, 344, 345, 354-355, 360

production (domestic), 14 n.8, 211, 335, 341-342, 344-346, 351, 356-357

projections, 344-346

reserves and resources, 13, 102, 335, 336, 338-346, 350-355, 415-416

residual zone EOR, 339, 340

shales, 75, 102, 108, 109, 339, 340-341, 342, 357, 406, 408-409

steam injection, 340

supply and demand, 354-355, 357-358

tar sands, 108, 109, 339, 340, 341, 342, 357, 406, 408-409

timeframe for recovery, 339

Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), 336, 354

Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act, 405

P

Pakistan, 452

Panasonic/Sanyo, 163

Particulate emissions, 159, 249, 263, 288, 322, 333, 404, 405, 408, 541

Passenger transportation

air, 86 n.8, 167, 170

consumption of energy, 156

mass transit, 156, 260-261

systemic improvements, 171-172

vehicular, see Light-duty vehicles

Petroleum.

See also Fossil fuels;

Oil

attributes, 332

buildings sector, 17, 24, 139

CO2 emissions, 16, 24, 72, 156

consumption, 17, 18, 21, 22, 24, 62, 89, 102, 139, 137, 138, 155-157, 243, 332

demand, 15, 332-333

dependence, xi, 25, 63, 67, 89

economic importance, 14

electricity generation, 36, 360

energy efficiency improvements and, 67

import dependence, 3, 14, 16, 17, 24, 25, 26, 62, 84, 89, 93, 139, 156, 160, 180, 211, 212, 243

industrial sector, 17, 24, 139, 175, 176, 180

prices, 25, 156

production rates (domestic), 3, 14, 62-63, 102

refining, 86, 87, 175, 176, 178, 180, 182, 186, 188, 254-255, 334, 403, 423, 512

replacement or reduction, 3, 14, 62-67, 73, 160, 212, 245, 265-266

resources and reserves, 332

transportation fuel, 3, 14, 16, 17, 24, 62, 84, 89, 108, 139, 156, 180, 211, 243, 331

Photobioreactors, 253, 258

Photovoltaics industry roadmap, 310, 316

Plutonium, 111, 459, 460, 462, 470, 471, 491, 495, 517, 519, 520, 522, 531-523

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and National Research Council. 2009. America's Energy Future: Technology and Transformation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12091.
×

Policies and programs.

See also Legislation;

Regulations and standards;

individual statutes

barriers to adoption of technologies, 6, 76-77, 78, 152, 191-192

California experience, 191, 193, 196, 198, 199-200

carbon controls, 78, 38 n.1, 189, 244, 393-394, 406

combined heat and power systems, 196, 198

consumer education, training, and technical assistance, 196-197, 200, 201

costs of, 45 n.8, 148

energy savings estimates, 88, 192-198

energy efficiency, 82, 86, 88, 148, 152, 154, 172-173, 189, 191-202

ENERGY STAR® program, 88, 142, 150, 151, 154 n.13, 196-197, 198

environmental, 350-355

federal, 192-198

fiscal, 152, 172, 188, 200, 307

incentives and grants, 6, 38 n.1, 200, 201, 264-265, 273

investment impacts, 307

land-use management, 86, 172

lessons learned, 201

New York experience, 193, 198, 199, 200

RD&D, 88, 194-195, 197, 200, 201

revision, 201-202

state/utility, 88, 154, 191, 192, 193, 194, 196, 198, 199-200, 273

tax credits, 38 n.1, 51, 95, 99, 101, 144, 188, 192, 195-196, 273, 274, 298, 299, 307, 308, 317, 447, 468, 530

Population

distribution considerations, 142, 171-172, 291, 319, 407, 540, 581, 598, 607

growth, 11-12, 25, 83, 409-410, 540

Potential energy sources

defined, 13

Power grid. See Electricity transmission and distribution systems

Price of energy

and energy-efficient technology adoption, 47-48, 82, 83, 84, 88, 148, 149, 152, 156, 157, 165, 176, 186, 188, 189, 192, 197

environmental and social costs, 152

Primary energy sources, 12, 21, 22, 33

Princeton Environmental Institute, 124, 125, 227-228, 369-370, 374-375, 376, 385, 420

Production of energy, trends, 20.

See also individual sources

Public engagement, 29-30

Public Utilities Regulatory Policies Act, 88, 196, 197, 198

Pulp and paper industry, 43-44, 86, 87, 175, 177, 178, 181

PUREX, 111, 459, 460, 462, 470, 471, 491, 495, 520, 522, 531-523

Q

Qatar, 261, 416

R

Reagan administration, 26, 458 n.34

Recycling, 86, 179, 186

Regulations and standards.

See also Legislation;

individual statutes

appliance efficiency standards, 88, 154 n.13, 192, 193-194, 197, 198, 200, 201

building energy codes, 38-39 n.1, 40, 50, 88, 146, 152-153, 154, 192, 194, 198, 199, 200, 201, 319

CAFE, 28, 45 n.7, 46, 85, 157, 166-167, 192-193, 197, 198, 267

barriers to technology investments, 152-153, 188-189

energy efficiency, 27, 28, 38-39 n.1, 40, 45, 46, 62, 78-79, 85, 87, 88, 142, 154, 157, 166-167, 188-189, 191, 192-193, 197, 198, 267

environmental, 26-27, 78, 88, 189, 322, 384

performance-oriented, 6, 78, 189, 200, 384

renewables portfolio standards, 28, 39 n.2, 51, 95, 273, 299

utility tariffs and interconnection standards, 152-153

Remanufacturing of used products for resale, 87, 185

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and National Research Council. 2009. America's Energy Future: Technology and Transformation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12091.
×

Renewable energy.

See also Biopower;

Geothermal;

Hydropower;

Solar;

Wind 20% electricity generation, 13, 95, 98-99, 305-306, 309-316, 317

atmospheric emissions, 300-302, 313

combined energy-waste-and-water plants, 291

competitiveness, 97-98, 289, 290, 299

consumption of energy from, 21, 22, 332

co-siting of different technologies, 98, 290, 306-307, 308-309, 315-316

costs, 33, 51, 99-100, 273, 274, 292-299

deployment barriers, 12, 97-98, 101

deployment scenarios, 309-317

development potential, 97-99, 303-309

electricity generation capacity, 2, 31, 51, 94-96, 271-274, 279-292

electricity generation costs, 293-297

employment, 304

environmental impacts, 101-102, 299-303

findings, 2, 291-292, 297, 299, 302-303, 307-309, 317

greenhouse gas emissions, 16, 101, 300, 302, 313, 317

human and materials resource constraints, 101, 303-304, 308, 323

industry use, 176

integration in T&D systems, xiii, 3, 27, 34, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 98, 99, 101, 116, 118, 133, 290, 291, 292, 296-297, 298, 305-307, 308-309, 314, 316, 322-323, 563, 576, 581-582, 584, 597, 604, 614-615, 620, 624, 625

land-use impacts, 101-102, 300-303, 313

levelizied cost estimates, 293-297

market factors, 307

non-electricity (distributed), 99-100, 318-322

policy setting, 101, 273-274, 279, 302, 307, 317

production constraints, 304-305

R&D, 98, 289-290, 296, 307-308

resource base, 95-96, 275-279

speculative technologies, 291-292

status, 271-274

supply of electricity, 13, 51, 52, 197

technology descriptions, 96-97, 280-289

timeframes for deployment of technologies, 289-292

Renewable Fuel Standard, 245

Research, development, and demonstrations (RD&D)

advanced materials, 76

alternative liquid fuels, 74-75, 221, 247, 255, 265, 267

basic research, 75-76

battery technologies, 6, 30, 76, 79, 85, 625-626

biofuels, 74-75, 90, 221-222, 224

biosciences, 74

buildings sector, 150, 197

CCS demonstrations, 5, 6, 39, 51-52, 65, 66, 68, 70, 73, 74, 91, 92, 107, 108-109, 212, 225, 227, 228, 230, 232-233, 250-251, 361, 360, 365, 378, 382-383, 397, 398, 431, 432

cellulosic ethanol demonstrations, 6, 64, 74, 90, 221-222, 224

climate-related, 75

CO2 recycling, 75

coal technologies, 6, 64, 74, 221-222, 224, 430-441

electricity generation, 395-396

energy efficiency, 6, 74, 85, 150, 174, 192, 194-195, 197, 200, 201

evolutionary nuclear reactor demonstrations, 5, 6, 68, 70-71, 74

federal support, 76, 194-195, 296

geoengineering, 75

geothermal power, 75

industry, 182, 190, 195

investments in, 39, 74, 75-76

LDV technologies, 6, 74, 75

national effort, 28

natural gas from hydrates, 75

nuclear fuel cycle, 75

oil shale extraction technologies, 75

opportunities for, 6, 30, 73-76, 79, 85, 625-626

portfolio approach, 5-6, 73, 201, 267, 378-379

radioactive waste management, 75

solar photovoltaics, 75, 76

scale of demonstrations, 28

social science research, 75

urgency of, 5, 30, 71

wind energy, 75

Reserves.

See also individual energy sources

defined, 13

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and National Research Council. 2009. America's Energy Future: Technology and Transformation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12091.
×

Residential buildings.

See also Appliances;

Buildings;

Lighting

consumption of energy, 17, 22, 36-37, 138, 141, 146

electricity, 140

energy efficiency savings, 40-41, 47-49, 140, 144, 147, 150

energy intensity, 141, 175

ENERGY STAR® new homes, 142

heating and cooling, 144

low-energy and zero-net-energy new homes, 84, 144, 151

natural gas, 140, 147

price of energy, 149

rental units, 50, 87, 136-137, 153

solar power at point of use, 59, 83, 151

tax credits, 144

weatherization assistance program, 198

whole-house approach, 144, 151

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, 405

Resources, defined, 13.

See also individual energy sources

Resources for the Future, 404 n.38

Russia, 261, 452, 457 n.30, 463, 470, 493, 494, 505, 506, 510, 511, 519 n.16, 524, 533, 538

Russian Federation, 415, 416

S

Safe Drinking Water Control Act, 407

Sasol, 226, 261

Saudi Arabia, 345

Secondary energy source. See Electricity generation

Sensor development, 87, 176, 180, 183, 185, 190

Separation processes and technologies

biofuel production, 224, 256, 258

CO2 separation, 267, 364-365, 378, 397, 422, 423-425, 430-431, 434

cryogenic, 423, 424, 431

electrochemical, 458-459, 517, 519, 520, 522-523

industry energy efficiency measures, 87, 111, 176, 180, 181, 184, 188, 190

PUREX, 111, 456, 459, 460, 462, 470, 471, 491, 495, 520, 522, 531-523

spent nuclear fuel processing, 111, 459, 460, 462, 470, 471, 491, 495, 496, 520, 521-523, 524-525, 552

UREX+, 459, 520, 522, 523, 552

Shell, 261

Silicon, 96, 281, 283, 284, 303-304, 305

SiLyte, 163

Smart meters, 9 n.1, 45, 60, 118, 292, 578, 579, 580, 589, 591, 598, 603, 605-606, 632

Sodium-sulfur batteries, 582, 625, 627

Solar America Initiative, 310, 316

Solar Energy Industry Association, 296

Solar power, general

consumption, by sector, 17

costs, 57, 58, 96

growth, 95, 272

resource base, 96, 276-278, 279

satellites collectors in space, 291

Solar power, photovoltaic (PV)

backup power, 151 n.10

competitiveness, 99-100

costs, 58, 99-100, 101, 281, 283-284, 293, 294-295

dye-sensitized solar cell, 283, 284, 292

electricity generation capacity, 272, 277-278, 316

employment, 304

energy savings, 151

environmental impacts, 302

greenhouse gas emissions, 69

integration in power grid, 3

nanotechnology, 283, 284, 291

organic solar cells, 283, 292

point-of-use (residential) installations, 59, 96, 272-273, 299

potential of, 13, 151

R&D opportunities, 6, 59

resource base, 277-278

silicon flat-plate arrays, 96, 277-278, 281, 283-284, 303-304, 305

technology description, 96-97, 281, 283-284, 305

thin-film technologies, 96-97, 283-284, 305

Solar power, thermal nonelectric, 318-320.

See also Concentrating solar power

South Korea, 20, 190, 453, 504 n.4

Spain, 285, 446

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and National Research Council. 2009. America's Energy Future: Technology and Transformation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12091.
×

Steam heating and process heating, 180, 181, 184

Strontium, 461, 519, 522, 523, 552

Sulfur oxides, 189, 249, 288, 301, 313, 333, 369, 408

Superior Graphite, 163

Supply of energy. See Energy supply

Surface Mine Control and Reclamation Act, 405

Sweden, 446, 535

Synthesis gas, 220, 226, 232, 242, 249, 258-259, 261, 263, 284, 289, 364, 367, 419, 425

Synthetic biology, 257-258

T

Taxes

barriers to technology deployment, 88

carbon, 38 n.1, 244, 406

credits, 38 n.1, 51, 95, 99, 101, 144, 188, 192, 195-196, 273, 274, 298, 299, 307, 308, 317, 447 n.7, 468, 489, 530

depreciation deductions, 152, 188, 190

fuel/energy, 157, 192

Technetium, 522, 523, 552

Technology. See Critical technologies;

Energy-supply and end-use technologies;

Research, development, and demonstrations;

specific technologies

Texas, 338, 339, 397, 398, 401, 436, 567, 568

Thailand, 20

Thermochemical conversion

biomass-to-liquid fuel, 91, 226, 227, 228, 229, 232, 239-240, 252

carbon capture and storage, 74, 91-92, 226, 227, 228, 229-230, 231-233, 239, 250-251

co-fed biomass and coal, 3-4, 91-92, 227, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, 235, 237-238, 242, 245-246, 247-248, 249

coal-to-liquid fuel, 91, 92, 220, 227, 228-229, 230-231, 249

commercialization, 226-227

cost analysis, 91, 227-231, 244

direct liquefaction of coal, 230-231

environmental impacts, 249

findings, 231-232

Fischer-Tropsch process, 67, 72, 93, 220, 226, 228, 229, 230-231, 235, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240, 242, 252, 261

greenhouse gas emissions, 91-92, 227-228, 232, 236-237, 239

indirect liquefaction process, 220, 226-230, 232

methanol-to-gasoline process, 67, 72, 93, 220, 226-227, 228, 229, 235, 236-237, 238, 239, 240, 252, 258-259, 262

RD&D, 74, 231, 247

siting of plants, 247-248

supply of fuel from, 92, 242-243, 244

water usage, 249

3M, 163

Townsend Advanced Energy, 163

Toxic Substances Control Act, 405

Toyota, 163

Transportation sector.

See also Air transportation;

Alternative transportation fuels;

Freight transportation;

Passenger transportation

barriers to improving energy efficiency, 172-173

baseline case, 141

commercial, 156, 159-160

consumption of energy, 137, 138, 155-157, 243

energy efficiency, 2, 3, 4, 38-39 n.1, 40, 41, 43, 44-46, 62, 82, 84-86, 88, 141, 155-174

energy intensity, 175

findings, 3, 4, 44-45, 173-174

greenhouse gas emissions, 4, 5, 16, 73, 84, 108, 156, 160, 211, 212, 333

infrastructure considerations, 86, 156-157, 160, 171, 174

intelligent systems, 86, 171-172

international comparisons, 157, 170

liquid fuel consumption, 36-37, 62-65, 139

petroleum dependence, 3, 14, 16, 17, 24, 62, 84, 89, 108, 139, 156, 180, 211, 243, 331

portfolio approach, 4, 5, 68, 71

potential for energy savings, 44-46, 62, 82, 84, 156, 157-169, 173

public policies, 86, 172-173

regulations, 38-39 n.1

system-level improvements, 86, 171-172, 174

TVA, 186, 473 n.68

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and National Research Council. 2009. America's Energy Future: Technology and Transformation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12091.
×

U

Underground Injection Control program, 407

Union of Concerned Scientists, 404

United Kingdom, 446, 463, 519, 522, 533

Ukraine, 452

Uranium

demand, 538, 539

downblending, 538 n.38

enrichment, 483-484, 523 n.32, 536, 538

fuel cycle, 519

hydride fuel and moderator, 507, 509

imports, 538 n.39

mining and milling, 60, 485, 486, 536, 537-538

oxide fuel, 520, 521, 514

prices, 470, 528

radioactive emissions, 541

tailings, 537, 538

resources and reserves, 13, 115, 458, 492-494, 496, 499, 518, 524, 535, 536

U.S. Department of Energy, 219

20% wind electricity generation scenario, 13, 95, 98-99, 305-306, 309-316

Advanced Fuel Cycle Initiative, 470, 510, 522

employment, 304

FutureGen, 360, 432

Job and Economic Development model, 313

Next Generation Nuclear Plant program, 456, 511

Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Office, 185, 293

Office of Nuclear Energy, 522

Office of Science, 76

RD&D programs, 194-195, 198, 221-222, 293

Solar America Initiative, 310, 316

U.S. Department of the Interior, 403 n.35

U.S. Department of Transportation, 219

U.S. energy system.

See also individual resources

aging of, 13

critical characteristics, 11-13

current profile, 11-25

regional considerations, 31-32

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 219, 359

carbon storage regulations, 407, 441

Clean Air Interstate Rule, 404 n.39

Clean-Fuel Fleet Program, 261

coal mining standards, 408

New Source Review program, 188-189

pollutant limits, 322, 404

radiation exposure limits, 546

vehicle size and weight limits, 46

websites on environmental regulation and assessments, 403 n.35, 542 n.45

U.S. Geological Survey, 340, 351

U.S. Maritime Transportation Security Act, 409

U.S. Minerals Management Service, 340, 351, 355, 403 n.35

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 113, 114 n.18, 445, 449, 450-452, 454, 460, 472, 475, 478-479, 481, 487, 488, 490-491, 493, 496, 504, 505, 506, 507, 509-510, 541, 545, 546, 548, 550, 555, 558, 557

U.S. Office of Management and Budget, 310

Useful energy sources, defined, 12

V

Vanadium redox, 625, 627

Vermont, 196

W

Washington state, 196

Waste-heat and waste-materials as energy sources, 86, 87, 181, 182

Water use, 248, 409-410

Western Governors’ Association, 316

Western Wind and Solar Integration Study, 314

Windows, 84, 144, 149, 150-151, 155, 194-195, 197

Wind power

20% penetration scenarios, 13, 95, 98-99, 100, 309-316, 317

capacity, 98-99, 305-306

consumption, by sector, 17

costs, 57, 58, 96, 99, 100, 101, 121, 126, 274, 281, 293, 294-295, 296-299, 313-314, 317

deployment challenges, 60, 99, 101, 304-305

electricity generation capacity, 17, 27, 36, 51, 57, 95, 128, 272, 275-276, 316

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and National Research Council. 2009. America's Energy Future: Technology and Transformation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12091.
×

employment, 304

energy flows, 12, 13

environmental impacts, 101, 301, 302, 313

financing, 95, 274

and greenhouse gas emissions, 69, 312

high-altitude kites, 291

integration in power grid, 3, 34, 57, 60, 81, 96, 99, 100, 101, 133, 280, 290, 296-297, 298, 306-307, 314-315, 317

manufacturing, materials, and labor requirements, 98, 311-313

offshore, 36, 58, 100, 126, 281, 294-295, 313-314

onshore, 36, 57, 58, 99, 100, 126, 276, 281, 293 n.5, 294-295, 297, 299

potential, 96, 99

price of, 273

public policies, 95, 99, 101, 273, 274, 307, 308

resource base, 96, 128, 275-276, 279

self-erecting towers, 281

siting, 60, 101, 308-309, 315-316

storage and load management, 75, 99, 280, 281, 297, 308-309

supply curve, 297, 298

technology description, 96, 280-281, 282

turbines, 95, 96, 100, 276, 279, 280-281, 282, 296, 304-305, 311-312, 315, 317

World GTL, 261

World Resources Institute, 404 n.38

Worldwatch Institute, 404 n.38

Wyoming, 339, 397

Z

ZEBRA battery, 627

Zinc bromide battery, 625, 627

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and National Research Council. 2009. America's Energy Future: Technology and Transformation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12091.
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Energy touches our lives in countless ways and its costs are felt when we fill up at the gas pump, pay our home heating bills, and keep businesses both large and small running. There are long-term costs as well: to the environment, as natural resources are depleted and pollution contributes to global climate change, and to national security and independence, as many of the world's current energy sources are increasingly concentrated in geopolitically unstable regions. The country's challenge is to develop an energy portfolio that addresses these concerns while still providing sufficient, affordable energy reserves for the nation.

The United States has enormous resources to put behind solutions to this energy challenge; the dilemma is to identify which solutions are the right ones. Before deciding which energy technologies to develop, and on what timeline, we need to understand them better.

America's Energy Future analyzes the potential of a wide range of technologies for generation, distribution, and conservation of energy. This book considers technologies to increase energy efficiency, coal-fired power generation, nuclear power, renewable energy, oil and natural gas, and alternative transportation fuels. It offers a detailed assessment of the associated impacts and projected costs of implementing each technology and categorizes them into three time frames for implementation.

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