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Learning Science in Informal Environments: People, Places, and Pursuits
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Learning Science in Informal Environments: People, Places, and Pursuits
Index
A
Academic Competitiveness Council, 13
Academy of Natural Sciences, 223
Action, personal commitment to, 157–158
Active prolonged engagement (APE), 145
Adult programs, for science learning, 48, 188–189
Advance preparation, for field trips, 132–133
Affective engagement
eliciting, 61
emphasis on, 13, 158
After-school programs, for science learning, 48.
See also Out-of-school/time programs
Agenda, for identifying with the scientific enterprise, 154–155
American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), 16, 224
Americans with Disabilities Act, 227
Anthropocentrism, in children, 231
Appropriate learning outcomes, 292-297.
See also Strands of informal science learning
defining, 3–5
range of informal learning outcomes, 28–29
strands of science learning, 3–5, 43-47, 294-296
Argumentation, 151
Assessment, 54–79, 293–294, 303–304.
See also Evaluators
outcomes becoming evident at different points in time, 77
outcomes including a broad range of behaviors, 76
outcomes occurring at different scales, 77
perspectives, directions, and conclusions in, 76–79
of science learning in informal environments, difficulties with, 55–57
types of outcomes in, 58–76
unanticipated outcomes, 76–77
Assimilationist views, 213
Association of Science-Technology Centers, 72
Attitudes Towards Organized Science Scale (ATOSS), 191
Audiotaping, in assessment, 323–324
B
Behaviorism, 30
Benchmarks for Science Literacy, 181
Bilingual interpretation, 233–234
Bill Nye the Science Guy, 66, 253–255, 271, 275–277
The Birdhouse Network (TBN), 191
“Bodmer Report,” 16
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C
Career choices, and gender, 222–223
Cell Lab Exhibition, 152
Center for Advancement of Informal Science Education, 305
Center for Applied and Specialized Technologies (CAST), 229
Center for Informal Learning and Schools, 17
Challenger Center, 159
Chaperones, involvement in field trips, 133–134
Chautauquas, 14
Children.
See also Parent-child interactions
anthropocentrism in, 231
curiosity of, 61, 101, 292–293
as ethnographers, 41
“naïve theories” of, 103
Children’s Discovery Museum, 149
Citizen science, in programs for adult science learning, 189–192, 301
Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt (CTGV), 257
Cognitive apprenticeships, 302–303
Cognitive sciences, 29–30, 35
Comfort, in developing interest in science, 136
Committee on Learning Science in Informal Environments, charge to, 1–2, 20–22
Common framework
conclusions and recommendations on moving toward, 304–306
need for, 18–20
Community Collaborative Rain, Hail and Snow Network, 190
Community of Practice framework, 33
Computer use, familiarity with, 196
Conclusions and recommendations, 2–7, 291–314
directions for future research, 310–314
informal environments, 297–302
informal environments and K-12 schools, 303–304
learners and learning, 292–297
promoting learning, 2–3, 302–303
recommendations for practice and research, 306–310
toward a common field, 304–306
Consent, obtaining, 324
“Conservation psychology,” 158
Contextual Model of Learning, 32
Control groups, in assessment, 323
Conversation, 148
Critical issues, in understanding learning across places and pursuits, 41
Cro, 253, 255
Croak Like a Frog, 147
Cross-cutting aspects of learning, 2, 31–41, 207–288
diversity and equity, 209–237
media, 248–277
Cross-media studies, 276–277
CSI, 258–259
Culture and equity, 210–218
and diversity, 212–214
learning as a cultural process, 214–216
science learning as cultural, 217–218
Culture and scientific knowledge, 218–232
gender, 219–223
native Americans, 223–226
people with disabilities, 226–230
urban and rural environments, 230–232
Culture-centered lens, for understanding learning across places and pursuits, 38–41
Cumulative effects, directions for future research in, 312
Curie, Marie, 45
Curiosity
of children, 61, 101
fundamental, of humans, 11
D
Darwin, Charles, 45
Designed environments, 2, 293
for diverse populations, 233–236
for media, 267–271
for science learning, 48
Developmental pathways, 93
Difficulties in assessing science learning, 55–57
Digital environments, 260–264
Disabled persons, culture of, and scientific knowledge, 226–230
Discourse analysis, 60–61
Disney’s Animal Kingdom, 60, 157
Diversity and equity, 209–237, 291–292
conclusion, 236–237
culture and equity, 210–218
culture and scientific knowledge, 218–232
science learning in informal settings for diverse populations, 232–236
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“Doing” science, while engaging in scientific reasoning, 141–143, 275–276
Drawing tasks, 65
E
Earth & Sky, 253–254
Ecological framework for understanding learning across places and pursuits, 31–41
critical issues, 41
culture-centered lens, 38–41
people-centered lens, 34–36
place-centered lens, 36–38
Education policy, federal, 13
Educational broadcast media, 251–257
Educational theories diagram, 38
Elderhostel programs, 12, 48
Emergence of science learning in informal environments, 14–18
Emotional engagement, 13
Engineering design process, 44–45
Environments. See Designed environments;
Digital environments;
Learning science in informal environments;
Rural environments;
Urban environments
Epistemologies
indigenous, 225
practical, 69–70
Equity. See Culture and equity;
Diversity and equity
Ethical issues, 323
Evaluators, 54
recommendations for practice and research for, 309–310
Everyday and family learning activities, 2–3, 93–116, 293
about science, 47–48
conclusion, 115–116
media in venues and configurations for, 264–267
sample parent-child incidental science conversation, 100
settings for everyday learning, 95–97
structuring, 49
what is learned in, 99–115
who learns in everyday settings, 97–99
Evidences of science learning, in out-of-school/time programs, 174–187, 294, 303
Excitement, in developing interest in science, 100, 130–131
Exhibit Commons, 72
Exhibit designers, recommendations for, 6, 307–308
ExhibitFiles, 72
Experiences
in informal science learning environments, 11–12
opportunistic, 95
prior, while identifying with the scientific enterprise, 156–157
Explanation while engaging in scientific reasoning, 143–144
“Explanatoids,” 149
Explora, a program for older adults, 199
Exploratorium, 16
Expositions, 15
F
Failure, 68
Family learning, 32–33.
See also Everyday and family learning activities
Family values, reinforcing, 154
Federal Communications Commission, 251
Federal Coordinating Council for Science, Engineering and Technology, 15
Federation of American Sciences, 263
Feedback mechanisms, 72
Field trips for learning in designed spaces, 132–135
active participation in museum activities, 133
advance preparation, 132–133
involvement by teachers and chaperones, 133–134
reinforcement after the field trip, 134–135
Fifth Dimension after-school program, for learning science, 184, 186–187
Film
giant screen, 259–260
popular, 257–259
Framework for Evaluating Impacts of Informal Science Education Projects, 17
Frameworks
conclusions and recommendations on moving toward common, 304–306, 309–310
need for common, 18–20
Franklin, Benjamin, 45
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Front-line educators, recommendations for, 7, 308–309
Fun, 71
Future research needs, 310–314
conclusions and recommendations regarding, 310–314
cumulative effects, 312
learning by groups, organizations, and communities, 312
learning strands, 311–312
media, 313–314
supporting learning for diverse groups, 313
tools and practices that contribute to learning, 311
G
Galilei, Galileo, 45
Games, 262, 299
Gateway, 181–182
Gender issues in culture and scientific knowledge, 114–115, 219–223
sociocultural influences in gender-biased experiences, 220–223
statistical evidence of gender disparities, 219–220
Gervirtz Summer Academy, 181–183
Girls Math and Technology Program, 181
Goals for science learning, 41–47
Strand 1—developing interest in science, 43–44
Strand 2—understanding science knowledge, 44
Strand 3—engaging in scientific reasoning, 44–45
Strand 4—reflecting on science, 45–46
Strand 5—engaging in scientific practices, 46
Strand 6—identifying with the scientific enterprise, 46–47
Groups of minds, in interaction, 37
Growth of science learning in informal environments, 14–18
“Guided participation,” 215
H
Health education, in programs for adult science learning, 99, 101–102, 192–194
Heterogeneity within each venue for science learning, 49
How People Learn, 34, 62
I
Identification with the scientific enterprise, Strand 6 of the goals of science learning, 46–47
Identity
discursive, 114
sociocultural influences on in gender-biased experiences, 221–222
Immersive media, 259–260
Immune Attack, 263
Indigenous epistemologies, 225
Individuals with Disabilities in Education Act (IDEA), 226
Institute of Education Sciences, 220
Integration of knowledge and learning, 29–41
ecological framework for understanding learning across places and pursuits, 31–41
educational theories diagram, 38
perspectives on informal environments for science learning, 32–33
“Intelligent routines,” 37
Interactivity.
See also Parent-child interactions
groups of minds in, 37
while engaging in scientific reasoning, 140–141
with artifacts in the world, 37
Interest in science, developing, as Strand 1 of the goals of science learning, 43–44
Internal responses, 131
Internet surveys, in assessment, 324–325
Interviewing, in assessment, 65–66, 75, 322–323
Intuition, 34
Involvement by teachers and chaperones, in field trips, 133–134
K
Kinetic City After School, 181, 183
Knowledge.
See also Integration of knowledge and learning
constructing, 109
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hierarchies of, 64
“occasioned” explorations of, 96
prior, while identifying with the scientific enterprise, 156–157
L
Learners and learning, conclusions and recommendations regarding, 292–297
Learning.
See also Integration of knowledge and learning
conclusions and recommendations for promoting, 2–3, 302–303
as a cultural process, 214–216
by groups, organizations, and communities, directions for future research in, 312
Learning science, continuum of environments for, 47
Learning science in designed spaces, 129–161
field trips, 132–135
frequency of visitor actions at interactive exhibits, 142
Strand 1—developing interest in science, 130–136
Strand 2—understanding science knowledge, 136–139
Strand 3—engaging in scientific reasoning, 139–146
Strand 4—reflecting on science, 146–148
Strand 5—engaging in scientific practices, 148–153
Strand 6—identifying with the scientific enterprise, 153–161
Learning science in informal environments, 9–89
about this report, 20–25
assessment, 54–79
emergence and growth of science learning in informal environments, 14–18
experiences in informal science learning environments, 12
fifty years of major events in informal science learning, 16–17
introduction, 11–25
need for common frameworks, 18–20
theoretical perspectives, 27–50
who uses media, 272–273
Learning science in out-of-school/time programs, 174–187, 294, 303
evidences of science learning, 174–187
the Fifth Dimension after-school program, 186–187
learning goals for science learning programs, 178–179
relationship between school and out-of-school programs, 176–177
Strand 1—developing interest in science, 178–181
Strand 2—understanding science knowledge, 181–183
Strand 3—engaging in scientific reasoning, 183
Strand 4—reflecting on science, 183–184
Strand 5—engaging in scientific practices, 184–185
Strand 6—identifying with the scientific enterprise, 185–187
Learning strands.
See also individual strands
directions for future research in, 311–312
Liberty Science Center, 72
Lifelong, life-wide, and life-deep learning, 28–29, 71
Literacy. See Science literacy
Longitudinal studies, 71, 76, 222, 276–277
Lyceum movement, 14
M
The Magic School Bus, 253
Magnetic Maze, 142
Major events in informal science learning, fifty years of, 16–17
Mathematics, Engineering, Science Achievement (MESA), 181–182
McClintock, Barbara, 45
Meadowlands Environment Center, a program for older adults, 199
Meaning-making, while engaging in scientific reasoning, 143–144
Media, 248–277
conclusion, 277
a context and tool for science learning, 249
designed settings, 267–271
digital environments, 260–264
directions for future research in, 313–314
educational broadcast media, 251–257
everyday and family learning, 264–267
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giant screen film and other immersive media, 259–260
key themes, 271–272
longitudinal and cross-media studies, 276–277
media in venues and configurations, 264–271
popular film and television, 257–259
print media, 249–250
programs for science learning, 271
questions of identity, 273
science as a process, 275–276
significance of format, 273–275
in venues and configurations, 264–271
who uses media to learn science in informal environments, 272–273
Meta-analysis, 135
Metacognition, 34–35, 63
Methods of researching the outcomes
Strand 1 outcomes, 59–61
Strand 2 outcomes, 61–62
Strand 3 outcomes, 67–68
Strand 4 outcomes, 69–70
Strand 5 outcomes, 71–73
Strand 6 outcomes, 75–76
Monitoring, volunteer, in programs for adult science learning, 189–192, 301
Monterey Bay Aquarium, 157
Mood states, 131
Multiple Identities Framework, 32
Museum activities, and active participation on field trips, 133
Museum of Science, Boston, 229
N
“Naïve theories” of children, 103
National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 272
National Evaluation of Compulsory Schools, 229
National Geographic Society, 272
National Research Council, 20, 295
National Science Board, 13
National Science Foundation (NSF), 14, 16–18, 20, 23, 190, 305
Native American culture, and scientific knowledge, 223–226
Native Waters Project, 234
Nature of the outcomes
of the Strand 1 outcome, 58–59
of the Strand 2 outcome, 61–62
of the Strand 3 outcome, 66
of the Strand 4 outcome, 68–69
of the Strand 5 outcome, 70–71
New York Hall of Science, 160, 228
No Child Left Behind Act, 179
O
“Occasioned knowledge exploration,” 96
Ontario Science Center, 146
Operation SMART, 180
Organization of the report, 24–25
Outcomes.
See also Methods of researching the outcomes;
Nature of the outcomes
becoming evident at different points in time, 77
defining appropriate, 3–5
including a broad range of behaviors, 76
occurring at different scales, 77
Out-of-school/time programs
evidence of science learning in, 174–187, 294, 303
Ownership and outreach, of science learning in informal settings, 232–233
P
Parent-child interactions
example of, 100
while engaging in scientific practices, 149–150
Participation
broadening, 5
in museum activities on field trips, 133
People-centered lens, for understanding learning across places and pursuits, 34–36
“Perceptual talk,” 142
Personal commitment to action, while identifying with the scientific enterprise, 157–158
Personal meaning mapping, 137
Personal stories in science, 45
Perspectives on Object-Centered Learning in Museums, 1
Phenomenological principles, 216
Physiological measures, 60
Place-centered lens, for understanding learning across places and pursuits, 36–38
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Play, 138
Pleasure, 70–71
Popular film and television, 257–259
Positive and Negative Affect Schedule, 61
Positive Youth Development framework, 33
Possible Selves framework, 33
Practical epistemologies, 69–70
Practices that contribute to learning.
See also Scientific practices
directions for future research in, 311
Prediction, while engaging in scientific reasoning, 144–146
Print media, 249–250
Problem solving, 257
Process, science as, 275–276
Program designers, recommendations for, 6, 307–308
Programs for adult science learning, 187–195
characteristics of adult programs, 188–189
citizen science and volunteer monitoring programs, 189–192
health education, 192–194
programs for science teachers, 194–195
Programs for older adults, 196–199, 293
Explora, 199
Meadowlands Environment Center, 199
Programs for science learning, 2–3
media venues and configurations for, 271
Programs for young and old, 173–200, 291
conclusion, 199–200
learning science in out-of-school/time programs, 174–187, 303
Project Exploration, 180
Project SEE, 199
Promotion of learning, conclusions and recommendations regarding, 2–3, 302–303
Public Understanding of Science Program, 16
Q
Questioning
of identity, 273
while engaging in scientific reasoning, 144–146
R
Radio frequency identification tags or transponders, 270
Raising Interest in Science and Engineering, 180
Recommendations, 6–7.
See also Conclusions and recommendations;
Future research needs
for exhibit and program designers, 6, 307–308
for front-line educators, 7, 308–309
for practice and research, 306–310
for researchers and evaluators, 309–310
Reflection upon science, Strand 4 of the goals of science learning, 45–46
Reinforcement, after the field trip, 134–135
Relationships.
See also Cognitive apprenticeships;
Parent-child interactions
between school and out-of-school programs for learning science, 176–177
Report parameters, 20–25
approach and scope, 21–23
committee charge, 20–22
focus, 23–24
organization, 24–25
Research.
See also Methods of researching the outcomes
maturing, 266
recommendations for, 309–310
Risk communication, 250
River City, 262
Road Watch in the Pass, 190
Rural environments, culture of, and scientific knowledge, 230–232
S
Sample parent-child incidental science conversation, in everyday settings, 100
Science
increasingly shaping our lives, 1
as a process, 275–276
technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM), improving education in, 13–14, 16–17
Science Friday, 253–254
Science identity, building across age and background, 159–161
Science learning
as cultural, 217–218, 301–302
designing for diverse populations, 233–236
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in informal settings for diverse populations, 232–236
ownership and outreach, 232–233
Science literacy, improving, 12
Science media. See Media
Science talk, specialized, 150–151
Science teachers, programs for, 194–195
Scientific American, 272
“Scientific inquiry,” 139, 217
Scientific practices, engaging in, Strand 5 of the goals of science learning, 46
Scientific reasoning, engaging in, Strand 3 of the goals of science learning, 44–45
Scientific tools, for engaging in scientific practices, 151–152
Scope of report, 21–23
Seafood Watch at Monterey Bay Aquarium, 157
Search for Life, 138
Second Life, 72
Seeing, while engaging in scientific reasoning, 141–143
“Seeking behavior,” 58
Self-reflections on learning, while reflecting on science, 147–148
Sensory responses, 128
Service at Salado, 184–185
Settings for everyday learning, 95–97
Significance of format, 273–275
Situated/Enacted Identity, 32
Social networking, 12
Sociocultural influences, 30–31, 35
on career choices, 222–223
in gender-biased experiences, 220–223
identity issues, 221–222
while engaging in scientific practices, 152–153
Socioeconomic factors, 40
Socioemotional selectivity theory, 197
Sorting tasks, 65
Soviet Sputnik Program, 15–16
Specialized science talk, while engaging in scientific practices, 150–151
Square One TV, 253
Statistical evidence of gender disparities, 219–220
Stereotype threat, 221
Stimulus-response associations, in learning, 30
Storytelling, 97
Strand 1—developing interest in science, 58–61, 294, 311–312
comfort, 136
excitement, 130–131
interest, 131–136
learning in designed spaces, 130–136
methods of researching Strand 1 outcomes, 59–61
nature of the outcome, 58–59
what is learned in everyday settings and family activities, 100–102
while learning science in out-of-school/time programs, 178–181
Strand 2—understanding science knowledge, 4, 61–66, 295, 311–312
learning in designed spaces, 136–139
methods of researching Strand 2 outcomes, 63–66
nature of the outcome, 61–62
what is learned in everyday settings and family activities, 102–107
while learning science in out-of-school/time programs, 181–183
Strand 3—engaging in scientific reasoning, 4, 66–68, 295, 311–312
doing and seeing, 141–143
interactivity, 140–141
learning in designed spaces, 139–146
meaning-making and explanation, 143–144
methods of researching Strand 3 outcomes, 67–68
nature of the outcome, 66
questioning and predicting, 144–146
what is learned in everyday settings and family activities, 107–108
while learning science in out-of-school/time programs, 183
Strand 4—reflecting on science, 4, 68–70, 295, 311–312
learning in designed spaces, 146–148
methods of researching Strand 4 outcomes, 69–70
nature of the outcome, 68–69
self-reflections on learning, 147–148
what is learned in everyday settings and family activities, 108–110
while learning science in out-of-school/time programs, 183–184
Strand 5—engaging in scientific practices, 4, 70–73, 295, 311–312
learning in designed spaces, 148–153
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methods of researching Strand 5 outcomes, 71–73
nature of the outcome, 70–71
parent-child interactions, 149–150
scientific tools, 151–152
social group influences, 152–153
specialized science talk, 150–151
what is learned in everyday settings and family activities, 110–113
while learning science in out-of-school/time programs, 184–185
Strand 6—identifying with the scientific enterprise, 4, 74–76, 295, 311–312
agenda, 154–155
building science identity across age and background, 159–161
learning in designed spaces, 153–161
methods of researching Strand 6 outcomes, 75–76
personal commitment to action, 157–158
prior knowledge and experience, 156–157
what is learned in everyday settings and family activities, 113–115
while learning science in out-of-school/time programs, 185–187
Strands of informal science learning, 43-47, 294-296
in defining appropriate outcomes, 3–5
Success, defining, 56–58, 262–263
Support, for learning for diverse groups, directions for future research in, 313
T
Taking Science to School, 3, 42, 46, 105, 295
Teachers, involvement in field trips, 133–134
Tech Museum of Innovation, 72
Technical considerations in assessment, 322–325
control groups, 323
Internet survey, 324–325
interviewing groups vs. individuals, 322–323
time as a measure of learning, 324
video- and audiotaping, 323–324
“Technological novelty,” 268
Television, popular, 257–259
Themes regarding media, 271–272
longitudinal and cross-media studies, 276–277
questions of identity, 273
science as a process, 275–276
significance of format, 273–275
who uses media to learn science in informal environments, 272–273
Theoretical perspectives on learning science in informal environments, 27–50.
See also Educational theories diagram
conclusion, 49–50
goals of science learning, 41–47
integrating views of knowledge and learning, 29–41
lifelong and life-wide learning, 29
strands of informal science learning, 43
venues for science learning, 47–49
“Theory talk,” 110
Third Spaces, 32, 264
3-2-1 Contact, 253, 255
Time as a measure of learning, in assessment, 324
Tools for science learning
directions for future research in, 311
for engaging in scientific practices, 151–152
media as, 249
Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study, 220
21st Century Community Learning Centers (CCLCs), 15, 175
U
Unanticipated outcomes, 76–77
Understanding of science knowledge, as Strand 2 of the goals of science learning, 44
Urban environments, culture of, and scientific knowledge, 230–232
U.S. Children’s Television Act, 251
U.S. educational system, 13
V
Validity issues, 314
Venues for science learning, 47–49
after-school and adult programs, 48
configurations of, 91–206
continuum of learning environments, 47
designed environments, 48
everyday and family learning, 47–48
heterogeneity within each venue, 49
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programs for young and old, 173–200, 291
science learning in designed settings, 127–162
Video analysis, 67
Videotaping, in assessment, 141, 323–324
Virtual reality, 267–269
Visit Inspiration Checklist, 73
Visitor actions, at interactive exhibits, frequency of, 142
Volunteer monitoring programs, in programs for adult science learning, 189–192, 301
W
Watch Mr. Wizard, 251
Water Action Volunteer (WAV) Program, 191–192
Watson, James, 45
Web 2.0 technologies, 269
What is learned in everyday settings and family activities, 99–115
Strand 1—developing interest in science, 100–102
Strand 2—understanding science knowledge, 102–107
Strand 3—engaging in scientific reasoning, 107–108
Strand 4—reflecting on science, 108–110
Strand 5—engaging in scientific practices, 110–113
Strand 6—identifying with the scientific enterprise, 113–115
Who learns in everyday settings, 97–99, 293
Who uses media to learn science in informal environments, 272–273
Wikipedia, 12
World fairs, 15
