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Tackling Marine Debris in the 21st Century (2009)

Chapter: Appendix C: Selected Literature on Quantities and Impacts of Marine Debris

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Suggested Citation:"Appendix C: Selected Literature on Quantities and Impacts of Marine Debris." National Research Council. 2009. Tackling Marine Debris in the 21st Century. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12486.
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix C: Selected Literature on Quantities and Impacts of Marine Debris." National Research Council. 2009. Tackling Marine Debris in the 21st Century. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12486.
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix C: Selected Literature on Quantities and Impacts of Marine Debris." National Research Council. 2009. Tackling Marine Debris in the 21st Century. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12486.
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix C: Selected Literature on Quantities and Impacts of Marine Debris." National Research Council. 2009. Tackling Marine Debris in the 21st Century. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12486.
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Page 168
Suggested Citation:"Appendix C: Selected Literature on Quantities and Impacts of Marine Debris." National Research Council. 2009. Tackling Marine Debris in the 21st Century. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12486.
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Page 169
Suggested Citation:"Appendix C: Selected Literature on Quantities and Impacts of Marine Debris." National Research Council. 2009. Tackling Marine Debris in the 21st Century. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12486.
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Page 170
Suggested Citation:"Appendix C: Selected Literature on Quantities and Impacts of Marine Debris." National Research Council. 2009. Tackling Marine Debris in the 21st Century. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12486.
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Page 171
Suggested Citation:"Appendix C: Selected Literature on Quantities and Impacts of Marine Debris." National Research Council. 2009. Tackling Marine Debris in the 21st Century. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12486.
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Page 172
Suggested Citation:"Appendix C: Selected Literature on Quantities and Impacts of Marine Debris." National Research Council. 2009. Tackling Marine Debris in the 21st Century. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12486.
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Page 173
Suggested Citation:"Appendix C: Selected Literature on Quantities and Impacts of Marine Debris." National Research Council. 2009. Tackling Marine Debris in the 21st Century. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12486.
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Page 174
Suggested Citation:"Appendix C: Selected Literature on Quantities and Impacts of Marine Debris." National Research Council. 2009. Tackling Marine Debris in the 21st Century. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12486.
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Page 175
Suggested Citation:"Appendix C: Selected Literature on Quantities and Impacts of Marine Debris." National Research Council. 2009. Tackling Marine Debris in the 21st Century. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12486.
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Page 176
Suggested Citation:"Appendix C: Selected Literature on Quantities and Impacts of Marine Debris." National Research Council. 2009. Tackling Marine Debris in the 21st Century. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12486.
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Page 177
Suggested Citation:"Appendix C: Selected Literature on Quantities and Impacts of Marine Debris." National Research Council. 2009. Tackling Marine Debris in the 21st Century. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12486.
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Page 178
Suggested Citation:"Appendix C: Selected Literature on Quantities and Impacts of Marine Debris." National Research Council. 2009. Tackling Marine Debris in the 21st Century. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12486.
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Page 179
Suggested Citation:"Appendix C: Selected Literature on Quantities and Impacts of Marine Debris." National Research Council. 2009. Tackling Marine Debris in the 21st Century. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12486.
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix C: Selected Literature on Quantities and Impacts of Marine Debris." National Research Council. 2009. Tackling Marine Debris in the 21st Century. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12486.
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix C: Selected Literature on Quantities and Impacts of Marine Debris." National Research Council. 2009. Tackling Marine Debris in the 21st Century. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12486.
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix C: Selected Literature on Quantities and Impacts of Marine Debris." National Research Council. 2009. Tackling Marine Debris in the 21st Century. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12486.
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix C: Selected Literature on Quantities and Impacts of Marine Debris." National Research Council. 2009. Tackling Marine Debris in the 21st Century. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12486.
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix C: Selected Literature on Quantities and Impacts of Marine Debris." National Research Council. 2009. Tackling Marine Debris in the 21st Century. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12486.
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix C: Selected Literature on Quantities and Impacts of Marine Debris." National Research Council. 2009. Tackling Marine Debris in the 21st Century. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12486.
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix C: Selected Literature on Quantities and Impacts of Marine Debris." National Research Council. 2009. Tackling Marine Debris in the 21st Century. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12486.
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix C: Selected Literature on Quantities and Impacts of Marine Debris." National Research Council. 2009. Tackling Marine Debris in the 21st Century. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12486.
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C Selected Literature on Quantities and Impacts of Marine Debris The following tables are a review of peer-reviewed published litera­ ture only. Only those studies involving numerical data (versus graphical) were used herein; as such, this represents a selected set of data. When replicate data were presented (e.g., by site, by time), they were summa­ rized by the topmost treatment variable to derive means and ranges. Only those studies reporting debris impact (Tables IV and V) with sample size greater than 20 for a given species were included herein. 165

166 TACKLING MARINE DEBRIS IN THE 21ST CENTURY TABLE I  Prevalence of Marine Debris in Coastal Environments Location Study Period Number of Items (range) Per Unit Length of Coastline items • km–1 NP, Alaska 1972–1974, 1983 390 (193–589) WP, Indonesia 1985, 1995 6,452 (100–29,000) NA, Gulf of Maine 1987 MED, Israel 1988–1989 7,354 (5,834–9,176) MED, N/E 1988–1989 32,420 (6,000–231,000) MED, Israel 1990–1991 10,247 (5,120–27,774) CAR, Panama 1990–1991 4 (2–2) SP, Ducie Atoll 1991 395 CAR, S–E 1991–1992 (1,900–11,200) IND, Australia 1991–2000 CAR, Curaçao 1992–1993 48,500 (8,220–88,840) SA, Scotia Arc Isl. 1993–1997 146 (0–285) IO, South Africa 1994–1995 37,400 (19,600–72,500) SA, Brazil 1995 7,400 (300–60700) SP, N Australia, GBR 1996 625 (62–1,715) IO, N Australia 1996–1997 92 (52 – 132) NA, Scotland 1996–1998 53 (5–235) NA, Wales 1998–2000 2,274 (170–16,030) SA, Brazil 2001–2004 9 (6–12) IO, Gulf of Oman 2002 1,790 (430–6,010) NA + SA 2002 1,080 (0–8,800) MED, Balearic Island 2005 34,640 (30,500–39,750) Per Unit Area of Shore items • km–2 SP, Pitcairn Isl. 1991–1993 230,000 (120,000–350,000) NP, Indonesia 1994 27,1000,000 (700,000–53,400,000) SP, E Australia 1994 44,800 (29,400–59,100) Red Sea, Jordan 1994–1995 4,026,100 (2,436,800–6,171,000) SP, E Australia 2000 133,200 (34,000–298,000) NP, Sea of Japan 2000 (207,000–3,410,000) SA, Argentina 2000 62,462 (9,462–150,900) NP, Mexico 2000 1,525,000 (1,238,800–1,829,700) SA, Brazil 2001 137,580 (33,700–233,300) NA, Scotland 2001–2003 989,189 (160,000–3,060,000) NOTE: Mean values, when replicate sampling is carried out, are given with range in p ­ arentheses. Studies were separated according to sampling methods: per unit shoreline (km–1) or unit area (km–2). Region Legend: NA = North Atlantic; SA = South Atlantic, NP = North Pacific; WP = Western Pacific; SP = South Pacific; IO = Indian; CAR = Caribbean; MED = Mediterranean.

APPENDIX C 167 Weight (range) Source       g • km–1 219,000 (122,000–255,000) Merrell, 1984 Willoughby et al., 1997 31,200 (5,500–68,200) Podolsky, 1989 Golik and Gertner, 1992 871,000 (51,000–3,137,000) Gabrielides et al., 1991 Bowman et al., 1998 70 (20–140) Garrity and Levings, 1993 Benton, 1991 (8,200–154,000) Corbin and Singh, 1993 8,000 (1,870–15,000) Edyvane et al., 2004 3,832,000 (1,874,000–5,790,000) Debrot et al., 1999 Convey et al., 2002 101,000 (42,800–164,000) Madzena and Lasiak, 1997 240,000 (4,000–1,199,000) Wetzel et al., 2004 Haynes, 1997 Whiting, 1998 Velander and Mocogni, 1999 Williams et al., 2003 Santos et al., 2005 27,000 (7,470–75,400) Claereboudt, 2004 Barnes and Milner, 2005 31,400 (25,300–41,000) Martinez-Ribes et al., 2007       g • km–2 Benton, 1991 Uneputty and Evans, 1997 Frost and Cullen, 1997 Abu-Hilal and Al-Najjar, 2004 Cunningham and Wilson, 2003 (13,440,000–21,440,000) Kusui and Noda, 2003 Acha et al., 2003 Silva-Iñiguez and Fischer, 2003 Oigman-Pszczol and Creed, 2007 Storrier et al., 2007

168 TACKLING MARINE DEBRIS IN THE 21ST CENTURY TABLE II  Prevalence of Marine Debris in Pelagic Environments Location Study Period Sampling Technique NP, Sargasso 1971 tow, 330 µm NP 1972 tow, 150 µm NA 1972 tow, 947 µm NA, E USA 1973–1975 tow, 947 µm NP, Alaska 1974–1975 tow, 363 µm SA, S Africa 1977–1978 tow, 900 µm SA, Cape Basin 1979 tow, 320 µm NP 1985 tow, 330 µm NA, Canada 1990 tow, 308 µm NP, Subtropical 1999 tow, 333 µm NP, Japan 2000–2001 tow, 330 µm NP, Central 1972 visual, ship MED, SW Malta 1979 visual (>15 cm), ship NP 1985 visual (>2 cm), ship MED, Eastern 1986 visual (>50 cm), ship NA, Gulf of Mexico 1988–1989 visual, aerial NA, Canada 1990 visual, ship NA, Gulf of Mexico 1992–1994 visual, aerial NP, Japan 2000 visual (>5 cm), ship MED, Liguria 1997–2000 visual SP, Chile 2002 visual NP, SCZ 2005 visual, aerial NOTE: Mean values, when replicate sampling was carried out, are given with range in parentheses. Studies were separated according to sampling methods: visual surveys or net sampling. Region Legend: NA = North Atlantic; SA = South Atlantic, NP = North Pacific; SP = South Pacific; MED = Mediterranean.

APPENDIX C 169 Number of Items Weight (range) (range) (km–2) (g • km–2) Source 3,537 (47–12,080) 287 (0.61–770) Carpenter and Smith, 1972 (0–34,000) 300 (0–3,500) Wong et al., 1974 2,842 (61–5,466) 70 (10–78) Colton et al., 1974 44 (40–80) van Dolah et al., 1980 111 Shaw, 1977 3,639 (0–445,860) 42 (0–10,920) Ryan, 1988 1,874 (0–3,600) Morris, 1980a 33,183 (80–96,100) 420 (3–1,210) Day and Shaw, 1987 23,468 (0–108,800) 3.5 (0–23) Dufault and Whitehead, 1994 332,556 5,114 Moore et al., 2001 174,355 (0–3,520,000) 3,600 (0–153,000) Yamashita and Tanimura, 2007 4.2 Venrick et al., 1973 2,000 Morris, 1980b 1.0 (0.2–1.8) Day and Shaw, 1987 12,000 McCoy, 1988 31,500 (7,700–77,200) Lecke-Mitchell and Mullin, 1992 25 (0–112) Dufault and Whitehead, 1994 1.2 (0.6–2.4) Lecke-Mitchell and Mullin, 1992 0.4 (0.1–0.7) Shiomoto and Kameda, 2005 8.8 (3.4–14.2) Aliani et al., 2003 11 (0–54) Thiel et al., 2003 209 (93–291) Pichel et al., 2007

170 TACKLING MARINE DEBRIS IN THE 21ST CENTURY TABLE III  Prevalence of Marine Debris in Benthic Environments Study Sampling Depth Number of Items (range) Location Period Technique (m) (km–2) NA, Bay of Biscay 1992–1993 t/55 mm 0–100 204 (26–494) NP, MED 1992–1998 t/10, 20 mm 373 (72–1,935) MED, Eastern 1993 t/10 mm 2,330 (0–8,504) MED, NW 1994 t/10–100 mm <500 1,935 (35–33,237) NP, Indonesia 1994–1995 seine 320,000 (50,000–690,000) MED, FRA 1994–1995 t/10 mm 100–1,630 (23–7,700) NP, NCL 1994–1995 0–10 363,428 (90,000–660,000) NP, USA–AK 1994–1996 t/37 mm 38 (34–37) NP, KOR 1996, 2005 t/60–65 mm 58 (0–256) MED, GRC 1997–1998 t/150 mm 40–360 165 (89–240) MED, Eastern 2000–2003 t/150 mm 15–320 180 (72–437) NP, USA–NWHI 1999 snorkel <10 31 (3–62) NP, USA–NWHI 2000–2001 snorkel <10 67 (16–165) NA, USA–FL 2001 scuba 1–7 11,825 (9,844–28,750) SA, BRA 2001 snorkel subtidal 29,000 MED, GRC 2003 scuba 0–25 14,900 (0–251,300) NA, USA 2004–2005 scuba 16–20 3,975 (400–9,700) NOTE: Sampling methods include trawl (t) of various mesh sizes and visual surveys ­using snorkeler or scuba divers. Materials Legend: f = fishing gear; m = metal; n = nets; p = plastics; r = rubber. Region Legend: NA = North Atlantic; SA = South Atlantic, NP = North Pacific; MED = Mediterranean.

APPENDIX C 171 Weight (range) Debris (g • km–2) Types Source p Galgani et al., 1995a p Galgani et al., 2000 Galil et al., 1995 p Galgani et al., 1995b Uneputty and Evans, 1997 0.5 p Galgani et al., 1996 133,285 (0–739,000) m, p Nagelkerken et al., 2001 m, p Hess et al., 1999 f Lee et al., 2006 m, p Stefatos et al., 1999 18,000 (5,000–47,000) f, m, p Koutsodendris et al., 2008 n Donohue et al., 2001 n Boland and Donohue, 2003 f Chiappone et al., 2004 p Oigman-Pszczol and Creed, 2007 m, p, r Katsanevakis and Katsarou, 2004 f Bauer et al., 2008

172 TACKLING MARINE DEBRIS IN THE 21ST CENTURY TABLE IV  Marine Debris Ingestion Common Name Species Region Green Turtle Chelonia mydas NA, USA Green Turtle Chelonia mydas NA, Gulf of Mexico Green Turtle Chelonia mydas SA, S Brazil Hawksbill Turtle Eretmochelys imbricata CAR, Costa Rica Leatherback Turtle Dermochelys coriacea NA, Peru Loggerhead Turtle Carreta caretta NA, Gulf of Mexico Loggerhead Turtle Carreta caretta MED, Central Loggerhead Turtle Carreta carreta NA, USA–Florida Loggerhead Turtle Carreta carreta NA, NE Spain Grey-Headed Albatross Diomedea chrysostoma SA, Southern Ocean Wandering Albatross Diomedea exulans SA, Southern Ocean Laysan Albatross Diomedea immutabilis NP, INWR Laysan Albatross Diomedea immutabilis NP, Midway Sooty Albatross Phoebetria fusca SA, Southern Ocean Yellow-Nosed Albatross Thalassarche chlororhynchos SA, Southern Ocean Giant Petrel Macronectes giganteus SA, Argentina Giant Petrel Macronectes giganteus SA, Southern Ocean Northern Giant Petrel Macronectes halli SA, Southern Ocean Northern Fulmar Fulmarus glacialis ARC, Canada Cape Petrel Daption capense SP, Antarctic Northern Fulmar Fulmarus glacialis NA, E USA Northern Fulmar Fulmarus glacialis NA, North Sea Southern Fulmar Fulmarus glacialoides SP, Antarctic Snow Petrel Pagodroma nivea SA, Southern Ocean Snow Petrel Pagodroma nivea SP, Antarctic Antarctic Petrel Thalassoica antartica SA, Southern Ocean Blue Petrel Halobaena caerulea SA, Southern Ocean Thin-Billed Prion Pachyptila belcheri SA, Southern Ocean Antarctic Prion Pachyptila desolata SA, Southern Ocean Salvin’s Prion Pachyptila salvini SA, Southern Ocean Broad-Billed Prion Pachyptila vittata SA, Gough Island Broad-Billed Prion Pachyptila vittata SA, Southern Ocean Bulwer’s Petrel Bulweria bulwerii Tropical Pacific White-Chinned Petrel Procellaria aequinoctialis SA, Southern Ocean Cory’s Shearwater Calonectris diomedea NA, E USA Great Shearwater Puffinus gravis NA, E USA Great Shearwater Puffinus gravis SA, Southern Ocean

APPENDIX C 173 Study Prevalence Debris Period Sampling (N) (%) Type Source 1988 dead (43) 56 m, r, u Bjorndal et al., 1994 1995–1999 capture (142) 7 b, u Seminoff et al., 2002 1997–1998 dead (38) 61 b, c, r Bugoni et al., 2001 1970–1972 dead (29) 14 Carr and Stancyk, 1975 1980 dead (140) 13 u Fritt, 1982 1986–1988 dead (82) 51 b Plotkin et al., 1993 1986 bycatch (99) 8 u Gramentz, 1988 1997 capture (241) 15 u Witherington, 2002 NA bycatch (54) 80 f, n, u Tomás et al., 2002 1975–1985 capture + dead (170) 0.6 r, t Ryan, 1987 1975–1985 capture + dead (156) 5 r, t Ryan, 1987 1966 dead (100) 76 b, p Kenyon and Kridler, 1969 1982–1983 capture + dead (50) 90 p Fry et al., 1987 1979–1985 capture + dead (73) 1 r, t Ryan, 1987 1979–1985 capture + dead (87) 2 r, t Ryan, 1987 2002 capture (73) 73 p, r Copello and Quintana, 2003 1979–1985 capture + dead (123) 7 r, t Ryan, 1987 1979–1985 capture + dead (42) 7 r, t Ryan, 1987 2002 bycatch (42) 36 u Mallory et al., 2006 1984–1987 capture (30) 33 van Franeker, 1985a 1975–1989 capture (44) 86 Moser and Lee, 1992 1982–1984 dead (65) 92 van Franeker, 1985b 1984–1987 capture (27) 7 van Franeker and Bell, 1985 1979–1985 capture + dead (22) 5 r, t Ryan, 1987 1984–1987 capture (27) 4 van Franeker and Bell, 1985 1975–1985 capture + dead (30) 7 r, t Ryan, 1987 1975–1985 capture + dead (74) 92 p, t Ryan, 1987 1979–1985 capture + dead (32) 69 p, t Ryan, 1987 1979–1985 capture + dead (88) 59 p, t Ryan, 1987 1979–1985 capture + dead (31) 52 p, t Ryan, 1987 1983 capture + dead (31) 39 p Furness, 1985a 1979–1985 capture + dead (137) 30 p, r, t Ryan, 1987 1984–1991 capture (39) 0 p Spear et al., 1995 1979–1985 capture + dead (201) 57 p, r, t Ryan, 1987 1975–1989 capture (147) 25 Moser and Lee, 1992 1975–1989 capture (55) 64 Moser and Lee, 1992 1979–1985 capture + dead (50) 90 p, t Ryan, 1987 continued

174 TACKLING MARINE DEBRIS IN THE 21ST CENTURY TABLE IV  Continued Common Name Species Region Sooty Shearwater Puffinus griseus SA, Southern Ocean Sooty Shearwater Puffinus griseus Tropical Pacific Sooty Shearwater Puffinus griseus NP, US and Canada Wedge-Tailed Shearwater Puffinus pacificus NP, Midway Wedge-Tailed Shearwater Puffinus pacificus Tropical Pacific Short-Tailed Shearwater Puffinus tenuirostris NP, Bering Sea Audubon Shearwater Puffinus therminieri NA, E USA Kerguelen Petrel Pterodroma brevirostris SA, Southern Ocean Cook’s Petrel Pterodroma cookii SP, New Zealand Juan Fernandez Petrel Pterodroma externa Tropical Pacific Black-Capped Petrel Pterodroma hasitata NA, E USA Herald Petrel Pterodroma heraldica SP, Pitcairn Island White-Winged Petrel Pterodroma leucoptera Tropical Pacific Stejneger’s Petrel Pterodroma longisrostris Tropical Pacific Kermadec Petrel Pterodroma neglecta SP, Pitcairn Island Black-Winged Petrel Pterodroma nigripennis Tropical Pacific Tahiti Petrel Pterodroma rostrata Tropical Pacific Murphy’s Petrel Pterodroma ultima SP, Pitcairn Island Storm Petrel Hydrobates pelagicus NA, Scotland Fork-Tailed Storm Petrel Oceanodroma furcata NP, Alaska Leach’s Storm Petrel Oceanodroma leucoroha Tropical Pacific Leach’s Storm Petrel Oceanodroma leucoroha NP, Alaska Wilson’s Storm Petrel Oceanodroma oceanicus NA, E USA Wedge-Rumped Storm Petrel Oceanodroma tethys Tropical Pacific White-Faced Storm Petrel Pelagodroma marina SA, Southern Ocean Common Diving Petrel Pelecanoides urinatrix SA, Southern Ocean Crested Auklet Aethia crustatella NP, Alaska Parakeet Auklet Aethia psittacula NP, Alaska Whiskered Auklet Aethia pygmaea NP, Alaska Cassin’s Auklet Ptychoramphus aleuticus NP, Alaska Marbled Murrelet Brachyramphus marmoratus NP, Alaska Ancient Murrelet Synthliboramphus antiquus NP, Alaska Pigeon Guillemot Cepphus columba NP, Alaska Common Guillemot Uria aalge NP, Alaska Thick-Billed Guillemot Uria lomvia NP, Alaska

APPENDIX C 175 Study Prevalence Debris Period Sampling (N) (%) Type Source 1979–1985 capture + dead (63) 51 p, r, t Ryan, 1987 1984–1991 capture (36) 75 p, t Spear et al., 1995 1988–1990 by–catch (20) 75 Blight and Burger, 1997 1982–1983 capture (20) 60 p Fry et al., 1987 1984–1991 capture (85) 20 p, t Spear et al., 1995 1997–2001 capture (330) 84 p, t Vlietstra and Parga, 2002 1975–1989 capture (119) 5 Moser and Lee, 1992 1979–1985 capture + dead (63) 24 p, r, t Ryan, 1987 1972–1977 capture + dead (55) 38 t Imber, 1996 1984–1991 capture (183) 0.6 t Spear et al., 1995 1975–1989 capture (57) 2 Moser and Lee, 1992 1991 capture + dead (29) 0 Imber et al., 1995 1984–1991 capture (110) 12 p Spear et al., 1995 1984–1991 capture (46) 74 p, t Spear et al., 1995 1991 capture + dead (27) 26 Imber et al., 1995 1984–1991 capture (66) 5 p Spear et al., 1995 1984–1991 capture (121) 0.8 p Spear et al., 1995 1991 capture + dead (37) 43 Imber et al., 1995 1983 capture (21) 0 Furness, 1985b 1988–1990 capture (21 86 p, t Robards et al., 1995 1984–1991 capture (354) 20 p, t Spear et al., 1995 1988–1990 capture (64) 48 p, t Robards et al., 1995 1975–1989 capture (133) 38 Moser and Lee, 1992 1984–1991 capture (296) 0.3 p Spear et al., 1995 1979–1985 capture + dead (24) 88 p, t Ryan, 1987 1979–1985 capture + dead (53) 2 r, t Ryan, 1987 1988–1990 capture (40) 3 Robards et al., 1995 1988–1990 capture (208) 94 p, t Robards et al., 1995 1988–1990 capture (22) 0 Robards et al., 1995 1988–1990 capture (35) 11 Robards et al., 1995 1988–1990 capture (96) 0 Robards et al., 1995 1988–1990 capture (68) 0 Robards et al., 1995 1988–1990 capture (43) 2.3 Robards et al., 1995 1988–1990 capture (134) 0.8 Robards et al., 1995 1988–1990 capture (92) 0 Robards et al., 1995 continued

176 TACKLING MARINE DEBRIS IN THE 21ST CENTURY TABLE IV  Continued Common Name Species Region Tufted Puffin Fratercula cirrhata NP, Alaska Horned Puffin Fratercula corniculata NP, Alaska Red Phalarope Phalaropus fulicaria NA, E USA Red-Necked Phalarope Phalaropus lobatus NA, E USA Kelp Gull Larus dominicanus SA, Southern Ocean Glaucous-Winged Gull Larus glaucescens NP, Alaska Bonaparte’s Gull Larus philadelphia NA, E USA Bridled Tern Sterna anaethetus NA, E USA Sooty Tern Sterna fuscata Tropical Pacific Arctic Tern Sterna hirundo SA, Southern Ocean Black-Legged Kittiwake Rissa tridactyla NA, E USA Black-Legged Kittiwake Rissa tridactyla NP, Alaska Subantarctic Skua Catharacta antarctica SA, Southern Ocean Pomerine Jaeger Stercorarius pomarinus NA, E. USA Cape Cormorant Phalacrocorax capensis SA, Southern Ocean Crowned Cormorant Phalacrocorax coronatus SA, Southern Ocean Bank Cormorant Phalacrocorax neglectus SA, Southern Ocean King Penguin Aptenodytes patagonicus SA, Southern Ocean Rockhopper Penguin Eudyptes chrysocome SA, Southern Ocean Macaroni Penguin Eudyptes chrysolophus SA, Southern Ocean Gentoo Penguin Pygoscelis papua SA, Southern Ocean Jackass Penguin Spheniscus demersus SA, Southern Ocean Humboldt Penguin Spheniscus humboldti SA, Southern Ocean Magellanic Penguin Spheniscus magellanicus SA, Southern Ocean NOTE: Studies in which samples size was greater than 20 per species examined. Materials Legend: b = plastic bags; c = cloth; f = foamed plastic; m = metal; n = fishing net; p = packing plastic straps; r = rope/string/filament; t = plastic pellets; u = user plastics. Region Legend: NA = North Atlantic; SA = South Atlantic, NP = North Pacific; SP = South Pacific; CAR = Caribbean; ARC = Arctic.

APPENDIX C 177 Study Prevalence Debris Period Sampling (N) (%) Type Source 1988–1990 capture (489) 25 p, t Robards et al., 1995 1988–1990 capture (120) 37 p, t Robards et al., 1995 1975–1989 capture (55) 69 Moser and Lee, 1992 1975–1989 capture (36) 19 Moser and Lee, 1992 1979–1985 capture + dead (52) 13 p, r, t Ryan, 1987 1988–1990 capture (21) 0 Robards et al., 1995 1975–1989 capture (32) 19 Moser and Lee, 1992 1975–1989 capture (67) 2 Moser and Lee, 1992 1984–1991 capture (64) 2 t Spear et al., 1995 1979–1985 capture + dead (21) 0 Ryan, 1987 1975–1989 capture (41) 10 Moser and Lee, 1992 1988–1990 capture (256) 8 p, t Robards et al., 1995 1979–1985 capture + dead (494) 23 p, r, t Ryan, 1987 1975–1989 capture (40) 5 Moser and Lee, 1992 1979–1985 capture + dead (239) 0 Ryan, 1987 1979–1985 capture + dead (24) 0 Ryan, 1987 1979–1985 capture + dead (167) 0.6 Ryan, 1987 1979–1985 capture + dead (150) 0 Ryan, 1987 1979–1985 capture + dead (177) 1 p, r, t Ryan, 1987 1979–1985 capture + dead (46) 0 Ryan, 1987 1979–1985 capture + dead (214) 0 Ryan, 1987 1979–1985 capture + dead (210) 0 Ryan, 1987 1979–1985 capture + dead (30) 0 Ryan, 1987 1979–1985 capture + dead (35) 0 Ryan, 1987

178 TACKLING MARINE DEBRIS IN THE 21ST CENTURY TABLE V  Entanglement Rates among Marine Mammals Common Name Species Name Region Study Period Antarctic fur seals Arctocephalus gazella SA, Bouetoya 1996–2002 Antarctic fur seals Arctocephalus gazella SA, Bird Island 1988–1989 Antarctic fur seals Arctocephalus gazella SI, Marion Island 1991–1996 Australian fur seal Arctocephalus pusillus SP, Tasmania 1989–1993 Cape fur seals Arctocephalus pusillus SA, SW Africa 1977–1979 New Zealand fur seals Arctocephalus forsteri SP, New Zealand 1995–2005 New Zealand fur seals Arctocephalus forsteri SP, New Zealand 1989–2002 Harbor seals Phoca vitulina NP, USA 1984–1986 Hawaiian monk seals Monachus schauinlandi NP, NWHI 1982–1998 Monk seals Monachus schauinlandi NP, subtropical 1998–2004 Elephant seals Mirounga leonina SA, Argentina 1995–2005 Northern elephant seals Mirounga angustirostris NP, USA 1984–1986 Australian sea lions Neophoca cinerea SP, Australia 1988–2002 California sea lions Zalophus californianus NP, Mexico 1991–1995 California sea lions Zalophus californianus NP, Mexico 1992 California sea lions Zalophus californianus NP, USA 1984–1986 NOTE: Entanglement rate given as percentage of population affected. Temporal Trends: (+) increasing; (–) decreasing; (0) no change; (+/–) increase followed by decrease. Materials Legend: n = nets; p = packing plastic straps; r = rope/string/monofilament. Region Legend: SA = South Atlantic; NP = North Pacific; SP = South Pacific; SI = South Indian.

APPENDIX C 179 Entanglement (percentage of Temporal population) Debris Type Trend Source 0.02–0.06 n, p, r – Hofmeyr et al., 2006 0.4–1.0 n, p, r Croxall et al., 1990 0.01–0.15 n, p, r + Hofmeyr and Bester, 2002 1.3–1.9 n, p, r Pemberton et al., 1992 0.11–0.66 n, p, r 0 Shaughnessy, 1980 0.6–2.84 n, p, r +/– Boren et al., 2006 0.4–0.9 n, p, r + Page et al., 2004 0–0.11 p + Stewart and Yochem, 1987 0.7 n, p, r + Henderson, 2001 0.4–0.78 + Donohue and Foley, 2007 0.001 r Campagna et al., 2007 0.17–0.2 n, p, r – Stewart and Yochem, 1987 0.2–1.3 n, p, r + Page et al., 2004 0.21–0.59 n, r + Zavala-González and Mellink, 1997 3.9–7.9 n, p, r Harcourt et al., 1994 0.08–0.14 n, p, r + Stewart and Yochem, 1987

TABLE VI  Ghost Fishing Rates: Gill Nets 180 Catch Gear Depth Decay Rate Half-Life Gear Lifea Region Gear Type (m) (d–1) (d) (d) Source NA, SW Wales gillnet 12–14 –0.0190 36 158 Kaiser et al., 1996 NA, SW Wales trammel net 12–14 –0.0207 33 145 Kaiser et al., 1996 NA, Portugal gillnet 15–18 –0.0542 13 55 Erzini et al., 1997 NA, Portugal trammelnet 15–18 –0.0204 34 147 Erzini et al., 1997 NA, UK bottom gillnets 20–25 –0.0069 101 434 Revill and Dunlin, 2003 Baltic Sea gillnet 32–40 –0.0198 35 151 Tschernij and Larsson, 2003 NA, Portugal gillnet 65–78 –0.0402 17 75 Santos et al., 2003 MED, Turkey gillnet: multifilament   9–14 –0.0224 31 134 Ayaz et al., 2006 MED, Turkey gillnet: monofilament   9–14 –0.0127 55 236 Ayaz et al., 2006 NP, Japan gillnet: artificial reef 13 –0.0104 67 288 Akiyama et al., 2007 NP, Japan gillnet: sandy bed 13 –0.0216 32 139 Akiyama et al., 2007 NOTE: Rates of ghost fishing by experimentally deployed entanglement nets. Region Legend: NA = North Atlantic; NP = North Pacific; MED = Mediterranean. aGear half-life and life were calculated as when the catch reached 50 percent and 5 percent of peak fishing capacity, respectively.

APPENDIX C 181 TABLE VII  Ghost Fishing Rates: Pots Target Species Location Mortality (%) Source Dungeness Crab NP, Canada 53 Breen, 1987 Lobster NP, NWHI 20 Parrish and Kazama, 1992 Blue Crabs Gulf of Mexico, USA 55 Guillory, 1998 Brown Crab NA, Wales 100 Bullimore et al., 2001 Lobster NA, Wales 100 Bullimore et al., 2001 Snow Crab Gulf of St. Lawrence 95 Hébert et al., 2001 King Crab NA, Norway 7 Godoy et al., 2003 NOTE: Rates of ghost fishing by experimentally deployed entanglement nets. Mortality rates indicate percent mortality among those caught in pots. Region Legend: NA = North Atlantic; NP = North Pacific; NWHI = Northwestern Hawaiian Islands.

182 TACKLING MARINE DEBRIS IN THE 21ST CENTURY References Abu-Hilal, A.H. and T. Al-Najjar. 2004. Litter pollution on the Jordanian shores of the Gulf of Aqaba (Red Sea). Marine Environmental Research 58:39-63. Acha, E.M., H.W. Mianzan, O. Iribarne, D.A. Gagliardini, C. Lasta, and P. Daleo. 2003. The role of the Rio de la Plata bottom salinity front in accumulating debris. Marine Pollution Bulletin 46:197-202. Akiyama, S., E. Saito, and T. Watanabe. 2007. Relationship between soak time and number of enmeshed animals in experimentally lost gill nets. Fisheries Science 73:881-888. Aliani, S., A. Griffa, and A. Molcard. 2003. Floating debris in the Ligurian Sea, north-western Mediterranean. Marine Pollution Bulletin 46(9):1142-1149. Ayaz, A., D. Acarli, U. Altinagac, U. Ozekinci, A. Kara, and O. Ozen. 2006. Ghost fishing by monofilament and multifilament gillnets in Izmir Bay, Turkey. Fisheries Research 79:267-271. Barnes, D.K.A. and P. Milner. 2005. Drifting plastic and its consequences for sessile organism dispersal in the Atlantic Ocean. Marine Biology 146:815-825. Bauer, L.J., M.S. Kendall, and C.F.G. Jeffrey. 2008. Incidence of marine debris and its relation­ ships with benthic features in Gray’s Reef National Marine Sanctuary, Southeast USA. Marine Pollution Bulletin 56(3):402-413. Benton, T. 1991. Oceans of garbage. Nature 352:113-113. Bjorndal, K.A., A.B. Bolten, and C.J. Lagueux. 1994. Ingestion of marine debris by juvenile sea turtles in coastal Florida habitats. Marine Pollution Bulletin 28:154-158. Blight, L.K. and A.E. Burger. 1997. Occurrence of plastic particles in seabirds from the eastern North Pacific. Marine Pollution Bulletin 34:323-325. Boland, R.C. and M.J. Donohue. 2003. Marine debris accumulation in the nearshore marine habitat of the endangered Hawaiian monk seal, Monachus schauinslandi 1999–2001. Marine Pollution Bulletin 46:1385-1394. Boren, L.J., M. Morrissey, C.G. Muller, and N.J. Gemmell. �������������������������� 2006. Entanglement of New Z ­ ealand fur seals in man-made debris at Kaikoura, New Zealand. Marine Pollution Bulletin 52:442-446. Bowman, D., N. Manor-Samsonov, and A. Golik. 1998. Dynamics of litter pollution on Israeli Mediterranean beaches: A budgetary, litter flux approach. Journal of Coastal Research 14:418-432. Breen, P.A. 1987. Mortality of Dungeness crabs caused by lost traps in the Fraser River estu­ ary, British Columbia. North American Journal of Fisheries Management 7:429-435. Bugoni, L., L. Krause, and M.V. Petry. 2001. Marine debris and human impacts on sea turtles in southern Brazil. Marine Pollution Bulletin 42:1330-1334. Bullimore, B.A., P.B. Newman, M.J. Kaiser, S.E. Gilbert, and K.M. Lock. 2001. A study of catches in a fleet of “ghost-fishing” pots. Fishery Bulletin 99:247-253. Campagna, C., V. Falabella, and M. Lewis. 2007. Entanglement of southern elephant seals in squid fishing gear. Marine Mammal Science 23:414-418. Carpenter, E.J. and K.L. Smith. 1972. Plastics on the Sargasso Sea surface. Science 175:1240-1241. Carr, A. and S. Stancyk. 1975. Observations on the ecology and survival outlook of the hawksbill turtle. Biological Conservation 8:161-172. Chiappone, M., D.W. Swanson, S.L. Miller, and H. Dienes. 2004. Spatial distribution of lost fishing gear on fished and protected offshore reefs in the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary. Caribbean Journal of Science 40:312-326. Claereboudt, M.R. 2004. Shore litter along sandy beaches of the Gulf of Oman. Marine Pollu­ tion Bulletin 49:770-777. Colton, J.B., F.D. Knapp, and B.R. Burns. 1974. Plastic particles in surface waters of the northwestern Atlantic. Science 185:491-497.

APPENDIX C 183 Convey, P., D.K.A. Barnes, and A. Morton. 2002. Debris accumulation on oceanic island shores of the Scotia Arc, Antarctica. Polar Biology 25:612-617. Copello, S. and F. Quintana. 2003. Marine debris ingestion by southern giant petrels and its potential relationships with fisheries in the southern Atlantic Ocean. Marine Pollution Bulletin 46:1513-1515. Corbin, C.J. and J.G. Singh. 1993. Marine debris contamination of beaches in St. Lucia and Dominica. Marine Pollution Bulletin 26:325-328. Croxall, J.P., S. Rodwell, and I.L. Boyd. 1990. Entanglement in man-made debris of Antarctic fur seals at Bird Island, South Georgia. Marine Mammal Science 6:221-233. Cunningham, D.J. and S.P. Wilson. 2003. Marine debris on beaches of the Greater Sydney Region. Journal of Coastal Research 19:421-430. Day, R.H. and D.G. Shaw. 1987. Patterns in the abundance of pelagic plastic and tar in the north Pacific Ocean, 1976–1985. Marine Pollution Bulletin 18:311-316. Debrot, A.O., A.B. Tiel, and J.E. Bradshaw. 1999. Beach debris in Curacao. Marine Pollution Bulletin 38:795-801. Donohue, M.J. and D.G. Foley. 2007. Remote sensing reveals links among the endangered Hawaiian monk seal, marine debris, and El Niño. Marine Mammal Science 23:468-473. Donohue, M.J., R.C. Boland, C.M. Sramek, and G.A. Antonelis. 2001. Derelict fishing gear in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands: Diving surveys and debris removal in 1999 confirm threat to coral reef ecosystems. Marine Pollution Bulletin 42:1301-1312. Dufault, S. and H. Whitehead. 1994. Floating marine pollution in the gully on the continental slope, Nova Scotia, Canada. Marine Pollution Bulletin 28:489-493. Edyvane, K.S., A. Dalgetty, P.W. Hone, J.S. Higham, and N.M. Wace. 2004. Long-term marine litter monitoring in the remote Great Australian Bight, South Australia. Marine Pollution Bulletin 48:1060-1075. Erzini, K., C.C. Monteiro, J. Ribeiro, M.N. Santos, M. Gaspar, P. Monteiro, and T.C. Borges. 1997. An experimental study of gill net and trammel net “ghost fishing” off the Algarve (southern Portugal). Marine Ecology Progress Series 158:257-265. Fritt, T.H. 1982. Courtship behavior of the queen snake. Herpetological Review 13:72-73. Frost, A. and M. Cullen. 1997. Marine debris on northern New South Wales beaches ( ­ Australia): Sources and the role of beach usage. Marine Pollution Bulletin 34:348-352. Fry, D.M., S.I. Fefer, and L. Sileo. 1987. Ingestion of plastic debris by Laysan ­albatrosses and wedge-tailed shearwaters in the Hawaiian-Islands. Marine Pollution Bulletin 18:339-343. Furness, R.W. 1985a. Ingestion of plastic particles by seabirds at Gough Island, South ­Atlantic Ocean. Environmental Pollution Series A: Ecological and Biological 38:261-272. Furness, R.W. 1985b. Plastic particle pollution: Accumulation by procellariiform seabirds at Scottish colonies. Marine Pollution Bulletin 16:103-106. Gabrielides, G.P., A. Golik, L. Loizides, M.G. Marino, F. Bingel, and M.V. Torregrossa. 1991. Man-made garbage pollution on the Mediterranean coastline. Marine Pollution Bulletin 23:437-441. Galgani, F., T. Burgeot, G. Bocquene, F. Vincent, J.P. Leaute, J. Labastie, A. Forest, and R. Guichet. 1995a. Distribution and abundance of debris on the continental shelf of the Bay of Biscay and in Seine Bay. Marine Pollution Bulletin 30:58-62. Galgani, F., S. Jaunet, A. Campillo, X. Guenegen, and E. His. 1995b. Distribution and abun­ dance of debris on the continental shelf of the north-western Mediterranean Sea. Marine Pollution Bulletin 30:713-717. Galgani, F., A. Souplet, and Y. Cadiou. 1996. Accumulation of debris on the deep sea floor off the French Mediterranean coast. Marine Ecology Progress Series 142:225-234. Galgani, F., J.P. Leaute, P. Moguedet, A. Souplet, Y. Verin, A. Carpentier, H. Goraguer, D. Latrouite, B. Andral, Y. Cadiou, J.C. Mahe, J.C. Poulard, and P. Nerisson. 2000. Litter on the sea floor along European coasts. Marine Pollution Bulletin 40:516-527.

184 TACKLING MARINE DEBRIS IN THE 21ST CENTURY Galil, B.S., A. Golik, and M. Turkay. 1995. Litter at the bottom of the sea: A sea-bed survey in the Eastern Mediterranean. Marine Pollution Bulletin 30:22-24. Garrity, S.D. and S.C. Levings. 1993. Marine debris along the Caribbean coast of Panama. Marine Pollution Bulletin 26:317-324. Godoy, H., D.M. Furevik, and S. Stiansen. 2003. Unaccounted mortality of red king crab (Paralithodes camtschaticus) in deliberately lost pots off northern Norway. Fisheries ­ esearch 64:171-177. R Golik, A. and Y. Gertner. 1992. Litter on the Israeli coastline. Marine Environmental Research 33:1-15. Gramentz, D. 1988. Involvement of loggerhead turtles with the plastic, metal, and hydro­ carbon pollution in the central Mediterranean. Marine Pollution Bulletin 19:11-13. Guillory, V. 1998. Ghost fishing by blue crab traps. North American Journal of Fisheries Manage­ ment 13:459-466. Harcourt, R., D. Aurioloes, and J. Sanchez. 1994. Entanglement of California sea lions at Los Islotes, Baja California Sur, Mexico. Marine Mammal Science 10:122-125. Haynes, D. 1997. Marine debris on continental islands and sand cays in the far northern section of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, Australia. Marine Pollution Bulletin 34:276-279. Hébert, M., G. Miron, M. Moriyasu, R. Vienneau, and P. DeGrace. ��������������������������� 2001. Efficiency and ghost fishing of snow crab (Chionoecetes opilio) traps in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Fisheries Research 52:143-153. Henderson, J.R. 2001. A pre- and post-MARPOL Annex V summary of Hawaiian monk seal entanglements and marine debris accumulation in the northwestern Hawaiian Islands, 1982–1998. Marine Pollution Bulletin 42:584-589. Hess, N.A., C.A. Ribic, and I. Vining. 1999. Benthic marine debris, with an emphasis on fishery-related items, surrounding Kodiak Island, Alaska, 1994–1996. Marine Pollution Bulletin 38:885-890. Hofmeyr, G.J.G. and M.N. Bester. 2002. Entanglement of pinnipeds at Marion Island. South African Journal of Marine Science 24:383-386. Hofmeyr, G.J.G., M.N. Bester, S.P. Kirkman, C. Lydersen, and K.M. Kovacs. 2006. Entangle­ ment of Antarctic fur seals at Bouvetoya, Southern Ocean. Marine Pollution Bulletin 52:1077-1080. Imber, M.J. 1996. The food of Cook’s petrel Pterodroma cookii during its breeding season on Little Barrier Island, New Zealand. Emu 96(3):189-194. Imber, M.J., J.N. Jolly, and M.D. Brooke. 1995. Food of three sympatric gadfly petrels ( ­ Pterodroma spp.) breeding on the Pitcairn Islands. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 56:233-240. Kaiser, M.J., B. Bullimore, P. Newman, K. Lock, and S. Gilbert. 1996. Catches in “ghost fish­ ing” set nets. Marine Ecology Progress Series 145:11-16. Katsanevakis, S. and A. Katsarou. 2004. Influences on the distribution of marine debris on the seafloor of shallow coastal areas in Greece (eastern Mediterranean). Water Air and Soil Pollution 159:325-337. Kenyon, K.W. and E. Kridler. 1969. Laysan albatrosses swallow indigestible matter. Auk 86:339-343. Koutsodendris, A., G. Papatheodorou, O. Kougiourouki, and M. Georgiadis. 2008. Benthic marine litter in four Gulfs in Greece, Eastern Mediterranean; abundance, composition and source identification. Estuarine Coastal and Shelf Science 77:501-512. Kusui, T. and M. Noda. 2003. International survey on the distribution of stranded and buried litter on beaches along the Sea of Japan. Marine Pollution Bulletin 47:175-179. Lecke-Mitchell, K.M. and K. Mullin. 1992. Distribution and abundance of large floating plastic in the north-central Gulf of Mexico. Marine Pollution Bulletin 24:598-601.

APPENDIX C 185 Lee, D.I., H.S. Cho, and S.B. Jeong. 2006. Distribution characteristics of marine litter on the sea bed of the East China Sea and the South Sea of Korea. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 70:187-194. Madzena, A. and T. Lasiak. 1997. Spatial and temporal variations in beach litter on the T ­ ranskei coast of South Africa. Marine Pollution Bulletin 34:900-907. Mallory, M.L., J. Roberston, and A. Moenting. 2006. Marine plastic debris in northern fulmars from Davis Strait, Nunavut, Canada. Marine Pollution Bulletin 52:813-815. Martinez-Ribes, L., G. Basterretxea, M. Palmer, and J. Tintoré. 2007. Origin and abundance of beach debris in the Balearic Islands. Scientia Marina 71:305-314. McCoy, F.W. 1988. Floating megalitter in the eastern Mediterranean. Marine Pollution ­Bulletin 19:25-28. Merrell, T.R. 1984. A decade of change in nets and plastic litter from fisheries off Alaska. Marine Pollution Bulletin 15:378-384. Moore, C.J., S.L. Moore, M.K. Leecaster, and S.B. Weisberg. 2001. A comparison of plastic and plankton in the North Pacific central gyre. Marine Pollution Bulletin 42:1297-1300. Morris, R.J. 1980a. Plastic debris in the surface waters of the South Atlantic. Marine Pollution Bulletin 11:164-166. Morris, R.J. 1980b. Floating plastic debris in the Mediterranean. Marine Pollution Bulletin 11:125. Moser, M.L. and D.S. Lee. 1992. A fourteen-year survey of plastic ingestion by western North-Atlantic seabirds. Colonial Waterbirds 15:83-94. Nagelkerken, I., G.A.M.T. Wiltjer, A.O. Debrot, and L.P.J.J. Pors. 2001. Baseline study of submerged marine debris at beaches in Curacao, West Indies. Marine Pollution Bulletin 42:786-789. Oigman-Pszczol, S.S. and J.C. Creed. 2007. Quantification and classification of marine litter on beaches along Armação dos Búzios, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Journal of Coastal Research 23:421-428. Page, B., J. McKenzie, R. McIntosh, A. Baylis, A. Morrissey, N. Calvert, T. Haase, M. Berris, D. Dowie, P.D. Shaughnessy, and S.D. Goldsworth. 2004. Entanglement of Australian sea lions and New Zealand fur seals in lost fishing gear and other marine debris before and after government and industry attempts to reduce the problem. Marine Pollution Bulletin 49:33-42. Parrish, F.A. and T.K. Kazama. 1992. Evaluation of ghost fishing in the Hawaiian lobster fishery. Fishery Bulletin 90:720-725. Pemberton, D., N.P. Brothers, and R. Kirkwood. 1992. Entanglement of Australian fur seals in man-made debris in Tasmanian waters. Wildlife Research 19:151-159. Pichel, W.G., J.H. Churnside, T.S. Veenstra, D.G. Foley, K.S. Friedman, R.E. Brainard, J.B. Nicoll, Q. Zheng, and P. Clemente-Colón. 2007. Marine debris collects within the North Pacific subtropical convergence zone. Marine Pollution Bulletin 54:1207-1211. Plotkin, P.T., M.K. Wicksten, and A.F. Amos. 1993. Feeding ecology of the loggerhead sea turtle Caretta caretta in the northwestern Gulf of Mexico. Marine Biology 115:1-5. Podolsky, R.H. 1989. Entrapment of sea deposited plastic on the shore of a Gulf of Maine Island. Marine Environmental Research 27:67-72. Revill, A.S. and G. Dunlin. 2003. The fishing capacity of gillnets lost on wrecks and on open ground in UK coastal waters. Fisheries Research 64:107-113. Robards, M.D., J.F. Piatt, and K.D. Wohl. 1995. Increasing frequency of plastic particles ­ingested by seabirds in the subarctic North Pacific. Marine Pollution Bulletin 30:151-157. Ryan, P.G. 1987. The incidence and characteristics of plastic particles ingested by seabirds. Marine Environmental Research 23:175-206. Ryan, P.G. 1988. Intraspecific variation in plastic ingestion by seabirds and the flux of plastic through seabird populations. Condor 90:446-452.

186 TACKLING MARINE DEBRIS IN THE 21ST CENTURY Santos, I.R., A.C. Friedrich, and F.P. Barretto. 2005. Overseas garbage pollution on beaches of northeast Brazil. Marine Pollution Bulletin 50:782-786. Santos, M.N., H. Saldanha, M.B. Gaspar, and C.C. Monteiro. 2003. Causes and rates of net loss off the Algarve (southern Portugal). Fisheries Research 64:115-118. Seminoff, J.A., A. Resendiz, and W.J. Nichols. 2002. Diet of East Pacific green turtles (Chelonia mydas) in the central Gulf of California, Mexico. Journal of Herpetology 36:447-453. Shaughnessy, P.D. 1980. Entanglement of Cape fur seals with man-made objects. Marine Pollution Bulletin 11:332-336. Shaw, D.G. 1977. Pelagic tar and plastic in the Gulf of Alaska and Bering Sea: 1975. The ­ cience of the Total Environment 8:13-20. S Shiomoto, A. and T. Kameda. 2005. Distribution of manufactured floating marine debris in near-shore areas around Japan. Marine Pollution Bulletin 50:1430-1432. Silva-Iñiguez, L. and D.W. Fischer. 2003. Quantification and classification of marine litter on the municipal beach of Ensenada, Baja California, Mexico. Marine Pollution Bulletin 46:132-138. Spear, L.B., D.G. Ainley, and C.A. Ribic. 1995. Incidence of plastic in seabirds from the t ­ ropical Pacific, 1984–91: Relation with distribution of species, sex, age, season, year and body weight. Marine Environmental Research 40:123-146. Stefatos, A., M. Charalampakis, G. Papatheodorou, and G. Ferentinos. 1999. Marine debris on the seafloor of the Mediterranean Sea: Examples from two enclosed gulfs in western Greece. Marine Pollution Bulletin 38:389-393. Stewart, B.S. and P.K. Yochem. 1987. Entanglement of pinnipeds in synthetic debris and fishing net and line fragments at San Nicolas and San Miguel Islands, California, 1978–1986. Marine Pollution Bulletin 18:336-339. Storrier, K.L., D.J. McGlashan, S. Bonellie, and K. Velander. 2007. Beach litter deposition at a selection of beaches in the Firth of Forth, Scotland. Journal of Coastal Research 23:813-822. Thiel, M., I. Hinojosa, N. Vásquez, and E. Macaya. 2003. Floating marine debris in coastal waters of the SE-Pacific (Chile). Marine Pollution Bulletin 46:224-231. Tomás, J., R. Guitart, R. Mateo, and J.A. Raga. 2002. Marine debris ingestion in loggerhead sea turtles, Caretta caretta, from the Western Mediterranean. Marine Pollution Bulletin 44:211-216. Tschernij, V. and P.O. Larsson. 2003. Ghost fishing by lost cod gill nets in the Baltic Sea. Fisheries Research 64:151-162. Uneputty, P.A. and S.M. Evans. 1997. Accumulation of beach litter on islands of the Pulau Seribu Archipelago, Indonesia. Marine Pollution Bulletin 34:652-655. van Dolah, R.F., V.G. Burrell, and S.B. West. 1980. The distribution of pelagic tars and plastics in the south Atlantic bight. Marine Pollution Bulletin 11:352-356. van Franeker, J.A. 1985a. Plastic ingestion by petrels breeding in Antarctica. Marine Pollution ����������������������������������������������������� Bulletin 19:672-674. van Franeker, J.A. 1985b. Plastic ingestion by North Atlantic fulmar. Marine Pollution ­Bulletin 16:367-369. van Franeker, J.A. and P.J. Bell. 1985. Plastic ingestion by petrels breeding in Antarctica. Marine Pollution Bulletin 19:672-674. Velander, K. and M. Mocogni. 1999. Beach litter sampling strategies: Is there a “best” method? Marine Pollution Bulletin 38:1134-1140. Venrick, E.L., T.W. Backman, C. Bartram, C.J. Platt, M.S. Thornhill, and R.E. Yates. 1973. Man- made objects on the surface of the central North Pacific Ocean. Nature 241:271. Vlietstra, L.S. and J.A. Parga. �������������������������������������������������������� 2002. Long-term changes in the type, but not amount, of ingested plastic particles in short-tailed shearwaters in the southeastern Bering Sea. Marine Pollution Bulletin 44:945-955.

APPENDIX C 187 Wetzel, L., G. Fillmann, and L.F.H. Niencheski. 2004. Litter contamination processes and management perspectives on the southern Brazilian coast. International Journal of Envi- ronment and Pollution 21:153-165. Whiting, S.D. 1998. Types and sources of marine debris in Fog Bay, northern Australia. ­ arine Pollution Bulletin 36:904-910. M Williams, A.T., D.T. Tudor, and P. Randerson. 2003. Beach litter sourcing in the Bristol C ­ hannel and Wales, UK. Water Air and Soil Pollution 143:387-408. Willoughby, N.G., H. Sangkoyo, and B.O. Lakaseru. 1997. Beach litter: An increasing and changing problem for Indonesia. Marine Pollution Bulletin 34:469-478. Witherington, B.E. 2002. Ecology of neonate loggerhead turtles inhabiting lines of down­ welling near a Gulf Stream front. Marine Biology 140:843-853. Wong, C.S., D.R. Green, and W.J. Cretney. 1974. Quantitative tar and plastic waste distribu­ tions in the Pacific Ocean. Nature 247:30-32. Yamashita, R. and A. Tanimura. 2007. Floating plastic in the Kuroshio Current area, western North Pacific Ocean. Marine Pollution Bulletin 54:485-488. Zavala-González, A. and E. Mellink. 1997. Entanglement of California sea lions, Zalophus californianus californianus, in fishing in the central-northern part of the Gulf of Califor­ nia, Mexico. Fisheries Bulletin 95:180-184.

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Marine debris from ships and other ocean-based sources-including trash and lost fishing gear-contributes to the spoiling of beaches, fouling of surface waters and the seafloor, and harm to marine animals, among other effects. Unfortunately, international conventions and domestic laws intended to control marine debris have not been successful, in part because the laws, as written, provide little incentive to change behavior.

This book identifies ways to reduce waste, improve waste disposal at ports, and strengthen the regulatory framework toward a goal of zero waste discharge into the marine environment. Progress will depend on a commitment to sustained funding and appropriate institutional support.

The Interagency Marine Debris Coordinating Committee should, through planning and prioritization, target research to understand the sources, fates, and impacts of marine debris. It should support the establishment of scalable and statistically rigorous protocols that allow monitoring at a variety of temporal and spatial scales. These protocols should contain evaluative metrics that allow assessment of progress in marine debris mitigation. The United States, through leadership in the international arena, should provide technical assistance and support for the establishment of additional monitoring and research programs worldwide.

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