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Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines (2009)

Chapter: Appendix B: Supplementary Information on Nutritional Intake

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Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Supplementary Information on Nutritional Intake." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
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APPENDIX B
Supplementary Information on Nutritional Intake

Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Supplementary Information on Nutritional Intake." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
×

DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKES FOR PREGNANCY

TABLE B-1A Equations to Estimate Energy Requirement for Pregnant Women by Trimester

Estimated Energy Requirement (kcal/day) = Nonpregnant EER + Pregnancy Energy Deposition

1st trimester

EER = Nonpregnant (adolescent or adult) EER + 0

2nd trimester

EER = Nonpregnant (adolescent or adult) EER + 340

3rd trimester

EER = Nonpregnant (adolescent or adult) EER + 452

NOTE: EER = Estimated Energy Requirement. Use equations in Table B-1B to calculate non-pregnant EER. EER for adult women should be used for ages 19-50 years; EER for adolescent girls should be used for ages 9-18 years

SOURCE: IOM, 2006.

TABLE B-1B Equations to Calculate Estimated Energy Requirement (EER) for Nonpregnant Adolescents or Adult Women

14-18 Years of Age

Estimated Energy Requirement (kcal/day) = Total Energy Expenditure + Energy Deposition

EER = 135.3 − (30.8 × age [y]) + PA × [(10.0 × weight [kg]) + (934 × height [m])] + 25

19 Years and Older

Estimated Energy Requirement (kcal/day) = Total Energy Expenditure

EER = 354 − (6.91 × age [y]) + PA × [(9.36 × weight [kg]) + (726 v height [m])]

NOTE: PA = Physical Activity Coefficient. Use equations in Table B-1C to calculate PA.

SOURCE: IOM, 2006.

TABLE B-1C Physical Activity Coefficients (PA values) for Use in EER Equations for Adolescents or Adult Women

 

Sedentarya (PAL 1.0-1.39)

Low Activeb (PAL 1.4-1.59)

Activec (PAL 1.6-1.89)

Very Actived (PAL 1.9-2.5)

14-18 Years of Age

1.0

1.16

1.31

1.56

19 Years and Older

1.0

1.12

1.27

1.45

NOTE: PAL = Physical Activity Level.

aE.g., typical daily living activities (e.g., household tasks, walking to the bus).

bE.g., typical daily living activities PLUS 30-60 minutes of daily moderate activity (e.g., walking at 5-7 km/h).

cE.g., typical daily living activities PLUS at least 60 minutes of daily moderate activity.

dE.g., typical daily living activities PLUS at least 60 minutes of daily moderate activity PLUS an additional 60 minutes of vigorous activity or 120 minutes of moderate activity.

SOURCE: IOM, 2006.

Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Supplementary Information on Nutritional Intake." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
×

TABLE B-2 Dietary Reference Intakes for Pregnant Women: Vitamins, Elements, Total Water, and Macronutrients in Alphabetical Order

Nutrient

EARa

RDAb/AIc

ULd

Biotin

14-18 y

30 μg/day

19-30 y

30 μg/day

31-50 y

30 μg/day

Boron

14-18 y

17 mg/day

19-30 y

20 mg/day

31-50 y

20 mg/day

Calcium

14-18 y

1,300 mg/day

2.5 g/day

19-30 y

1,000 mg/day

2.5 g/day

31-50 y

1,000 mg/day

2.5 g/day

Carbohydrate

14-18 y

135 g/day

175 g/day

19-30 y

135 g/day

175 g/day

31-50 y

135 g/day

175 g/day

Chloride

14-18 y

2.3 g/day

3.6 g/day

19-30 y

2.3 g/day

3.6 g/day

31-50 y

2.3 g/day

3.6 g/day

Choline

14-18 y

450 mg/day

3.0 g/day

19-30 y

450 mg/day

3.5 g/day

31-50 y

450 mg/day

3.5 g/day

Chromium

14-18 y

29 μg/day

19-30 y

30 μg/day

31-50 y

30 μg/day

Copper

14-18 y

785 μg/day

1,000 μg/day

8,000 μg/day

19-30 y

800 μg/day

1,000 μg/day

10,000 μg/day

31-50 y

800 μg/day

1,000 μg/day

10,000 μg/day

Fiber (Total)

14-18 y

28 g/day

19-30 y

28 g/day

31-50 y

28 g/day

Flouride

14-18 y

3.0 mg/day

10 mg/day

19-30 y

3.0 mg/day

10 mg/day

31-50 y

3.0 mg/day

10 mg/day

Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Supplementary Information on Nutritional Intake." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
×

Nutrient

EARa

RDAb/AIc

ULd

Folatee

14-18 y

520 µg/day

600 µg/day

800 µg/day

19-30 y

520 µg/day

600 µg/day

1,000 µg/day

31-50 y

520 µg/day

600 µg/day

1,000 µg/day

Iodine

14-18 y

160 µg/day

220 µg/day

900 µg/day

19-30 y

160 µg/day

220 µg/day

1,100 µg/day

31-50 y

160 µg/day

220 µg/day

1,100 µg/day

Iron

14-18 y

23 mg/day

27 mg/day

45 mg/day

19-30 y

22 mg/day

27 mg/day

45 mg/day

31-50 y

22 mg/day

27 mg/day

45 mg/day

Linoleic acid

14-18 y

13 g/day

19-30 y

13 g/day

31-50 y

13 g/day

α-Linolenic Acid

14-18 y

1.4 g/day

19-30 y

1.4 g/day

31-50 y

1.4 g/day

Magnesiumf

14-18 y

335 mg/day

400 mg/day

350 mg/day

19-30 y

290 mg/day

350 mg/day

350 mg/day

31-50 y

300 mg/day

360 mg/day

350 mg/day

Manganese

14-18 y

2.0 mg/day

9 mg/day

19-30 y

2.0 mg/day

11 mg/day

31-50 y

2.0 mg/day

11 mg/day

Molybdenum

14-18 y

40 µg/day

50 µg/day

1,700 µg/day

19-30 y

40 µg/day

50 µg/day

2,000 µg/day

31-50 y

40 µg/day

50 µg/day

2,000 ug/day

Niacing

14-18 y

14 mg/day

18 mg/day

30 mg/day

19-30 y

14 mg/day

18 mg/day

35 mg/day

31-50 y

14 mg/day

18 mg/day

35 mg/day

Nickel

14-18 y

1.0 mg/day

19-30 y

1.0 mg/day

31-50 y

1.0 mg/day

Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Supplementary Information on Nutritional Intake." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
×

Nutrient

EARa

RDAb/AIc

ULd

Pantothenic Acid

14-18 y

6.0 mg/day

19-30 y

6.0 mg/day

31-50 y

6.0 mg/day

Phosphorus

14-18 y

1,055 mg/day

1,250 mg/day

3.5 g/day

19-30 y

580 mg/day

700 mg/day

3.5 g/day

31-50 y

580 mg/day

700 mg/day

3.5 g/day

Potassium

14-18 y

4.7 g/day

19-30 y

4.7 g/day

31-50 y

4.7 g/day

Proteinh

14-18 y

0.88 g/kg/day

71 g/day

19-30 y

0.88 g/kg/day

71 g/day

31-50 y

0.88 g/kg/day

71 g/day

Riboflavin

14-18 y

1.2 mg/day

1.4 mg/day

19-30 y

1.2 mg/day

1.4 mg/day

31-50 y

1.2 mg/day

1.4 mg/day

Selenium

14-18 y

49 µg/day

60 µg/day

400 µg/day

19-30 y

49 µg/day

60 µg/day

400 µg/day

31-50 y

49 µg/day

60 µg/day

400 µg/day

Sodium

14-18 y

1.5 g/day

2.3 g/day

19-30 y

1.5 g/day

2.3 g/day

31-50 y

1.5 g/day

2.3 g/day

Thiamin

14-18 y

1.2 mg/day

1.4 mg/day

19-30 y

1.2 mg/day

1.4 mg/day

31-50 y

1.2 mg/day

1.4 mg/day

Vitamin Ai

14-18 y

530 µg RAE/day

750 µg RAE/day

2,800 µg/day

19-30 y

550 µg RAE/day

770 µg RAE/day

3,000 µg/day

31-50 y

550 µg RAE/day

770 µg RAE/day

3,000 µg/day

Vitamin B6

14-18 y

1.6 mg/day

1.9 mg/day

80 mg/day

19-30 y

1.6 mg/day

1.9 mg/day

100 mg/day

31-50 y

1.6 mg/day

1.9 mg/day

100 mg/day

Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Supplementary Information on Nutritional Intake." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
×

Nutrient

EARa

RDAb/AIc

ULd

Vitamin B12

14-18 y

2.2 μg/day

2.6 μg/day

19-30 y

2.2 μg/day

2.6 μg/day

31-50 y

2.2 μg/day

2.6 μg/day

Vitamin C

14-18 y

66 mg/day

80 mg/day

1,800 mg/day

19-30 y

70 mg/day

85 mg/day

2,000 mg/day

31-50 y

70 mg/day

85 mg/day

2,000 mg/day

Vitamin D

14-18 y

5.0 μg/dayj

50 μg/day

19-30 y

5.0 μg/dayj

50 μg/day

31-50 y

5.0 μg/dayj

50 μg/day

Vitamin Ek

14-18 y

12 mg/day

15 mg/day

8,00 mg/day

19-30 y

12 mg/day

15 mg/day

1,000 mg/day

31-50 y

12 mg/day

15 mg/day

1,000 mg/day

Vitamin K

14-18 y

75 μg/day

19-30 y

90 μg/day

31-50 y

90 μg/day

Water (Total)l

14-18 y

3.0 L/day

19-30 y

3.0 L/day

31-50 y

3.0 L/day

Zinc

14-18 y

10.5 mg/day

12 mg/day

34 mg/day

19-30 y

9.5 mg/day

11 mg/day

40 mg/day

31-50 y

9.5 mg/day

11 mg/day

40 mg/day

NOTE: This table (taken from the DRI reports; see www.nap.edu) presents Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA) in bold type or Adequate Intakes (AI) in ordinary type in Column 3.

aEAR = Estimated Average Requirement. An EAR is the average daily nutrient intake level estimated to meet the requirements of half of the healthy individuals in a group.

bRDA = Recommended Dietary Allowance. An RDA is the average daily dietary intake level sufficient to meet the nutrient requirements of nearly all (97-98 percent) healthy individuals in a group. It is calculated from an EAR.

cAI = Adequate Intake. If sufficient scientific evidence is not available to establish an EAR, and thus calculate and RDA, an AI is usually developed. The AI for breast-fed infants is the mean intake. The AI for other life-stage groups and gender groups (except healthy breast-fed infants) is believed to cover the needs of all healthy individuals in the group, but a lack of data or uncertainty in the data prevents being able to specify with confidence the percentage of individuals covered by this intake. In the absence of a UL, extra caution may be warranted in consuming levels above recommended intakes. Members of the general population should be advised not to routinely exceed the UL. The UL is not meant to apply to individuals who

Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Supplementary Information on Nutritional Intake." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
×

are treated with the nutrient under medical supervision or to individuals with predisposing conditions that modify their sensitivity to the nutrient

dUL = Tolerable Upper Intake Level. The UL is the highest level of daily nutrient intake that is likely to pose no risk of adverse health effects to almost all individual in the general population. Unless otherwise specified, the UL represents total intake from food, water, and supplements.

eAs dietary folate equivalents (DFEs). 1 DFE = 1 μg food folate = 0.6 μg of folic acid from fortified food or as a supplement consumed with food = 0.5 μg of folic acid from a supplement taken on an empty stomach. In view of evidence linking folate intake with neural tube defects in the fetus, it is recommended that all women capable of becoming pregnancy consume 400 μg from supplements or fortified foods in addition to intake of food folate from a varied diet. It is assumed that women will continue consuming 400 μg from supplements or fortified food until their pregnancy is confirmed and they enter prenatal care, which ordinarily occurs after the end of the periconceptional period—the critical time for formation of the neural tube. The UL for folate applies to synthetic forms obtained from supplements, fortified foods, or a combination of the two.

fThe ULs for magnesium represent intake from pharmacological agents only and do not include intake from food and water.

gFor EAR and RDA: as niacin equivalents (NE). 1 mg of niacin = 60 mg of tryptophan. The UL for niacin applies to synthetic forms obtained from supplements, fortified foods, or a combination of the two.

hBased on g protein per kg of body weight for the reference body weight, e.g., for adults 0.8 g/kg body weight for the reference body weight.

iRAE = Retinol activity equivalent. 1 μg RAE = 1 μg retinol, 12 μg β-carotene, and 24 μg α-carotene or β-cryptoxanthin. The RAE for dietary provitamin A carotenoids in foods is twofold greater than retinol equivalents (RE), whereas the RAE for preformed vitamin A in foods is the same as RE. The UL for vitamin A is for preformed vitamin A only.

jIn the absence of adequate exposure to sunlight, and as cholecalciferol. 1 μg cholecalciferol = 40 IU vitamin D.

kAs α-tocopherol. For EAR and RDA: α-tocopherol includes RRR-α-tocopherol, the only form of α-tocopherol that occurs naturally in foods, and the 2R-stereoisomeric forms of α-tocopherol (RRR-, RSR-, RRS-, and RSS-α-tocopherol) that occur in fortified foods and supplements. This does not include the 2S-stereoisomeric forms of α-tocopherol (SRR-, SSR-, SRS-, and SSS-α-tocopherol), also found in fortified foods and supplements. The 2S-stereoisomers are not stored in the body. For UL: applies to any form of supplemental α-tocopherol.

lTotal water includes all water contained in food, beverages, and drinking water.

SOURCE: IOM, 2006.

Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Supplementary Information on Nutritional Intake." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
×

TABLE B-3 Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Ranges

Macronutrient

Range (percent of energy)

4-18 y

Adults

Fat

25-35

20-35

n-6 Polyunsaturated fatty acids* (linoleic acid)

5-10

5-10

n-3 Polyunsaturated fatty acids* (α-linolenic acid)

0.6-1.2

0.6-1.2

Carbohydrate

46-65

46-65

Protein

10-30

10-35

*Approximately 10 percent of the total can come from longer-chain n-3 or n-6 fatty acids.

SOURCE: IOM, 2006.

TABLE B-4 Additional Macronutrient Recommendations

Macronutrient

Recommendation

Dietary cholesterol

As low as possible while consuming a nutritionally adequate diet

Trans fatty acids

As low as possible while consuming a nutritionally adequate diet

Saturated fatty acids

As low as possible while consuming a nutritionally adequate diet

Added sugars*

Limit to no more than 25% of total energy

*Not a recommended intake. A daily intake of added sugars that individuals should aim for to achieve a healthful diet was not set.

SOURCE: IOM, 2006.

TABLE B-5 Estimated Healthy Eating Index-2005 Component and Total Scores, United States (1994-1996 and 2001-2002)

Component (maximum score)

1994-1996 Score (95% CI)

2001-2002 Score (95% CI)

Total fruit (5)

3.1 (3.0, 3.3)

3.1 (2.9, 3.3)

Whole fruit (5)

4.5 (4.3, 4.7)

3.4 (3.2, 3.7)*

Total vegetables (5)

3.6 (3.6, 3.7)

3.2 (3.1, 3.4)*

Dark green and orange vegetables and legumes (5)

1.4 (1.4, 1.5)

1.4 (1.2, 1.5)

Total grains (5)

5.0 (5.0, 5.0)

5.0 (5.0, 5.0)

Whole grains (5)

1.2 (1.2, 1.2)

1.0 (1.0, 1.1)*

Milk (10)

5.9 (5.7, 6.2)

6.3 (6.0, 6.5)*

Meat and beans (10)

10.0 (9.9, 10.0)

10.0 (10.0, 10.0)

Oils (10)

6.0 (5.8, 6.2)

6.8 (6.5, 7.1)*

Sodium (10)

3.2 (3.1, 3.3)

4.1 (3.9, 4.2)*

Saturated fat (10)

6.5 (6.4, 6.7)

6.4 (6.1, 6.7)

Calories from solid fat, alcohol, and added sugar (20)

7.8 (7.5, 8.2)

7.5 (6.9, 8.1)

Total HEI-2005 score (100)

58.2 (57.2, 59.2)

58.2 (56.6, 59.9)

NOTES: Excludes children under 2 years of age and breast-fed children.

*Significantly different (p < 0.05).

SOURCE: Nutrition Insight 37, USDA, available online at http://www.cnpp.usda.gov/Publications/NutritionInsights/Insight37.pdf [accessed April 16, 2009].

Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Supplementary Information on Nutritional Intake." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
×

TRENDS IN ENERGY INTAKE AND MARKERS OF ENERGY DENSITY

As the prevalence of obesity rises among childbearing-aged women and women entering pregnancy, important shifts in diet and physical activity have also occurred. In a recent study, Nielsen and colleagues (2002) used nationally representative data from the 1977-1978 Nationwide Food Consumption Survey and the 1989-1991 and 1994-1996 Continuing Surveys of Food Intake by Individuals to investigate the trends in total energy intake and energy intake by meal pattern type (Figure B-1). Data were stratified by age but not sex. These investigators found that among U.S. adults aged 19-39 years, there was an 18 percent increase in total energy intake over the 20-year period (1856 to 2198 kcal/d). When separated into energy from meal pattern type, the major contributor to this overall increase in energy intake was a sharp 58 percent increase in energy from snacks (244-387 kcal/d). Additionally, the percent of total energy from key food groups, such as salty snacks, sweetened beverages, candy, pizza, French fries, cheeseburgers, and Mexican-style food, increased between survey years 1977-1978 and 1994-1996.

These authors further investigated trends in beverage intake using the aforementioned data sources plus the 1999-2001 nationally-representative NHANES. For all age groups, including adults aged 19 to 39 years, sweet-

FIGURE B-1 Trends in energy intake and meal pattern type, U.S. adults aged 19-39 years.

FIGURE B-1 Trends in energy intake and meal pattern type, U.S. adults aged 19-39 years.

SOURCE: Nielsen et al., 2002.

Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Supplementary Information on Nutritional Intake." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
×

ened beverage intake increased and milk consumption decreased between survey years 1977-1978 and 1999-2001 (Figure B-2) (Nielsen and Popkin, 2004). Specifically, energy from soft drinks nearly tripled (2.8 to 7.0 percent [approximately 50 to 144 kcal per person per day]), energy from fruit drinks doubled (1.1 to 2.2 percent [from 20 to 45 kcal per person per day]), and energy from milk decreased (8.0 to 5.0 percent [from 143 to 99 kcal per person per day]).

Taken together, these findings illustrate an increase in consumption of foods of low nutrient density in the general population. This has special implications for pregnancy and lactation, which require modest increases in energy intake but proportionally greater increases in vitamin and mineral intake.

The U.S. Dietary Guidelines represent federal nutrition policy. The recommendations of the Dietary Guidelines are interpreted for use by healthy Americans over 2 years of age in MyPyramid (available online: http://www.MyPyramid.gov [accessed October 16, 2008]). The current MyPyramid recommends that females aged 14-18 years and 31-50 years consume 8 combined servings of fruits and vegetables, while 9 combined servings is recommended for females aged 19-30 years. MyPyramid also makes more specific recommendations about types of vegetables, including dark green and orange vegetables, and legumes to ensure consumption of the variety of nutrients available from these foods. When the Guenther et al. (2006) exam-

FIGURE B-2 Trends in U.S. beverage consumption 1977-2001: percent of total energy intake.

FIGURE B-2 Trends in U.S. beverage consumption 1977-2001: percent of total energy intake.

SOURCE: Nielsen and Popkin, 2004.

Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Supplementary Information on Nutritional Intake." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
×

ined sub-groups of vegetables, mean intakes for childbearing-aged women were below the recommended amounts for all subgroups except for starchy vegetables (Figure B-3). These data clearly illustrate that childbearing-aged women failed to meet recommendations for fruits and vegetables.

Another method of quantifying the overall quality of American’s diets is through the use of the Healthy Eating Index-2005 (HEI-2005), a tool designed to measure compliance of diets with the key, diet-related recommendations of the 2005 Dietary Guidelines for Americans (HHS/USDA, 2005). The HEI-2005 has 12 components, as seen in Table B-5 (Guenther et al., 2006). For most components, higher intakes result in higher scores. Note, however, that for three components, saturated fat, sodium, and calories from solid fats, alcoholic beverages, and added sugars (SoFAAS), lower intake levels result in higher scores because lower intakes are more desirable. Monitoring changes in the HEI-2005 scores can provide a method for nutrition surveillance in the population.

In a recent analysis, trends in the HEI-2005 scores and its components were published for all Americans two years of age and older (subgroups of the population were not studied). From 1994-1996 to 2001-2002, there was little change in either overall HEI-2005 score or its components. The average HEI-2005 score was 58.2 out of 100 possible points in both time periods. American’s diets consistently met recommendations for the groups “Total Grains” and “Meat and Beans,” but were far below the maximum

FIGURE B-3 Mean daily intakes of vegetables by subtype among U.S. females 19-30 years of age.

FIGURE B-3 Mean daily intakes of vegetables by subtype among U.S. females 19-30 years of age.

SOURCE: Guenther et al., 2006.

Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Supplementary Information on Nutritional Intake." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
×

score for the groups, “Dark Green and Orange Vegetables” and “Legumes” as well as whole grains. Intakes from SoFAAS were well below the recommendations, as reflected in low scores on these components. From 1994-1996 to 2001-2002 the HEI-2005 score declined for the groups “Whole Fruit,” “Total Vegetables,” and “Whole Grains” while the score for the groups “Milk,” “Oils,” and “Sodium” improved.

Some of these dietary pattern changes may be a result of the trend toward obtaining a greater proportion of food outside the home. Self-reported dietary data from national surveys was used to show that the percentage of total energy intake obtained from foods consumed at home decreased from 77 in 1977-1978 to 65 percent from 1994-1996 (Figure B-4) (Nielsen et al., 2002). The amount of energy obtained from foods consumed from restaurants, including fast food establishments, doubled from 9 to 21 percent during this same period.

The aforementioned analysis relied on dietary intake data obtained from surveys. There is no “gold standard” method of assessing dietary intakes in individuals, and all self-reported dietary intake data have inherent biases. Therefore food supply data, collected directly from food producers and distributors, are often used to examine trends in American dietary patterns. The estimates are adjusted for spoilage, cooking losses, plate waste, and other food losses accumulated throughout the marketing system and

FIGURE B-4 Trends in energy intake (percent energy) by location, Americans aged 2+ years.

FIGURE B-4 Trends in energy intake (percent energy) by location, Americans aged 2+ years.

SOURCE: Nielsen et al., 2002.

Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Supplementary Information on Nutritional Intake." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
×

the home. Analysis of trends in food supply data provide the same conclusions regarding trends in increasing energy intake and overall diet quality of Americans as self-reported survey data.

The most recent loss-adjusted annual per capita food supply data analyses by the USDA’s Economic Research Service suggests a 12 percent increase in total energy intake (~300 kcal per person per day) from 1985 to 2000 (USDA, 2002; available online: http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/FoodReview/DEC2002/frvol25i3a.pdf [accessed April 16, 2009]) (Figure B-5). Of the 300-kcal increase, grains (mainly refined grains) accounted for 46 percent; added fats, 24 percent; added sugars, 23 percent; fruits and vegetables, 8 percent of the increase. At the same time, energy intake from the meat and dairy groups together declined by 1 percent. When the per capita food supply data in 2000 was compared with the 1992 Food Guide Pyramid recommendations as a marker of overall diet quality, intakes exceeded recommendations for grains, meats, added fats, and added sugars, and fell below recommendations for dairy, fruits, and non-starchy vegetables (USDA, 2002; available online: http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/FoodReview/DEC2002/frvol25i3a.pdf [accessed April 16, 2009]).

FIGURE B-5 Energy from the U.S. per capita food supply (adjusted for losses).

FIGURE B-5 Energy from the U.S. per capita food supply (adjusted for losses).

1Rounded to the nearest hundred.

2Not calculated for years beyond 1970.

SOURCE: USDA, 2002; available online at http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/FoodReview/DEC2002/frvol25i3a.pdf [accessed April 16, 2009].

Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Supplementary Information on Nutritional Intake." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
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REFERENCES

Guenther P. M., K. W. Dodd, J. Reedy and S. M. Krebs-Smith. 2006. Most Americans eat much less than recommended amounts of fruits and vegetables. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 106(9): 1371-1379.

HHS/USDA (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services/United States Department of Agriculture). 2005. Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2005. 6th Edition. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.

IOM (Institute of Medicine). 2006. Dietary Reference Intakes: The Essential Guide to Nutrient Requirement. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.

Nielsen S. J. and B. M. Popkin. 2004. Changes in beverage intake between 1977 and 2001. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 27(3): 205-210.

Nielsen S. J., A. M. Siega-Riz and B. M. Popkin. 2002. Trends in energy intake in U.S. between 1977 and 1996: similar shifts seen across age groups. Obesity Research 10(5): 370-378.

Websites:

http://www.MyPyramid.gov

http://www.cnpp.usda.gov/Publications/NutritionInsights/Insight37.pdf

http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/FoodReview/DEC2002/frvol25i3a.pdf

Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Supplementary Information on Nutritional Intake." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Supplementary Information on Nutritional Intake." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Supplementary Information on Nutritional Intake." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Supplementary Information on Nutritional Intake." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Supplementary Information on Nutritional Intake." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Supplementary Information on Nutritional Intake." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Supplementary Information on Nutritional Intake." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Supplementary Information on Nutritional Intake." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
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Page 323
Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Supplementary Information on Nutritional Intake." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Supplementary Information on Nutritional Intake." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
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Page 325
Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Supplementary Information on Nutritional Intake." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Supplementary Information on Nutritional Intake." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Supplementary Information on Nutritional Intake." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
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Next: Appendix C: Supplementary Information on Composition and Components of Gestational Weight Gain »
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As women of childbearing age have become heavier, the trade-off between maternal and child health created by variation in gestational weight gain has become more difficult to reconcile. Weight Gain During Pregnancy responds to the need for a reexamination of the 1990 Institute of Medicine guidelines for weight gain during pregnancy. It builds on the conceptual framework that underscored the 1990 weight gain guidelines and addresses the need to update them through a comprehensive review of the literature and independent analyses of existing databases. The book explores relationships between weight gain during pregnancy and a variety of factors (e.g., the mother's weight and height before pregnancy) and places this in the context of the health of the infant and the mother, presenting specific, updated target ranges for weight gain during pregnancy and guidelines for proper measurement. New features of this book include a specific range of recommended gain for obese women.

Weight Gain During Pregnancy is intended to assist practitioners who care for women of childbearing age, policy makers, educators, researchers, and the pregnant women themselves to understand the role of gestational weight gain and to provide them with the tools needed to promote optimal pregnancy outcomes.

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