National Academies Press: OpenBook

Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines (2009)

Chapter: Appendix D: Summary of Determinants of Gestational Weight Gain

« Previous: Appendix C: Supplementary Information on Composition and Components of Gestational Weight Gain
Suggested Citation:"Appendix D: Summary of Determinants of Gestational Weight Gain." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
×

APPENDIX D
Summary of Determinants of Gestational Weight Gain

Table D-1 summarizes the literature that is referenced and discussed in Chapter 4, Determinants of Gestational Weight Gain.

Suggested Citation:"Appendix D: Summary of Determinants of Gestational Weight Gain." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
×

TABLE D-1 Summary of Literature on Determinants of Gestational Weight Gain

Determinants

Findings/Interpretations

Comments

References

Societal/Institutional

Media

The committee was unable to identify studies that examined specifically the media’s influence on gestational weight gain.

Media may exert its effects on gestational weight gain indirectly by influencing prepregnancy BMI and other biological determinants, as well as eating habits and sedentary behaviors that are established well before pregnancy.

Gortmaker et al., 1996

Gortmaker et al., 1999

Robinson, 1999

Kunkel, 2001

Hastings et al., 2003

Epstein et al., 2008

Culture and Acculturation

The committee was unable to identify studies that examined specifically the effects of culture and acculturation factors on gestational weight gain.

Cultural norms and beliefs can influence dietary behavior and physical activities, thereby affecting energy balance and gestational weight gain. Acculturation is generally associated with more unhealthy behaviors, including dietary intake, and higher rates of overweight and obesity.

Ventura and Taffel, 1985

Scribner and Dwyer, 1989

Cabral et al., 1990

Kleinman et al., 1991

Rumbaut and Weeks, 1996

Singh and Yu, 1996

Fuentes-Afflick and Lurie, 1997

Schaffer et al., 1998

Jones and Bond, 1999

King, 2000

Callister and Birkhead, 2002

Lizarzaburu and Palinkas, 2002

Hubert et al., 2005

Baker and Hellerstedt, 2006

Hernandez-Valero et al., 2007

Fuentes-Afflick and Hessol, 2008

Suggested Citation:"Appendix D: Summary of Determinants of Gestational Weight Gain." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
×

Health Services

The committee found insufficient evidence to evaluate the influence of prenatal weight gain advice on actual gestational weight gain.

Studies limited by self-selection bias, recall bias, differences in time during gestation when nutrition advice was given, variation in content and frequency of advice, the pairing of advice with other food or nonfood interventions, individual and social characteristics of the provider as contrasted with those of the pregnant woman, and racial-ethnic and socioeconomic disparities in weight gain advice given to women.

Rush, 1981

Orstead et al., 1985

Olds et al., 1986

Bruce and Tchabo, 1989

Brown et al., 1992

Morris et al., 1993

Hickey, 2000

Policy

Examples include IOM guidelines, WIC programs, and policy recommendations to restrict food/beverage marketing to young children. IOM guidelines appear to influence what women believe to be appropriate weight gain during pregnancy. A national evaluation of WIC programs found a reversal of low weight gain in early pregnancy and greater total weight gain during pregnancy among women who enrolled in WIC compared with controls.

The impact of the IOM guidelines on actual gestational weight gain may be limited in part because many health professionals are providing no or inappropriate advice about weight gain during pregnancy. More research on implementation of gestational weight gain guidelines is needed.

Rush et al., 1988

Cogswell et al., 1999

ACOG, 2005

Power et al., 2006

Stotland et al., 2005

Joyce et al., 2008

Environmental

Altitude

Jensen and Moore (1997) did not find any significant difference in gestational weight gain among women residing at 3,000 to 5,000 feet, 5,000 to 7,000 feet, 7,000 to 9,000 feet, and 9,000 to 11,000 feet.

The decline in birth weight associated with increase in altitude appears to be independent of gestational weight gain.

Jensen and Moore, 1997

Suggested Citation:"Appendix D: Summary of Determinants of Gestational Weight Gain." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
×

Determinants

Findings/Interpretations

Comments

References

Environmental Toxicants

The committee was unable to identify studies that examined specifically the effects of exposures to environmental toxicants on gestational weight gain.

More research is needed on the relationships among environmental toxicants, gestational weight gain, and fetal growth.

Dar et al., 1992

Wolff et al., 2007

Natural and Man-made Disasters

The committee was unable to identify studies that examined specifically the effects of natural or man-made disasters on gestational weight gain.

Disasters can affect gestational weight gain by influencing resource availability (including food supply), healthcare access, and stress levels.

Weissman et al., 1989

Cordero, 1993

Glynn et al., 2001

Lederman et al., 2004

Eskenazi et al., 2007

Landrigan et al., 2008

Neighborhood/Community

Access to Healthy Foods

The committee found no direct evidence for the influence of neighborhood or community factors such as access to healthy foods on gestational weight gain.

Laraia et al. found pregnant women who live more than four miles from a supermarket had a two-fold greater risk of falling into the lowest Diet Quality Index quartile compared to women who lived ≤ 2 miles from a supermarket, but the authors also did not report on gestational weight gain.

Laraia et al., 2004

Lane et al., 2008

Opportunities for Physical Activity

Laraia et al. (2007) found that social spaces were associated with decreased odds for inadequate or excessive gestational weight gain.

Neighborhood environments can influence gestational weight gain by providing access to healthy foods and opportunities for physical activities.

Laraia et al., 2007

Suggested Citation:"Appendix D: Summary of Determinants of Gestational Weight Gain." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
×

Interpersonal/Family Determinants

Family Violence

Several studies demonstrated lower weight gain and greater risk of inadequate weight gain among abused pregnant women.

More research is needed.

McFarlane et al., 1996

Siega-Riz and Hobel, 1997

Boy and Salihu, 2004

Moraes et al., 2006

Marital Status

Several studies found married women were more likely to gain within the IOM recommended weight gain range than single or separated/divorced women.

More research is needed.

Kleinman et al., 1991

Ventura, 1994

Olsen and Strawderman, 2003

Partner and Family Support

The committee found insufficient evidence at this time to establish a relationship between partner support and gestational weight gain.

More research is needed.

Stevens-Simon et al., 1993b

Parker et al., 1994

Gutierrez, 1999

Dipietro et al., 2003

Non-modifiable Maternal Factors

Genetic Characteristics

The committee was unable to identify studies of familial aggregation or heritability of gestational weight gain. Presently it is not possible to conclude firmly on the role of specific genes and alleles on gestational weight gain.

Several studies have examined the effects of ADRB3 and Pro12Ala gene polymorphisms on gestational weight gain with mixed results. Studies lacked adequate statistical power to identify the effects of alleles or genotypes with a small effect size.

Festa et al., 1999

Yanagisawa et al., 1999

Alevizaki et al., 2000

Dishy et al., 2003

Tsai et al., 2004

Fallucca et al., 2006

Tok et al., 2006

Epigenetics and Developmental Programming

The committee was unable to identify studies that examined specifically the influence of epigenetic events and developmental programming on gestational weight gain.

More research is needed.

Fraga et al., 2005

Suggested Citation:"Appendix D: Summary of Determinants of Gestational Weight Gain." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
×

Determinants

Findings/Interpretations

Comments

References

Prepregnancy BMI

Gestational weight gain is generally inversely proportional to prepregnancy BMI. Chu et al. (2009) found that maternal pre pregnancy obesity was the strongest factor affecting maternal weight gain in pregnancy, with obese women reporting the lowest gestational weight gain.

An important strategy for optimizing gestational weight gain is to help women achieve a healthy weight before pregnancy.

Voigt et al., 2007

Chu et al., 2009

Preexisting Morbidities

The committee found no direct evidence for pre-existing morbidities as determinants of gestational weight gain.

More research is needed on the influence of preconceptional health status of woman on gestational weight gain.

Fonager et al., 1998

Non-modifiable Maternal Factors

Sociodemographic Factors:

Several studies have demonstrated higher gestational weight gain among adolescents than adults; the relationships of adolescent gestational weight gain to birth outcomes, post-partum weight retention, and subsequent risk for overweight/obesity remain unclear and requires further research.

The committee found that data generated between the IOM (1990) report and the present support the recommendation that “until more is known, adolescents less than two years post-menarche should be advised to stay within the IOM-recommended, BMI-specific weight range without either restricting weight gain or encouraging weight gain at the upper end.”

Hediger et al., 1990

Adolescents

Howie et al., 2003

Nielsen et al., 2006

Chen et al., 2007

Groth, 2007

Suggested Citation:"Appendix D: Summary of Determinants of Gestational Weight Gain." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
×

Sociodemographic Factors:

Several studies reported higher prepregnancy BMI and lower gestational weight gain among older women.

The contributions of gestational weight gain to birth outcomes, postpartum weight retention and subsequent overweight/obesity among older women remain unclear and require further research.

Gross et al., 1980

Older Women

Endres et al., 1987

Cnattingius et al., 1992

Prysak et al., 1995

Fretts, 2005

Joseph et al., 2005

Reddy et al., 2006

Delpisheh et al., 2008

Sociodemographic Factors:

The committee found that few of the studies reviewed considered the influence of the many possible determinants of gestational weight gain among different racial/ethnic groups or alternatively, adjusted for race/ethnicity in their analyses.

 

 

Race/Ethnicity

 

Sociodemographic Factors:

Several studies have reported an association between food insecurity and overweight/obesity. Olson and Strawderman (2008) found that women who were both obese and food insecure in early pregnancy were at greatest risk of major gestational and postpartum weight gain, suggesting that food insecurity may play a role in gestational weight gain.

Food restriction or deprivation, whether voluntary or involuntary, results in a variety of changes including the preoccupation with food and eating. Food-insecure households also tend to purchase calorie-dense foods that are often high in fats and added sugars in adaptation to their food insecurity

Anderson, 1990

Food Insecurity

Polivy, 1996

Frongillo et al., 1997

Olson, 1999

Townsend et al., 2001

Adams et al., 2003

Basiotis and Lino, 2003

Crawford et al., 2004

Drewnowski and Darmon, 2005

Wilde and Peterman, 2006

Jones and Frongillo, 2007

Olson and Strawderman, 2008

Suggested Citation:"Appendix D: Summary of Determinants of Gestational Weight Gain." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
×

Determinants

Findings/Interpretations

Comments

References

Potentially Modifiable Maternal Factors

Physiological Factors:

Gestational weight gain may be related to changes in insulin sensitivity during pregnancy which depends on maternal pregravid metabolic status. Both leptin and adiponectin are correlated with various components of maternal metabolism such as energy expenditure and adiposity, and may influence gestational weight gain by affecting maternal insulin sensitivity.

 

Swinburn et al., 1991

Insulin, Leptin, and Hormonal Milieu

Catalano et al., 1993

Catalano et al., 1998

Highman et al., 1998

Catalano et al., 1999

Kirwan et al., 2002

Cnop, 2003

Okereke et al., 2004

Retnarkaran et al., 2004

Williams et al., 2004

Winzer et al., 2004

Hauguel-de Mouzon et al., 2006

Pinar et al., 2008

Physiological Factors:

BMR can influence total energy expenditure and gestational weight gain. Several studies have shown increased BMR during pregnancy, but change in BMR varies according to pregravid BMI.

Wide variability in BMR change during pregnancy has been observed and makes recommendations related to energy intake difficult.

Prentice et al., 1983

Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)

Forsum et al., 1985

Lawrence et al., 1985

Durnin, 1991

Goldberg et al., 1993

Butte et al., 2004

Medical Factors:

Hyperemesis Gravidarium

Several studies have demonstrated lower gestational weight gain and birth weight among women with hyperemesis gravidarum.

 

Gross et al., 1989

Goodwin et al., 1992

Vilming and Nesheim, 2000

Furneaux et al., 2001

Goodwin, 2002

Jewell and Young, 2003

Suggested Citation:"Appendix D: Summary of Determinants of Gestational Weight Gain." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
×

Medical Factors:

Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia

Sollid et al. (2004) found increased preterm delivery & SGA among women with eating disorders but did not obtain information on gestational weight gain. Kouba et al. (2005) found anorexic women gained less weight and had lower birth weight infants.

 

Sollid et al., 2004

Kouba et al., 2005

Wisner et al., 2007

Bulik et al., 2008

Medical Factors:

Bariatric Surgery

Three studies reported a decrease in gestational weight gain during a subsequent pregnancy in women who had bariatric surgery.

Incidence of gestational diabetes and hypertensive disorders is lower in pregnancy following bariatric surgery; The effect of bariatric surgery on the risk of fetal macrosomia and birth weight are inconclusive.

Gurewitsch et al., 1996

Marceau et al., 2004

Skull et al., 2004

Dixon et al., 2005

Santry et al., 2005

Davis et al., 2006

Ducarme et al., 2007

Psychological Factors:

Depression

The committee found that evidence in support of a relationship between depressive symptoms and gestational weight gain is inconclusive.

Studies limited by lack of generalizability and control for confounding. Difficult to establish cause-effect from cross-sectional studies.

Cameron et al., 1996

Casanueva et al., 2000

Abraham et al., 2001

Walker and Kim, 2002

Dipietro et al., 2003

Bodnar et al., 2009

Psychological Factors:

Stress

The committee found no robust association between stress and gestational weight gain.

 

Picone et al., 1982

Orr et al., 1996

Rondo et al., 2003

Brawarksy et al., 2005

Dominguez et al., 2005

Psychological Factors:

Social Support

The committee found inconclusive evidence for the role of social support in gestational weight gain.

 

Casanueva et al., 1994

Hickey et al., 1995

Olson and Strawderman, 2003

Suggested Citation:"Appendix D: Summary of Determinants of Gestational Weight Gain." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
×

Determinants

Findings/Interpretations

Comments

References

Psychological Factors:

Attitude Toward Low Weight Gain

The committee found mixed evidence for the influences of maternal attitude on actual gestational weight gain.

This relationship may vary according to maternal prepregnancy BMI.

Palmer et al., 1985

Stevens-Simon et al., 1993a

Copper et al., 1995

Behavioral Factors:

Dietary Intake

Several studies have demonstrated a relationship between energy intake and gestational weight gain.

Dietary intake of certain types of foods may also influence gestational weight gain, but more research is needed.

Campbell, 1975

Campbell, 1983

Bergmann, 1997

Clapp, 2002

Lagiou et al., 2004

Olafsdottir et al., 2006

Deierlein et al., 2008

Behavioral Factors:

Physical Activity

Several studies have demonstrated an inverse relationship between the level of physical activity and gestational weight gain.

There is a need for appropriately powered randomized clinical trials designed to clarify the relationship between volume and intensity of physical activity regimens (dose) and maternal weight gain in women with various levels of pre-pregnancy BMI.

Lokey et al., 1991

Ohlin and Rossner, 1994

Clapp and Little, 1995

Sternfeld et al., 1995

Stevenson, 1997

Abrams et al., 2000

Hinton and Olson, 2001

Kramer and Kakuma, 2003

Siega-Riz et al., 2004

Morris and Johnson, 2005

Artal et al., 2007

Haakstad et al., 2007

Lof et al., 2008

Suggested Citation:"Appendix D: Summary of Determinants of Gestational Weight Gain." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
×

Behavioral Factors:

Substance Abuse

Several studies examining associations between decreasing GWG and amount of reported smoking show inconclusive results. More recently, Furuno et al. (2004) found no significant difference in mean GWG between smoking and non-smoking mothers but did find an increased risk for low GWG among smokers. Little information is available about effects of alcohol consumption on GWG. Smith et al. (2006) found that those who used amphetamine in the first two trimesters but ceased use by the third trimester gained significantly more weight than either women who used throughout pregnancy or non-exposed women (p = 0.019), suggesting the anorexic effects of methamphetamine are limited to continuous use, and there may be a rebound in weight gain if the mother stops use.

The major effects of substance use (cigarette smoking, alcohol and drug use) on birth outcomes (e.g., birth defects, SGA) appear to be independent of gestational weight gain.

Rush, 1974

Hanson et al., 1978

Garn et al., 1979

Haworth et al., 1980

Papoz et al., 1982

Little et al., 1986

Graham et al., 1992

Stevens-Simon and McAnarney, 1992

Wolff et al., 1993

Jacobsen et al., 1994

Adriananse et al., 1996

Bagheri et al., 1998

Wagner et al., 1998

Seckler-Walker and Vacek, 2003

Furuno et al., 2004

Ogunyemi and Hernandez-Loera, 2004

Smith et al., 2006

Wells et al., 2006

Behavioral Factors:

Unintended Pregnancy

The committee found data concerning the effect of unintended pregnancy on gestational weight gain to be conflicting.

 

Marsiglio and Mott, 1988

Hickey et al., 1997

Siega-Riz and Hobel, 1997

Kost et al., 1998

Wells et al., 2006

Suggested Citation:"Appendix D: Summary of Determinants of Gestational Weight Gain." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
×

Determinants

Findings/Interpretations

Comments

References

Energy Balance

The committee found that there remains a dearth of information to relate dietary intake or physical activity to gestational weight gain even though they are primary determinants of weight gain in nonpregnant individuals.

 

 

Vulnerable Populations:

Seasonal Migrant Workers

Pregnancy Nutrition Surveillance System (PNSS) found that migrant women had lower gestational weight gain than nonmigrant women; however, the prevalence for adverse birth outcomes (low birth weight, very low birth weight, preterm birth, and small for gestational age) was similar for both groups.

 

Reed et al., 2005

Vulnerable Populations:

Military

The committee was unable to identify studies that specifically examined gestational weight gain among women in military service.

 

Magann and Nolan, 1991

O’Boyle et al., 2005

Haas and Pazdernik, 2006

Vulnerable Populations:

Incarcerated Women

The committee was unable to identify studies that specifically examined gestational weight gain among women who are incarcerated.

Several studies suggest that birth outcomes of incarcerated pregnant women may be better, suggesting certain aspects of the prison environment, such as shelters and regular meals, may be protective particularly for high-risk pregnant women.

Safyer and Richmond, 1995

Martin et al., 1997a

Martin et al., 1997b

Bell, 2004

Suggested Citation:"Appendix D: Summary of Determinants of Gestational Weight Gain." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
×

REFERENCES

Abraham S., A. Taylor and J. Conti. 2001. Postnatal depression, eating, exercise, and vomiting before and during pregnancy. International Journal of Eating Disorders 29(4): 482-487.

Abrams B., S. L. Altman and K. E. Pickett. 2000. Pregnancy weight gain: still controversial. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 71(5 Suppl): 1233S-1241S.

ACOG (American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists). 2005. Committee Opinion number 315, September 2005. Obesity in pregnancy. Obstetrics and Gynecology 106(3): 671-675.

Adams E. J., L. Grummer-Strawn and G. Chavez. 2003. Food insecurity is associated with increased risk of obesity in California women. Journal of Nutrition 133(4): 1070-1074.

Adriaanse H. P., J. A. Knottnerus, L. R. Delgado, H. H. Cox and G. G. Essed. 1996. Smoking in Dutch pregnant women and birth weight. Patient Education and Counseling 28(1): 25-30.

Alevizaki M., L. Thalassinou, S. I. Grigorakis, G. Philippou, K. Lili, A. Souvatzoglou and E. Anastasiou. 2000. Study of the Trp64Arg polymorphism of the beta3-adrenergic receptor in Greek women with gestational diabetes. Diabetes Care 23(8): 1079-1083.

Anderson S. A.1990. Core Indicators of Nutritional State for Difficult-to-Sample Populations. Journal of Nutrition 120(11 Suppl): 1555-1600.

Artal R., R. B. Catanzaro, J. A. Gavard, D. J. Mostello and J. C. Friganza. 2007. A lifestyle intervention of weight-gain restriction: diet and exercise in obese women with gestational diabetes mellitus. Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism 32(3): 596-601.

Bagheri M. M., L. Burd, J. T. Martsolf and M. G. Klug. 1998. Fetal alcohol syndrome: maternal and neonatal characteristics. Journal of Perinatal Medicine 26(4): 263-269.

Baker A. N. and W. L. Hellerstedt. 2006. Residential racial concentration and birth outcomes by nativity: do neighbors matter? Journal of the National Medical Association 98(2): 172-180.

Basiotis P. P. and M. Lino. 2003. Food Insufficiency and Prevalence of Overweight Among Adult Women. Family Economics & Nutrition Review 15(2): 55-57.

Bell J. F., F. J. Zimmerman, M. L. Cawthon, C. E. Huebner, D. H. Ward and C. A. Schroeder. 2004. Jail incarceration and birth outcomes. Journal of Urban Health 81(4): 630-644.

Bergmann M. M., E. W. Flagg, H. L. Miracle-McMahill and H. Boeing. 1997. Energy intake and net weight gain in pregnant women according to body mass index (BMI) status. International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders 21(11): 1010-1017.

Bodnar L. M., K. L. Wisner, E. Moses-Kolko, D. K. Sit and B. H. Hanusa. 2009. Prepregnancy body mass index, gestational weight gain and the likelihood of major depression during pregnancy. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 70(9): 1290-1296.

Boy A. and H. M. Salihu. 2004. Intimate partner violence and birth outcomes: a systematic review. International Journal of Fertility and Womens Medicine 49(4): 159-164.

Brawarsky P., N. E. Stotland, R. A. Jackson, E. Fuentes-Afflick, G. J. Escobar, N. Rubashkin and J. S. Haas. 2005. Pre-pregnancy and pregnancy-related factors and the risk of excessive or inadequate gestational weight gain. International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics 91(2): 125-131.

Brown J. E., T. M. Tharp and C. McKay. 1992. Development of a prenatal weight gain intervention program using social marketing methods. Journal of Nutrition Education 24: 21-28.

Bruce L. and J. G. Tchabo. 1989. Nutrition intervention program in a prenatal clinic. Obstetrics and Gynecology 74(3 Pt 1): 310-312.

Bulik C. M., A. Von Holle, A. M. Siega-Riz, L. Torgersen, K. K. Lie, R. M. Hamer, C. K. Berg, P. Sullivan and T. Reichborn-Kjennerud. 2009. Birth outcomes in women with eating disorders in the Norwegian Mother and Child cohort study (MoBa). International Journal of Eating Disorders 42(1): 9-18.

Suggested Citation:"Appendix D: Summary of Determinants of Gestational Weight Gain." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
×

Butte N. F., W. W. Wong, M. S. Treuth, K. J. Ellis and E. O’Brian Smith. 2004. Energy requirements during pregnancy based on total energy expenditure and energy deposition. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 79(6): 1078-1087.

Cabral H., L. E. Fried, S. Levenson, H. Amaro and B. Zuckerman. 1990. Foreign-born and US-born black women: differences in health behaviors and birth outcomes. American Journal of Public Health 80(1): 70-72.

Callister L. C. and A. Birkhead. 2002. Acculturation and perinatal outcomes in Mexican immigrant childbearing women: an integrative review. Journal of Perinatal and Neonatal Nursing 16(3): 22-38.

Cameron R. P., C. M. Grabill, S. E. Hobfoll, J. H. Crowther, C. Ritter and J. Lavin. 1996. Weight, self-esteem, ethnicity, and depressive symptomatology during pregnancy among inner-city women. Health Psychology 15(4): 293-297.

Campbell D.1983. Dietary restriction in obesity and its effect on neonatal outcome. In Nutrition in pregnancy. Proceedings of 10th Study Group of the RCOG. Campbell DM and G. MDG. London, RCOG; pp. 85-98.

Campbell D. M. and I. MacGillivray. 1975. The effect of a low calorie diet or a thiazide diuretic on the incidence of pre-eclampsia and on birth weight. British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology 82(7): 572-577.

Casanueva E., D. Legarreta, M. Diaz-Barriga, Y. Soberanis, T. Cardenas, A. Iturriaga, T. Lartigue and J. Vives. 1994. Weight gain during pregnancy in adolescents: evaluation of a non-nutritional intervention. Revista de Investigacion Clinica 46(2): 157-161.

Casanueva E., J. Labastida, C. Sanz and F. Morales-Carmona. 2000. Depression and body fat deposition in Mexican pregnant adolescents. Archives of Medical Research 31(1): 48-52.

Catalano P. M., E. D. Tyzbir, R. R. Wolfe, J. Calles, N. M. Roman, S. B. Amini and E. A. Sims. 1993. Carbohydrate metabolism during pregnancy in control subjects and women with gestational diabetes. American Journal of Physiology 264(1 Pt 1): E60-E67.

Catalano P. M., N. M. Roman-Drago, S. B. Amini and E. A. Sims. 1998. Longitudinal changes in body composition and energy balance in lean women with normal and abnormal glucose tolerance during pregnancy. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 179(1): 156-165.

Catalano P. M., L. Huston, S. B. Amini and S. C. Kalhan. 1999. Longitudinal changes in glucose metabolism during pregnancy in obese women with normal glucose tolerance and gestational diabetes mellitus. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 180(4): 903-916.

Chen X. K., S. W. Wen, N. Fleming, K. Demissie, G. G. Rhoads and M. Walker. 2007. Teenage pregnancy and adverse birth outcomes: a large population based retrospective cohort study. International Journal of Epidemiology 36(2): 368-373.

Chu S. Y., W. M. Callaghan, C. L. Bish and D. D’Angelo. 2009. Gestational weight gain by body mass index among US women delivering live births, 2004-2005: fueling future obesity. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 200(3): 271e271-e277.

Clapp J. F., III. 2002. Maternal carbohydrate intake and pregnancy outcome. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 61(1): 45-50.

Clapp J. F., III and K. D. Little. 1995. Effect of recreational exercise on pregnancy weight gain and subcutaneous fat deposition. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 27(2): 170-177.

Cnattingius S., M. R. Forman, H. W. Berendes and L. Isotalo. 1992. Delayed childbearing and risk of adverse perinatal outcome. A population-based study. Journal of the American Medical Association 268(7): 886-890.

Suggested Citation:"Appendix D: Summary of Determinants of Gestational Weight Gain." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
×

Cnop M., P. J. Havel, K. M. Utzschneider, D. B. Carr, M. K. Sinha, E. J. Boyko, B. M. Retzlaff, R. H. Knopp, J. D. Brunzell and S. E. Kahn. 2003. Relationship of adiponectin to body fat distribution, insulin sensitivity and plasma lipoproteins: evidence for independent roles of age and sex. Diabetologia 46(4): 459-469.

Cogswell M. E., K. S. Scanlon, S. B. Fein and L. A. Schieve. 1999. Medically advised, mother’s personal target, and actual weight gain during pregnancy. Obstetrics and Gynecology 94(4): 616-622.

Copper R. L., M. B. DuBard, R. L. Goldenberg and A. I. Oweis. 1995. The relationship of maternal attitude toward weight gain to weight gain during pregnancy and low birth weight. Obstetrics and Gynecology 85(4): 590-595.

Cordero J. F.1993. The epidemiology of disasters and adverse reproductive outcomes: lessons learned. Environmental Health Perspectives 101(Suppl 2): 131-136.

Crawford P. B., M. S. Townsend and D. L. Metz. 2004. How can Californians be overweight and hungry? California Agriculture 58(1): 12-17.

Dar E., M. S. Kanarek, H. A. Anderson and W. C. Sonzogni. 1992. Fish consumption and reproductive outcomes in Green Bay, Wisconsin. Environmental Research 59(1): 189-201.

Davis M. M., K. Slish, C. Chao and M. D. Cabana. 2006. National trends in bariatric surgery, 1996-2002. Archives of Surgery 141(1): 71-74; discussion 75.

Deierlein A. L., A. M. Siega-Riz and A. Herring. 2008. Dietary energy density but not glycemic load is associated with gestational weight gain. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 88(3): 693-699.

Delpisheh A., L. Brabin, E. Attia and B. J. Brabin. 2008. Pregnancy late in life: a hospital-based study of birth outcomes. Journal of Women’s Health (Larchmt) 17(6): 965-970.

Dipietro J. A., S. Millet, K. A. Costigan, E. Gurewitsch and L. E. Caulfield. 2003. Psychosocial influences on weight gain attitudes and behaviors during pregnancy. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 103(10): 1314-1319.

Dishy V., S. Gupta, R. Landau, H. G. Xie, R. B. Kim, R. M. Smiley, D. W. Byrne, A. J. Wood and C. M. Stein. 2003. G-protein beta(3) subunit 825 C/T polymorphism is associated with weight gain during pregnancy. Pharmacogenetics 13(4): 241-242.

Dixon J. B., M. E. Dixon and P. E. O’Brien. 2005. Birth outcomes in obese women after laparoscopic adjustable gastric banding. Obstetrics and Gynecology 106(5 Pt 1): 965-972.

Dominguez T. P., C. D. Schetter, R. Mancuso, C. M. Rini and C. Hobel. 2005. Stress in African American pregnancies: testing the roles of various stress concepts in prediction of birth outcomes. Annals of Behavioral Medicine 29(1): 12-21.

Drewnowski A. and N. Darmon. 2005. Food choices and diet costs: an economic analysis. Journal of Nutrition 135(4): 900-904.

Ducarme G., A. Revaux, A. Rodrigues, F. Aissaoui, I. Pharisien and M. Uzan. 2007. Obstetric outcome following laparoscopic adjustable gastric banding. International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics 98(3): 244-247.

Durnin J. V.1991. Energy requirements of pregnancy. Diabetes 40(Suppl 2): 152-156.

Endres J., S. Dunning, S. W. Poon, P. Welch and H. Duncan. 1987. Older pregnant women and adolescents: nutrition data after enrollment in WIC. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 87(8): 1011-1016, 1019.

Epstein L. H., J. N. Roemmich, J. L. Robinson, R. A. Paluch, D. D. Winiewicz, J. H. Fuerch and T. N. Robinson. 2008. A randomized trial of the effects of reducing television viewing and computer use on body mass index in young children. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine 162(3): 239-245.

Eskenazi B., A. R. Marks, R. Catalano, T. Bruckner and P. G. Toniolo. 2007. Low birthweight in New York City and upstate New York following the events of September 11th. Human Reproduction 22(11): 3013-3020.

Suggested Citation:"Appendix D: Summary of Determinants of Gestational Weight Gain." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
×

Fallucca F., M. G. Dalfra, E. Sciullo, M. Masin, A. M. Buongiorno, A. Napoli, D. Fedele and A. Lapolla. 2006. Polymorphisms of insulin receptor substrate 1 and beta3-adrenergic receptor genes in gestational diabetes and normal pregnancy. Metabolism 55(11): 1451-1456.

Festa A., W. Krugluger, N. Shnawa, P. Hopmeier, S. M. Haffner and G. Schernthaner. 1999. Trp64Arg polymorphism of the beta3-adrenergic receptor gene in pregnancy: association with mild gestational diabetes mellitus. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 84(5): 1695-1699.

Fonager K., H. T. Sorensen, J. Olsen, J. F. Dahlerup and S. N. Rasmussen. 1998. Pregnancy outcome for women with Crohn’s disease: a follow-up study based on linkage between national registries. American Journal of Gastroenterology 93(12): 2426-2430.

Forsum E., A. Sadurskis and J. Wager. 1985. Energy maintenance cost during pregnancy in healthy Swedish women. Lancet 1(8420): 107-108.

Fraga M. F., E. Ballestar, M. F. Paz, S. Ropero, F. Setien, M. L. Ballestar, D. Heine-Suner, J. C. Cigudosa, M. Urioste, J. Benitez, M. Boix-Chornet, A. Sanchez-Aguilera, C. Ling, E. Carlsson, P. Poulsen, A. Vaag, Z. Stephan, T. D. Spector, Y. Z. Wu, C. Plass and M. Esteller. 2005. Epigenetic differences arise during the lifetime of monozygotic twins. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 102(30): 10604-10609.

Fretts R. C.2005. Etiology and prevention of stillbirth. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 193(6): 1923-1935.

Frongillo E. A., Jr., B. S. Rauschenbach, C. M. Olson, A. Kendall and A. G. Colmenares. 1997. Questionnaire-based measures are valid for the identification of rural households with hunger and food insecurity. Journal of Nutrition 127(5): 699-705.

Fuentes-Afflick E. and P. Lurie. 1997. Low birth weight and Latino ethnicity. Examining the epidemiologic paradox. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine 151(7): 665-674.

Fuentes-Afflick E. and N. A. Hessol. 2008. Acculturation and Body Mass among Latina Women. Journal of Women’s Health (Larchmt) 17(1): 67-73.

Furneaux E. C., A. J. Langley-Evans and S. C. Langley-Evans. 2001. Nausea and vomiting of pregnancy: endocrine basis and contribution to pregnancy outcome. Obstetrical and Gynecological Survey 56(12): 775-782.

Furuno J. P., L. Gallicchio and M. Sexton. 2004. Cigarette smoking and low maternal weight gain in Medicaid-eligible pregnant women. Journal of Women’s Health (Larchmt) 13(7): 770-777.

Garn S. M., K. Hoff and K. D. McCabe. 1979. Is there nutritional mediation of the “smoking effect” on the fetus. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 32(6): 1181-1184.

Glynn L. M., P. D. Wadhwa, C. Dunkel-Schetter, A. Chicz-Demet and C. A. Sandman. 2001. When stress happens matters: effects of earthquake timing on stress responsivity in pregnancy. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 184(4): 637-642.

Goldberg G. R., A. M. Prentice, W. A. Coward, H. L. Davies, P. R. Murgatroyd, C. Wensing, A. E. Black, M. Harding and M. Sawyer. 1993. Longitudinal assessment of energy expenditure in pregnancy by the doubly labeled water method. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 57(4): 494-505.

Goodwin T. M.2002. Nausea and vomiting of pregnancy: an obstetric syndrome. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 186(5 Suppl Understanding): S184-S189.

Goodwin T. M., M. Montoro and J. H. Mestman. 1992. Transient hyperthyroidism and hyperemesis gravidarum: clinical aspects. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 167(3): 648-652.

Gortmaker S. L., A. Must, A. M. Sobol, K. Peterson, G. A. Colditz and W. H. Dietz. 1996. Television viewing as a cause of increasing obesity among children in the United States, 1986-1990. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine 150(4): 356-362.

Suggested Citation:"Appendix D: Summary of Determinants of Gestational Weight Gain." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
×

Gortmaker S. L., K. Peterson, J. Wiecha, A. M. Sobol, S. Dixit, M. K. Fox and N. Laird. 1999. Reducing obesity via a school-based interdisciplinary intervention among youth: Planet Health. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine 153(4): 409-418.

Graham K., A. Feigenbaum, A. Pastuszak, I. Nulman, R. Weksberg, T. Einarson, S. Goldberg, S. Ashby and G. Koren. 1992. Pregnancy outcome and infant development following gestational cocaine use by social cocaine users in Toronto, Canada. Clinical and Investigative Medicine. Medecine Clinique et Experimentale 15(4): 384-394.

Gross S., C. Librach and A. Cecutti. 1989. Maternal weight loss associated with hyperemesis gravidarum: a predictor of fetal outcome. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 160(4): 906-909.

Gross T., R. J. Sokol and K. C. King. 1980. Obesity in pregnancy: risks and outcome. Obstetrics and Gynecology 56(4): 446-450.

Groth S.2007. Are the Institute of Medicine recommendations for gestational weight gain appropriate for adolescents? Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic, and Neonatal Nursing 36(1): 21-27.

Gurewitsch E. D., M. Smith-Levitin and J. Mack. 1996. Pregnancy following gastric bypass surgery for morbid obesity. Obstetrics and Gynecology 88(4 Pt 2): 658-661.

Gutierrez Y. M.1999. Cultural factors affecting diet and pregnancy outcome of Mexican American adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health 25(3): 227-237.

Haakstad L. A., N. Voldner, T. Henriksen and K. Bo. 2007. Physical activity level and weight gain in a cohort of pregnant Norwegian women. Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica 86(5): 559-564.

Haas D. M. and L. A. Pazdernik. 2006. A cross-sectional survey of stressors for postpartum women during wartime in a military medical facility. Military Medicine 171(10): 1020-1023.

Hanson J. W., A. P. Streissguth and D. W. Smith. 1978. The effects of moderate alcohol consumption during pregnancy on fetal growth and morphogenesis. Journal of Pediatrics 92(3): 457-460.

Hastings G., M. Stead, L. McDermot, A. Forsyth, A. MacKintosh, M. Rayner, C. Godfrey, M. Caraher and K. Angus. 2003. Review of Research on the Effects of Food Promotion to Children. Glasgow, UK: Centre for Social Marketing.

Hauguel-de Mouzon S., J. Lepercq and P. Catalano. 2006. The known and unknown of leptin in pregnancy. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 194(6): 1537-1545.

Haworth J. C., J. J. Ellestad-Sayed, J. King and L. A. Dilling. 1980. Relation of maternal cigarette smoking, obesity, and energy consumption to infant size. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 138(8): 1185-1189.

Hediger M. L., T. O. Scholl, I. G. Ances, D. H. Belsky and R. W. Salmon. 1990. Rate and amount of weight gain during adolescent pregnancy: associations with maternal weight-for-height and birth weight. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 52(5): 793-799.

Hernandez-Valero M. A., A. V. Wilkinson, M. R. Forman, C. J. Etzel, Y. Cao, C. H. Barcenas, S. S. Strom, M. R. Spitz and M. L. Bondy. 2007. Maternal BMI and country of birth as indicators of childhood obesity in children of Mexican origin. Obesity (Silver Spring) 15(10): 2512-2519.

Hickey C. A.2000. Sociocultural and behavioral influences on weight gain during pregnancy. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 71(5 Suppl): 1364S-1370S.

Hickey C. A., S. P. Cliver, R. L. Goldenberg, S. F. McNeal and H. J. Hoffman. 1995. Relationship of psychosocial status to low prenatal weight gain among nonobese black and white women delivering at term. Obstetrics and Gynecology 86(2): 177-183.

Hickey C. A., S. P. Cliver, R. L. Goldenberg, S. F. McNeal and H. J. Hoffman. 1997. Low prenatal weight gain among low-income women: what are the risk factors? Birth 24(2): 102-108.

Suggested Citation:"Appendix D: Summary of Determinants of Gestational Weight Gain." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
×

Highman T. J., J. E. Friedman, L. P. Huston, W. W. Wong and P. M. Catalano. 1998. Longitudinal changes in maternal serum leptin concentrations, body composition, and resting metabolic rate in pregnancy. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 178(5): 1010-1015.

Hinton P. S. and C. M. Olson. 2001. Predictors of pregnancy-associated change in physical activity in a rural white population. Maternal and Child Health Journal 5(1): 7-14.

Howie L. D., J. D. Parker and K. C. Schoendorf. 2003. Excessive maternal weight gain patterns in adolescents. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 103(12): 1653-1657.

Hubert H. B., J. Snider and M. A. Winkleby. 2005. Health status, health behaviors, and acculturation factors associated with overweight and obesity in Latinos from a community and agricultural labor camp survey. Preventive Medicine 40(6): 642-651.

Jacobson J. L., S. W. Jacobson, R. J. Sokol, S. S. Martier, J. W. Ager and S. Shankaran. 1994. Effects of alcohol use, smoking, and illicit drug use on fetal growth in black infants. Journal of Pediatrics 124(5 Pt 1): 757-764.

Jensen G. M. and L. G. Moore. 1997. The effect of high altitude and other risk factors on birthweight: independent or interactive effects? American Journal of Public Health 87(6): 1003-1007.

Jewell D. and G. Young. 2003. Interventions for nausea and vomiting in early pregnancy. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Jones M. E. and M. L. Bond. 1999. Predictors of birth outcome among Hispanic immigrant women. Journal of Nursing Care Quality 14(1): 56-62.

Jones S. J. and E. A. Frongillo. 2007. Food insecurity and subsequent weight gain in women. Public Health Nutrition 10(2): 145-151.

Joseph K. S., A. C. Allen, L. Dodds, L. A. Turner, H. Scott and R. Liston. 2005. The perinatal effects of delayed childbearing. Obstetrics and Gynecology 105(6): 1410-1418.

Joyce T., A. Racine and C. Yunzal-Butler. 2008. Reassessing the WIC effect: evidence from the Pregnancy Nutrition Surveillance System. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 27(2): 277-303.

King J. C.2000. Physiology of pregnancy and nutrient metabolism. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 71(5 Suppl): 1218S-1225S.

Kirwan J. P., S. Hauguel-De Mouzon, J. Lepercq, J. C. Challier, L. Huston-Presley, J. E. Friedman, S. C. Kalhan and P. M. Catalano. 2002. TNF-alpha is a predictor of insulin resistance in human pregnancy. Diabetes 51(7): 2207-2213.

Kleinman J. C., L. A. Fingerhut and K. Prager. 1991. Differences in infant mortality by race, nativity status, and other maternal characteristics. American Journal of Diseases of Children 145(2): 194-199.

Kost K., D. J. Landry and J. E. Darroch. 1998. The effects of pregnancy planning status on birth outcomes and infant care. Family Planning Perspectives 30(5): 223-230.

Kouba S., T. Hallstrom, C. Lindholm and A. L. Hirschberg. 2005. Pregnancy and neonatal outcomes in women with eating disorders. Obstetrics and Gynecology 105(2): 255-260.

Kramer M. S. and R. Kakuma. 2003. Energy and protein intake in pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev (4): CD000032.

Kunkel K.2001. Children and Television Advertising. In Handbook of Children and the Media. D. Singer and J. Singer. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publishing.

Lagiou P., R. M. Tamimi, L. A. Mucci, H. O. Adami, C. C. Hsieh and D. Trichopoulos. 2004. Diet during pregnancy in relation to maternal weight gain and birth size. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 58(2): 231-237.

Landrigan P. J., J. Forman, M. Galvez, B. Newman, S. M. Engel and C. Chemtob. 2008. Impact of september 11 World Trade Center disaster on children and pregnant women. Mount Sinai Journal of Medicine 75(2): 129-134.

Suggested Citation:"Appendix D: Summary of Determinants of Gestational Weight Gain." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
×

Lane S. D., R. H. Keefe, R. Rubinstein, B. A. Levandowski, N. Webster, D. A. Cibula, A. K. Boahene, O. Dele-Michael, D. Carter, T. Jones, M. Wojtowycz and J. Brill. 2008. Structural violence, urban retail food markets, and low birth weight. Health & Place 14(3): 415-423.

Laraia B. A., A. M. Siega-Riz, J. S. Kaufman and S. J. Jones. 2004. Proximity of supermarkets is positively associated with diet quality index for pregnancy. Preventive Medicine 39(5): 869-875.

Laraia B., L. Messer, K. Evenson and J. S. Kaufman. 2007. Neighborhood factors associated with physical activity and adequacy of weight gain during pregnancy. Journal of Urban Health 84(6): 793-806.

Lawrence M., J. Singh, F. Lawrence and R. G. Whitehead. 1985. The energy cost of common daily activities in African women: increased expenditure in pregnancy? American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 42(5): 753-763.

Lederman S. A., V. Rauh, L. Weiss, J. L. Stein, L. A. Hoepner, M. Becker and F. P. Perera. 2004. The effects of the World Trade Center event on birth outcomes among term deliveries at three lower Manhattan hospitals. Environmental Health Perspectives 112(17): 1772-1778.

Little R. E., R. L. Asker, P. D. Sampson and J. H. Renwick. 1986. Fetal growth and moderate drinking in early pregnancy. American Journal of Epidemiology 123(2): 270-278.

Lizarzaburu J. L. and L. A. Palinkas. 2002. Immigration, acculturation, and risk factors for obesity and cardiovascular disease: a comparison between Latinos of Peruvian descent in Peru and in the United States. Ethnicity and Disease 12(3): 342-352.

Lof M., L. Hilakivi-Clarke, S. Sandin and E. Weiderpass. 2008. Effects of pre-pregnancy physical activity and maternal BMI on gestational weight gain and birth weight. Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica 87(5): 524-530.

Lokey E. A., Z. V. Tran, C. L. Wells, B. C. Myers and A. C. Tran. 1991. Effects of physical exercise on pregnancy outcomes: a meta-analytic review. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 23(11): 1234-1239.

Magann E. F. and T. E. Nolan. 1991. Pregnancy outcome in an active-duty population. Obstetrics and Gynecology 78(3 Pt 1): 391-393.

Marceau P., D. Kaufman, S. Biron, F. S. Hould, S. Lebel, S. Marceau and J. G. Kral. 2004. Outcome of pregnancies after biliopancreatic diversion. Obesity Surgery 14(3): 318-324.

Marsiglio W. and F. L. Mott. 1988. Does Wanting to Become Pregnant with a First Child Affect Subsequent Maternal Behaviors and Infant Birth Weight? Journal of Marriage and the Family 50(4): 1023-1036.

Martin S. L., H. Kim, L. L. Kupper, R. E. Meyer and M. Hays. 1997a. Is incarceration during pregnancy associated with infant birthweight? American Journal of Public Health 87(9): 1526-1531.

Martin S. L., R. H. Rieger, L. L. Kupper, R. E. Meyer and B. F. Qaqish. 1997b. The effect of incarceration during pregnancy on birth outcomes. Public Health Reports 112(4): 340-346.

McFarlane J., B. Parker and K. Soeken. 1996. Abuse during pregnancy: associations with maternal health and infant birth weight. Nursing Research 45(1): 37-42.

Moraes C. L., A. R. Amorim and M. E. Reichenheim. 2006. Gestational weight gain differentials in the presence of intimate partner violence. International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics 95(3): 254-260.

Morris D. L., A. B. Berenson, J. Lawson and C. M. Wiemann. 1993. Comparison of adolescent pregnancy outcomes by prenatal care source. Journal of Reproductive Medicine 38(5): 375-380.

Morris S. N. and N. R. Johnson. 2005. Exercise during pregnancy: a critical appraisal of the literature. Journal of Reproductive Medicine 50(3): 181-188.

Suggested Citation:"Appendix D: Summary of Determinants of Gestational Weight Gain." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
×

Nielsen J. N., K. O. O’Brien, F. R. Witter, S. C. Chang, J. Mancini, M. S. Nathanson and L. E. Caulfield. 2006. High gestational weight gain does not improve birth weight in a cohort of African American adolescents. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 84(1): 183-189.

O’Boyle A. L., E. F. Magann, R. E. Ricks, Jr., M. Doyle and J. C. Morrison. 2005. Depression screening in the pregnant soldier wellness program. Southern Medical Journal 98(4): 416-418.

Ogunyemi D. and G. E. Hernandez-Loera. 2004. The impact of antenatal cocaine use on maternal characteristics and neonatal outcomes. Journal of Maternal-Fetal & Neonatal Medicine 15(4): 253-259.

Ohlin A. and S. Rossner. 1994. Trends in eating patterns, physical activity and sociodemographic factors in relation to postpartum body weight development. British Journal of Nutrition 71(4): 457-470.

Okereke N. C., L. Huston-Presley, S. B. Amini, S. Kalhan and P. M. Catalano. 2004. Longitudinal changes in energy expenditure and body composition in obese women with normal and impaired glucose tolerance. American Journal of Physiology Endocrinology and Metabolism 287(3): E472-E479.

Olafsdottir A. S., G. V. Skuladottir, I. Thorsdottir, A. Hauksson and L. Steingrimsdottir. 2006. Maternal diet in early and late pregnancy in relation to weight gain. International Journal of Obesity (London) 30(3): 492-499.

Olds D. L., C. R. Henderson, Jr., R. Tatelbaum and R. Chamberlin. 1986. Improving the delivery of prenatal care and outcomes of pregnancy: a randomized trial of nurse home visitation. Pediatrics 77(1): 16-28.

Olson C. M.1999. Nutrition and health outcomes associated with food insecurity and hunger. Journal of Nutrition 129(2S Suppl): 521S-524S.

Olson C. M. and M. S. Strawderman. 2003. Modifiable behavioral factors in a biopsychosocial model predict inadequate and excessive gestational weight gain. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 103(1): 48-54.

Olson C. M. and M. S. Strawderman. 2008. The relationship between food insecurity and obesity in rural childbearing women. Journal of Rural Health 24(1): 60-66.

Orr S. T., S. A. James, C. A. Miller, B. Barakat, N. Daikoku, M. Pupkin, K. Engstrom and G. Huggins. 1996. Psychosocial stressors and low birthweight in an urban population. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 12(6): 459-466.

Orstead C., D. Arrington, S. K. Kamath, R. Olson and M. B. Kohrs. 1985. Efficacy of prenatal nutrition counseling: weight gain, infant birth weight, and cost-effectiveness. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 85(1): 40-45.

Palmer J. L., G. E. Jennings and L. Massey. 1985. Development of an assessment form: attitude toward weight gain during pregnancy. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 85(8): 946-949.

Papoz L., E. Eschwege, G. Pequignot, J. Barrat and D. Schwartz. 1982. Maternal smoking and birth weight in relation to dietary habits. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 142(7): 870-876.

Parker B., J. McFarlane and K. Soeken. 1994. Abuse during pregnancy: effects on maternal complications and birth weight in adult and teenage women. Obstetrics and Gynecology 84(3): 323-328.

Picone T. A., L. H. Allen, M. M. Schramm and P. N. Olsen. 1982. Pregnancy outcome in North American women. I. Effects of diet, cigarette smoking, and psychological stress on maternal weight gain. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 36(6): 1205-1213.

Pinar H., S. Basu, K. Hotmire, L. Laffineuse, L. Presley, M. Carpenter, P. M. Catalano and S. Hauguel-de Mouzon. 2008. High molecular mass multimer complexes and vascular expression contribute to high adiponectin in the fetus. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 93(7): 2885-2890.

Suggested Citation:"Appendix D: Summary of Determinants of Gestational Weight Gain." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
×

Polivy J.1996. Psychological consequences of food restriction. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 96(6): 589-592; quiz 593-594.

Power M. L., M. E. Cogswell and J. Schulkin. 2006. Obesity prevention and treatment practices of U.S. obstetrician-gynecologists. Obstetrics and Gynecology 108(4): 961-968.

Prentice A. M., R. G. Whitehead, M. Watkinson, W. H. Lamb and T. J. Cole. 1983. Prenatal dietary supplementation of African women and birth-weight. Lancet 1(8323): 489-492.

Prysak M., R. P. Lorenz and A. Kisly. 1995. Pregnancy outcome in nulliparous women 35 years and older. Obstetrics and Gynecology 85(1): 65-70.

Reddy U. M., C. W. Ko and M. Willinger. 2006. Maternal age and the risk of stillbirth throughout pregnancy in the United States. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 195(3): 764-770.

Reed M. M., J. M. Westfall, C. Bublitz, C. Battaglia and A. Fickenscher. 2005. Birth outcomes in Colorado’s undocumented immigrant population. BMC Public Health 5: 100.

Retnakaran R., A. J. Hanley, N. Raif, P. W. Connelly, M. Sermer and B. Zinman. 2004. Reduced adiponectin concentration in women with gestational diabetes: a potential factor in progression to type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 27(3): 799-800.

Robinson T. N.1999. Reducing children’s television viewing to prevent obesity: a randomized controlled trial. Journal of the American Medical Association 282(16): 1561-1567.

Rondo P. H., R. F. Ferreira, F. Nogueira, M. C. Ribeiro, H. Lobert and R. Artes. 2003. Maternal psychological stress and distress as predictors of low birth weight, prematurity and intrauterine growth retardation. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 57(2): 266-272.

Rumbaut R. G. and J. R. Weeks. 1996. Unraveling a Public Health Enigma: Why do Immigrants Experience Superior Perinatal Health Outcomes? Research in the Sociology of Health Care 13: 335-388.

Rush D.1974. Examination of the relationship between birthweight, cigarette smoking during pregnancy and maternal weight gain. Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology of the British Commonwealth 81(10): 746-752.

Rush D.1981. Nutritional services during pregnancy and birthweight: a retrospective matched pair analysis. Canadian Medical Association Journal 125(6): 567-576.

Rush D., D. G. Horvitz, W. B. Seaver, J. Leighton, N. L. Sloan, S. S. Johnson, R. A. Kulka, J. W. Devore, M. Holt, J. T. Lynch and et al. 1988. The National WIC Evaluation: evaluation of the Special Supplemental Food Program for Women, Infants, and Children. IV. Study methodology and sample characteristics in the longitudinal study of pregnant women, the study of children, and the food expenditures study. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 48(2 Suppl): 429-438.

Safyer S. M. and L. Richmond. 1995. Pregnancy behind bars. Seminars in Perinatology 19(4): 314-322.

Santry H. P., D. L. Gillen and D. S. Lauderdale. 2005. Trends in bariatric surgical procedures. Journal of the American Medical Association 294(15): 1909-1917.

Schaffer D. M., E. M. Velie, G. M. Shaw and K. P. Todoroff. 1998. Energy and nutrient intakes and health practices of Latinas and white non-Latinas in the 3 months before pregnancy. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 98(8): 876-884.

Scholl T. O., M. L. Hediger, I. G. Ances, D. H. Belsky and R. W. Salmon. 1990. Weight gain during pregnancy in adolescence: predictive ability of early weight gain. Obstetrics and Gynecology 75(6): 948-953.

Scribner R. and J. H. Dwyer. 1989. Acculturation and low birthweight among Latinos in the Hispanic HANES. American Journal of Public Health 79(9): 1263-1267.

Secker-Walker R. H. and P. M. Vacek. 2003. Relationships between cigarette smoking during pregnancy, gestational age, maternal weight gain, and infant birthweight. Addictive Behaviors 28(1): 55-66.

Siega-Riz A. M. and C. J. Hobel. 1997. Predictors of poor maternal weight gain from baseline anthropometric, psychosocial, and demographic information in a Hispanic population. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 97(11): 1264-1268.

Suggested Citation:"Appendix D: Summary of Determinants of Gestational Weight Gain." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
×

Siega-Riz A. M., K. R. Evenson and N. Dole. 2004. Pregnancy-related weight gain—a link to obesity? Nutrition Reviews 62(7 Pt 2): S105-S111.

Singh G. K. and S. M. Yu. 1996. Adverse pregnancy outcomes: differences between US- and foreign-born women in major US racial and ethnic groups. American Journal of Public Health 86(6): 837-843.

Skull A. J., G. H. Slater, J. E. Duncombe and G. A. Fielding. 2004. Laparoscopic adjustable banding in pregnancy: safety, patient tolerance and effect on obesity-related pregnancy outcomes. Obesity Surgery 14(2): 230-235.

Smith L. M., L. L. LaGasse, C. Derauf, P. Grant, R. Shah, A. Arria, M. Huestis, W. Haning, A. Strauss, S. Della Grotta, J. Liu and B. M. Lester. 2006. The infant development, environment, and lifestyle study: effects of prenatal methamphetamine exposure, polydrug exposure, and poverty on intrauterine growth. Pediatrics 118(3): 1149-1156.

Sollid C. P., K. Wisborg, J. Hjort and N. J. Secher. 2004. Eating disorder that was diagnosed before pregnancy and pregnancy outcome. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 190(1): 206-210.

Sternfeld B., C. P. Quesenberry, Jr., B. Eskenazi and L. A. Newman. 1995. Exercise during pregnancy and pregnancy outcome. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 27(5): 634-640.

Stevenson L. 1997. Exercise in pregnancy. Part 1: Update on pathophysiology. Canadian Family Physician 43: 97-104.

Stevens-Simon C. and E. R. McAnarney. 1992. Determinants of weight gain in pregnant adolescents. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 92(11): 1348-1351.

Stevens-Simon C., E. R. McAnarney and K. J. Roghmann. 1993a. Adolescent gestational weight gain and birth weight. Pediatrics 92(6): 805-809.

Stevens-Simon C., I. Nakashima and D. Andrews. 1993b. Weight gain attitudes among pregnant adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health 14(5): 369-372.

Stotland N. E., J. S. Haas, P. Brawarsky, R. A. Jackson, E. Fuentes-Afflick and G. J. Escobar. 2005. Body mass index, provider advice, and target gestational weight gain. Obstetrics and Gynecology 105(3): 633-638.

Swinburn B. A., B. L. Nyomba, M. F. Saad, F. Zurlo, I. Raz, W. C. Knowler, S. Lillioja, C. Bogardus and E. Ravussin. 1991. Insulin resistance associated with lower rates of weight gain in Pima Indians. Journal of Clinical Investigation 88(1): 168-173.

Tok E. C., D. Ertunc, O. Bilgin, E. M. Erdal, M. Kaplanoglu and S. Dilek. 2006. PPAR-gamma2 Pro12Ala polymorphism is associated with weight gain in women with gestational diabetes mellitus. European Journal of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Biology 129(1): 25-30.

Townsend M. S., J. Peerson, B. Love, C. Achterberg and S. P. Murphy. 2001. Food insecurity is positively related to overweight in women. Journal of Nutrition 131(6): 1738-1745.

Tsai P. J., S. C. Ho, L. P. Tsai, Y. H. Lee, S. P. Hsu, S. P. Yang, C. H. Chu and C. H. Yu. 2004. Lack of relationship between beta3-adrenergic receptor gene polymorphism and gestational diabetes mellitus in a Taiwanese population. Metabolism 53(9): 1136-1139.

Ventura S. J.1994. Recent trends in teenage childbearing in the United States. Statistical Bulletin / Metropolitan Insurance Companies 75(4): 10-17.

Ventura S. J. and S. M. Taffel. 1985. Childbearing characteristics of U.S.- and foreign-born Hispanic mothers. Public Health Reports 100(6): 647-652.

Vilming B. and B. I. Nesheim. 2000. Hyperemesis gravidarum in a contemporary population in Oslo. Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica 79(8): 640-643.

Voigt M., S. Straube, P. Schmidt, S. Pildner von Steinburg and K. T. Schneider. 2007. [Standard values for the weight gain in pregnancy according to maternal height and weight]. Zeitschrift fur Geburtshilfe und Neonatologie 211(5): 191-203.

Suggested Citation:"Appendix D: Summary of Determinants of Gestational Weight Gain." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
×

Wagner C. L., L. D. Katikaneni, T. H. Cox and R. M. Ryan. 1998. The impact of prenatal drug exposure on the neonate. Obstetrics and Gynecology Clinics of North America 25(1): 169-194.

Walker L. O. and M. Kim. 2002. Psychosocial thriving during late pregnancy: relationship to ethnicity, gestational weight gain, and birth weight. Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic, and Neonatal Nursing 31(3): 263-274.

Weissman A., E. Siegler, R. Neiger, P. Jakobi and E. Z. Zimmer. 1989. The influence of increased seismic activity on pregnancy outcome. European Journal of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Biology 31(3): 233-236.

Wells C. S., R. Schwalberg, G. Noonan and V. Gabor. 2006. Factors influencing inadequate and excessive weight gain in pregnancy: Colorado, 2000-2002. Maternal and Child Health Journal 10(1): 55-62.

Wilde P. E. and J. N. Peterman. 2006. Individual weight change is associated with household food security status. Journal of Nutrition 136(5): 1395-1400.

Williams M. A., C. Qiu, M. Muy-Rivera, S. Vadachkoria, T. Song and D. A. Luthy. 2004. Plasma adiponectin concentrations in early pregnancy and subsequent risk of gestational diabetes mellitus. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 89(5): 2306-2311.

Winzer C., O. Wagner, A. Festa, B. Schneider, M. Roden, D. Bancher-Todesca, G. Pacini, T. Funahashi and A. Kautzky-Willer. 2004. Plasma adiponectin, insulin sensitivity, and subclinical inflammation in women with prior gestational diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care 27(7): 1721-1727.

Wisner K., D. Sit and S. Reynolds. 2007. Psychiatric Disorders. In Obstetrics Normal and Problems Pregnancies Fifth Edition. S. Gabbe, J. Niebyl and J. Simpson. Philadelphia, PA: Churchill Livingstone; pp. 1249-1279.

Wolff C. B., M. Portis and H. Wolff. 1993. Birth weight and smoking practices during pregnancy among Mexican-American women. Health Care for Women International 14(3): 271-279.

Wolff M. S., S. Engel, G. Berkowitz, S. Teitelbaum, J. Siskind, D. B. Barr and J. Wetmur. 2007. Prenatal pesticide and PCB exposures and birth outcomes. Pediatric Research 61(2): 243-250.

Yanagisawa K., N. Iwasaki, M. Sanaka, S. Minei, M. Kanamori, Y. Omori and Y. Iwamoto. 1999. Polymorphism of the beta3-adrenergic receptor gene and weight gain in pregnant diabetic women. Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice 44(1): 41-47.

Suggested Citation:"Appendix D: Summary of Determinants of Gestational Weight Gain." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
×

This page intentionally left blank.

Suggested Citation:"Appendix D: Summary of Determinants of Gestational Weight Gain." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
×
Page 365
Suggested Citation:"Appendix D: Summary of Determinants of Gestational Weight Gain." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
×
Page 366
Suggested Citation:"Appendix D: Summary of Determinants of Gestational Weight Gain." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
×
Page 367
Suggested Citation:"Appendix D: Summary of Determinants of Gestational Weight Gain." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
×
Page 368
Suggested Citation:"Appendix D: Summary of Determinants of Gestational Weight Gain." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
×
Page 369
Suggested Citation:"Appendix D: Summary of Determinants of Gestational Weight Gain." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
×
Page 370
Suggested Citation:"Appendix D: Summary of Determinants of Gestational Weight Gain." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
×
Page 371
Suggested Citation:"Appendix D: Summary of Determinants of Gestational Weight Gain." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
×
Page 372
Suggested Citation:"Appendix D: Summary of Determinants of Gestational Weight Gain." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
×
Page 373
Suggested Citation:"Appendix D: Summary of Determinants of Gestational Weight Gain." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
×
Page 374
Suggested Citation:"Appendix D: Summary of Determinants of Gestational Weight Gain." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
×
Page 375
Suggested Citation:"Appendix D: Summary of Determinants of Gestational Weight Gain." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
×
Page 376
Suggested Citation:"Appendix D: Summary of Determinants of Gestational Weight Gain." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
×
Page 377
Suggested Citation:"Appendix D: Summary of Determinants of Gestational Weight Gain." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
×
Page 378
Suggested Citation:"Appendix D: Summary of Determinants of Gestational Weight Gain." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
×
Page 379
Suggested Citation:"Appendix D: Summary of Determinants of Gestational Weight Gain." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
×
Page 380
Suggested Citation:"Appendix D: Summary of Determinants of Gestational Weight Gain." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
×
Page 381
Suggested Citation:"Appendix D: Summary of Determinants of Gestational Weight Gain." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
×
Page 382
Suggested Citation:"Appendix D: Summary of Determinants of Gestational Weight Gain." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
×
Page 383
Suggested Citation:"Appendix D: Summary of Determinants of Gestational Weight Gain." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
×
Page 384
Suggested Citation:"Appendix D: Summary of Determinants of Gestational Weight Gain." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
×
Page 385
Suggested Citation:"Appendix D: Summary of Determinants of Gestational Weight Gain." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
×
Page 386
Suggested Citation:"Appendix D: Summary of Determinants of Gestational Weight Gain." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
×
Page 387
Suggested Citation:"Appendix D: Summary of Determinants of Gestational Weight Gain." Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 2009. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12584.
×
Page 388
Next: Appendix E: Results from the Evidence-Based Report on Outcomes of Maternal Weight Gain »
Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines Get This Book
×
Buy Hardback | $57.95 Buy Ebook | $46.99
MyNAP members save 10% online.
Login or Register to save!
Download Free PDF

As women of childbearing age have become heavier, the trade-off between maternal and child health created by variation in gestational weight gain has become more difficult to reconcile. Weight Gain During Pregnancy responds to the need for a reexamination of the 1990 Institute of Medicine guidelines for weight gain during pregnancy. It builds on the conceptual framework that underscored the 1990 weight gain guidelines and addresses the need to update them through a comprehensive review of the literature and independent analyses of existing databases. The book explores relationships between weight gain during pregnancy and a variety of factors (e.g., the mother's weight and height before pregnancy) and places this in the context of the health of the infant and the mother, presenting specific, updated target ranges for weight gain during pregnancy and guidelines for proper measurement. New features of this book include a specific range of recommended gain for obese women.

Weight Gain During Pregnancy is intended to assist practitioners who care for women of childbearing age, policy makers, educators, researchers, and the pregnant women themselves to understand the role of gestational weight gain and to provide them with the tools needed to promote optimal pregnancy outcomes.

  1. ×

    Welcome to OpenBook!

    You're looking at OpenBook, NAP.edu's online reading room since 1999. Based on feedback from you, our users, we've made some improvements that make it easier than ever to read thousands of publications on our website.

    Do you want to take a quick tour of the OpenBook's features?

    No Thanks Take a Tour »
  2. ×

    Show this book's table of contents, where you can jump to any chapter by name.

    « Back Next »
  3. ×

    ...or use these buttons to go back to the previous chapter or skip to the next one.

    « Back Next »
  4. ×

    Jump up to the previous page or down to the next one. Also, you can type in a page number and press Enter to go directly to that page in the book.

    « Back Next »
  5. ×

    Switch between the Original Pages, where you can read the report as it appeared in print, and Text Pages for the web version, where you can highlight and search the text.

    « Back Next »
  6. ×

    To search the entire text of this book, type in your search term here and press Enter.

    « Back Next »
  7. ×

    Share a link to this book page on your preferred social network or via email.

    « Back Next »
  8. ×

    View our suggested citation for this chapter.

    « Back Next »
  9. ×

    Ready to take your reading offline? Click here to buy this book in print or download it as a free PDF, if available.

    « Back Next »
Stay Connected!