H
Background Information on the Economic and Environmental Assessment of Biomass Supply
The tables in this appendix present the background information and assumptions that were used in the panel’s economic assessments and greenhouse gas emission analyses. They include comparisons of published and updated costs of harvest and maintenance (Table H.1), nutrient replacement (Table H.2), transportation for delivery (Tables H.3 and H.4), storage (Table H.5), and establishment and seeding (Table H.6) for different cellulosic feedstocks. Estimates of opportunity costs for cellulosic feedstocks are presented (Table H.7). The published yield values from which current and future projections were computed (Table H.8), and carbon inputs for feedstock production (Table H.9) and biomass refining (Table H.10) are also included.
TABLE H.1 Estimated Costs of Harvest and Maintenance for Cellulosic Feedstocks
TABLE H.2 Estimated Costs of Nutrient Replacement for Cellulosic Feedstocks
TABLE H.3 Estimated Distance for Delivery of Cellulosic Feedstocks
|
Distance (miles) |
Type |
Reference |
|
46–134 |
Round-trip |
Mapemba et al. (2007) |
|
22–62 |
One-way |
Perlack and Turhollow (2003) |
|
22–61 |
One-way |
Perlack and Turhollow (2002) |
|
50 |
Round-trip |
Khanna et al. (2008) |
|
50 |
Max one-way |
English et al. (2006) |
|
50 |
One-way |
Vadas et al. (2008) |
TABLE H.4 Estimated Costs of Transportation for Delivery of Cellulosic Feedstocks
|
Type of Feedstock |
Type of Cost |
Cost per Ton (cited $) |
Cost per Ton (2007$) |
Reference |
|
Corn stover |
Per ton |
8.85 |
12.5 |
English et al. (2006) |
|
Corn stover |
Per ton |
10.25 |
27 |
Hess et al. (2007) |
|
Corn stover |
DVCa |
0.15 |
0.35 |
Kaylen et al. (2000) |
|
Corn stover |
Max DVC for positive NPV |
0.28 |
0.66 |
Kaylen et al. (2000) |
|
Corn stover |
Per ton |
10.8 |
10.8 |
Perlack (2007) |
|
Corn stover |
Per ton |
13 |
31 |
Aden et al. (2002) |
|
Corn stover |
Per ton |
4.2–10.5 |
11–27.7 |
Perlack and Turhollow (2002) |
|
Corn stover |
DVC |
0.08–0.29 |
0.17–0.63 |
Kumar et al. (2005) |
|
|
DFCb |
4.5 |
9.8 |
|
|
|
DFC range |
0–6 |
0–13.3 |
|
|
Corn stover |
DVC |
0.18 |
0.32 |
Searcy et al. (2007) |
|
|
DFC |
4 |
7.3 |
|
|
Corn stover |
DVC |
0.16 |
0.38 |
Kumar et al. (2003) |
|
|
DFC |
3.6 |
8.6 |
|
|
Corn stover |
DVC |
|
|
Petrolia (2008) |
|
|
0-25 miles |
0.13–0.23 |
0.13–0.23 |
|
|
|
25-100 miles |
0.10–0.19 |
0.10–0.19 |
|
|
|
>100 miles |
0.09–0.16 |
0.09–0.16 |
|
|
|
DFC square bales |
1.70 |
1.70 |
|
|
|
DFC round bales |
3.10 |
3.10 |
|
|
Corn stover |
Per ton |
10.9 |
13.8 |
Vadas et al. (2008) |
|
Switchgrass |
Per ton |
14.75 |
14.75 |
Duffy (2007) |
|
Switchgrass |
Per ton |
19.2–23 |
27–32.4 |
Kumar and Sokhansanj (2007) |
|
Switchgrass |
Per ton |
13 |
28 |
Perrin et al. (2008) |
|
Switchgrass |
Per ton |
10.9 |
13.8 |
Vadas et al. (2008) |
|
Switchgrass or Miscanthus |
Per ton for 50 miles |
7.9 |
17.1 |
Khanna et al. (2008) |
|
Nonspecific |
Per ton |
7.4–19.3 |
13.7–35.6 |
Mapemba et al. (2007) |
|
Nonspecific |
Per ton |
14.5 |
31.5 |
Mapemba et al. (2008) |
|
Woody biomass |
Per ton |
|
11–22 |
Summit Ridge Investments (2007) |
|
Note: Transportation costs were updated by using USDA-NASS agricultural-fuel prices from 1999 to 2007 (USDA-NASS, 2007a,b). aDVC, distance variable cost, per ton per mile. bDFC, distance fixed cost per ton. |
||||
TABLE H.5 Estimated Storage Costs for Cellulosic Feedstocks
TABLE H.6 Estimated Costs of Establishment and Seeding for Cellulosic Feedstocks
|
Type of Feedstock |
Type of Cost |
Land Rent Included |
Cost per Acre (cited $) |
Cost per Acre (2007$) |
Reference |
|
Switchgrass |
|
Yes |
200 |
200 |
Duffy (2007) |
|
Switchgrass |
|
No |
25.76 |
46 |
Perrin et al. (2008) |
|
|
Yes |
85.46 |
153 |
||
|
Switchgrass |
PVa per ton |
No |
7.21/ton |
12.6/ton |
Khanna et al. (2008) |
|
10-year PV per acre |
|
142.3 |
249 |
||
|
Amortized |
|
|
|
||
|
4% over 10 years |
|
17.3 |
30.25 |
||
|
8% over 10 years |
|
20.7 |
36.25 |
||
|
Switchgrass |
|
Yes |
72.5–110 |
88.5–134 |
Vadas et al. (2008) |
|
Miscanthus |
PV per ton |
No |
2.29/ton |
4/ton |
Khanna et al. (2008) |
|
20-year PV per acre |
|
261 |
457 |
||
|
Amortized |
|
|
|
||
|
4% over 20 years |
|
19 |
33.2 |
||
|
8% over 20 years |
|
26.20 |
45.87 |
||
|
Miscanthus |
Total |
No |
1206–2413 |
|
Lewandowski (2003) |
|
Amortized |
|
|
|
||
|
4% over 20 years |
|
88–175 |
176–350 |
||
|
8% over 20 years |
|
121–242 |
242–484 |
||
|
Note: Establishment and seeding costs were updated by using USDA-NASS agricultural fuel and seed prices from 1999 to 2007 (USDA-NASS, 2007a,b). aPV denotes present value. |
|||||
TABLE H.7 Estimated Opportunity Costs for Cellulosic Feedstocks (Net Returns Forgone by Producer from Not Using Cropland to Produce Next Best Crop or Product)
|
Type of Feedstock |
Type of Cost |
Cost per Acre (cited $) |
Cost per Acre (2007$) |
Reference |
|
Corn stover |
Feed value |
59.5/ton |
59.5/ton |
Edwards (2007) |
|
|
2.4 tons/acre |
142.8 |
142.8 |
|
|
Corn stover |
Lost profits |
22–58 |
22–58 |
Khanna and Dhungana (2007) |
|
Switchgrass |
Lost profits |
78–231 |
78–231 |
Khanna and Dhungana (2007) |
|
Switchgrass or Miscanthus |
Lost profits |
78 |
76 |
Khanna et al. (2008) |
|
Miscanthus |
Lost profits |
78–231 |
78–231 |
Khanna and Dhungana (2007) |
|
Nonspecific |
Lost CRPa payments if harvest every year |
35 |
36 |
Mapemba et al. (2008) |
|
Nonspecific |
Lost CRP if harvest once every 3 years |
10.1 |
10.4 |
Mapemba et al. (2008) |
|
Nonspecific |
Non-CRP land crops |
10/ton |
10.3/ton |
Mapemba et al. (2008) |
|
Nonspecific |
|
78 |
76 |
Khanna et al. (2008) |
|
Woody biomass |
Alternative use |
|
0–25 |
Summit Ridge Investments (2007) |
|
Note: Opportunity costs were updated by using USDA-NASS agricultural-land rent prices from 1999 to 2007 (USDA-NASS, 2007a,b). aConservation Reserve Program. |
||||
TABLE H.8 Yield Values and Ranges for Different Bioenergy Feedstocks Reported in Literature
|
Biomass Type |
Assumptions |
Estimated Yield (tons/acre) |
Reference |
|
Corn stover |
Soil tolerance |
2.02 |
Khanna and Dhungana (2007) |
|
Corn stover |
|
2.4 |
Edwards (2007) |
|
Corn stover |
2000–2005 mean yields for Wisconsin |
2.31–3 |
Vadas et al. (2008) |
|
Switchgrass |
Iowa, Illinois field trials |
2.58 |
Khanna and Dhungana (2007) |
|
Switchgrass |
|
4 |
Duffy (2007) |
|
Switchgrass |
Farm-scale (northern South Dakota to southern Nebraska) |
2.23 (5-year average) (Range, 1.7–2.7) |
Perrin et al. (2008) |
|
3.12 (10-year average) (Range, 2.6–3.5) |
|||
|
Switchgrass |
|
3.8 |
Khanna et al. (2008) |
|
19.74 (10-year PV) |
|||
|
Switchgrass |
Nitrogen level |
4–5.8 |
Vadas et al. (2008) |
|
Switchgrass |
Research blocks |
7.14 (average) |
Lewandowski et al. (2003) |
|
9.8 (best) |
|||
|
Switchgrass |
|
3.6–8.9 (previous) |
Shinners et al. (2006) |
|
Plot trials |
2.3–4 (own) |
||
|
Switchgrass |
Plot trials |
6.33 |
Fike et al. (2006) |
|
4.64–8.5 |
|||
|
Switchgrass |
Field trials |
|
Berdahl et al. (2005) |
|
Mean |
1.12–4.1 |
||
|
Strains: |
|
||
|
Dacotah |
1.11–4.22 |
||
|
ND3743 |
0.91–3.92 |
||
|
Summer |
1.18–4.38 |
||
|
Sunburst |
1.43–5.57 |
||
|
Trailblazer |
1.15–4.88 |
||
|
Shawnee |
1.06–4.5 |
||
|
OK NU-2 |
0.89–4.18 |
||
|
Cave-in-Rock |
0.97–4.27 |
||
|
Switchgrass |
Plot trials |
|
Vogel et al. (2002) |
|
Iowa |
5.2–5.6 |
||
|
Nebraska |
4.7–5 |
||
|
Switchgrass |
Peer-reviewed articles |
4.46 |
Heaton et al. (2004a) |
|
Biomass Type |
Assumptions |
Estimated Yield (tons/acre) |
Reference |
|
Switchgrass |
Farm trials |
|
|
|
Strains: |
|
||
|
Alamo (1 cut) |
5.4–8.5 |
||
|
Kanlow (1 cut) |
5.2–6.9 |
||
|
Cave-in-rock (2 cut) |
6–8.3 |
||
|
Switchgrass |
U.S. average |
4.2 |
McLaughlin et al. (2002) |
|
Grasses |
County-scale in Pacific Northwest |
3.4–4.1 (perennial ryegrass) |
Banowetz et al. (2008) |
|
4.13–6.2 (tall fescue) |
|||
|
2.2–3.36 (creeping red fescue) |
|||
|
Miscanthus |
Simulated |
8.9 |
Khanna and Dhungana (2007) |
|
Miscanthus |
|
14.5 average |
Khanna et al. (2008) |
|
12–17 range |
|||
|
114.58 (20-year PV) |
|||
|
Miscanthus |
Field experiment |
5.71 (14-year) |
Christian et al. (2008) |
|
3.43–11.73 (3-year) |
|||
|
Miscanthus |
|
4.5–13.4 |
Lewandowski et al. (2003) |
|
Miscanthus |
Projection |
13.36 (mean) |
Heaton et al. (2004b) |
|
10.93–17.81 |
|||
|
Miscanthus |
Peer-reviewed articles |
9.8 |
Heaton et al. (2004a) |
TABLE H.9 Carbon Inputs to Biomass Agricultural Production
|
Source of Input (kg CO2 eq/ha)a |
Corn Ethanol |
Cellulosic (Switchgrass) |
|
Nitrogen-fertilizer emissions |
1638 |
547 |
|
Phosphorus |
102 |
3.4 |
|
Potassium |
70 |
2.4 |
|
Lime |
228 |
— |
|
Herbicide |
69 |
10.4 |
|
Insecticide |
5.4 |
— |
|
Seed |
— |
— |
|
Transport emissions |
39 |
3 |
|
Gasoline |
114 |
— |
|
Diesel |
248 |
341 |
|
Natural gas |
46 |
— |
|
Liquefied petroleum gas |
61 |
— |
|
Electricity |
56 |
42 |
|
Energy used in irrigation |
4 |
— |
|
Labor transportation |
— |
— |
|
Farm machinery |
21 |
21 |
|
CO2 from land-use change (kg/ha) |
— |
— |
|
Total from agricultural production |
2703 |
971 |
|
Conversion per acre (0.405 ha/acre, 2.24 lb/kg) |
2452 lb CO2 eq/ac |
881 lb CO2 eq/ac |
|
Conversion per ton (assume 4 tons/acre) |
— |
220 lb CO2 eq/ton |
|
aUnless noted otherwise. Source: Farrell et al., 2006. |
||
TABLE H.10 Carbon Inputs to Biomass Refining, Including Transportation of Biomass
|
Source of Input (g CO2 eq/L)a |
Corn Ethanol |
Cellulosic |
|
Transport of feedstock to biorefinery |
49 |
51 |
|
Primary energy |
— |
— |
|
Diesel |
— |
5 |
|
Coal |
885 |
— |
|
Natural gas |
365 |
— |
|
Electricity |
— |
— |
|
Biomass |
— |
— |
|
Capital (plant, equipment) |
8.8 |
29 |
|
Process water |
25 |
19 |
|
Effluent restoration (BOD at PWTPsb) |
20 |
20 |
|
Transportation of chemicals to plant |
— |
— |
|
Total biorefinery phase |
1,353 |
124 |
|
Coproduct credits |
525 |
106 |
|
Total biorefinery phase accounting for coproduct |
828 g CO2 eq/L |
18 g CO2 eq/L |
|
Conversions: |
|
|
|
Initial value |
|
|
|
[0.4/0.4]/0.38 L/kg |
828 g CO2 eq/L |
18 g CO2 eq/L |
|
[8,746/8,389]/13,450 kg/ha |
~331.2 g CO2 eq/kg |
~6.84 g CO2 eq/kg |
|
0.405 ha/acre |
~2,896,675 g CO2 eq/ha |
~91,998 g CO2 eq/ha |
|
0.001 kg/g |
~1,173,153 g CO2 eq/ac |
~37,259 g CO2 eq/ac |
|
|
~1,173 kg CO2e/ac |
~37.3 kg CO2 eq/ac |
|
TOTAL (agriculture phase + biorefinery) |
4,307 lb CO2 eq/ac |
964 lb CO2 eq/ac |
|
Conversion per ton: (assume 4 tons/acre) |
— |
241 lb CO2 eq/ton |
|
aUnless noted otherwise. bBiochemical oxygen demand of effluent at wastewater treatment plants. Source: Farrell et al., 2006. |
||
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