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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2010. Seeing Photons: Progress and Limits of Visible and Infrared Sensor Arrays. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12896.
×

SEEING PHOTONS

PROGRESS AND LIMITS OF VISIBLE AND INFRARED SENSOR ARRAYS

Committee on Developments in Detector Technologies

Standing Committee on Technology Insight—Gauge, Evaluate, and Review

Division on Engineering and Physical Sciences

NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL
OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES

THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS

Washington, D.C.
www.nap.edu

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2010. Seeing Photons: Progress and Limits of Visible and Infrared Sensor Arrays. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12896.
×

THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS
500 Fifth Street, N.W.
Washington, DC 20001

NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competences and with regard for appropriate balance.

This is a report of work supported by contract HHM402-05-D-0011 between the Defense Intelligence Agency and the National Academy of Sciences. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the view of the organizations or agencies that provided support for the project.

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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2010. Seeing Photons: Progress and Limits of Visible and Infrared Sensor Arrays. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12896.
×

THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES

Advisers to the Nation on Science, Engineering, and Medicine


The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Ralph J. Cicerone is president of the National Academy of Sciences.


The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government. The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. Charles M. Vest is president of the National Academy of Engineering.


The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the responsibility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal government and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of medical care, research, and education. Dr. Harvey V. Fineberg is president of the Institute of Medicine.


The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy’s purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Ralph J. Cicerone and Dr. Charles M. Vest are chair and vice chair, respectively, of the National Research Council.


www.national-academies.org

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2010. Seeing Photons: Progress and Limits of Visible and Infrared Sensor Arrays. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12896.
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2010. Seeing Photons: Progress and Limits of Visible and Infrared Sensor Arrays. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12896.
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COMMITTEE ON DEVELOPMENTS IN DETECTOR TECHNOLOGIES

STEVEN R.J. BRUECK, Chair,

University of New Mexico

PAUL McMANAMON, Vice Chair,

Exciting Technology, LLC

STEFAN BAUR,

Raytheon Vision Systems

VALERIE BROWNING,

ValTech Solutions, LLC

JOHN DEVITT,

Georgia Tech Research Institute

THOMAS HARTWICK, Independent Consultant

ANGELA HODGE,

Johns Hopkins University, Applied Physics Laboratory

MICHAEL HOPMEIER,

Unconventional Concepts, Inc.

STEVEN JOST,

BAE Systems

LINDA KATEHI,

University of California, Davis

SEETHAMBAL MANI,

Sandia National Laboratories

C. KUMAR PATEL,

Pranalytica, Inc.

TAMAR PELI,

Charles Stark Draper Laboratory

DAVID SHAVER,

Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Lincoln Laboratory

JONATHAN SMITH,

University of Pennsylvania

Staff

CARTER W. FORD, Study Director

NORMAN HALLER, Consultant

SARAH CAPOTE, Research Associate

MARGUERITE SCHNEIDER, Administrative Coordinator

URRIKKA WOODS, Program Associate (to February 26, 2010)

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2010. Seeing Photons: Progress and Limits of Visible and Infrared Sensor Arrays. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12896.
×

STANDING COMMITTEE ON TECHNOLOGY INSIGHT—GAUGE, EVALUATE, AND REVIEW

RUTH A. DAVID, Chair,

ANSER, Inc.

BRIAN BALLARD,

ARES Systems Group

STEVEN R.J. BRUECK,

University of New Mexico

ANN N. CAMPBELL,

Sandia National Laboratories

ALAN H. EPSTEIN,

Pratt and Whitney

JOHN GANNON,

BAE Systems

SHARON C. GLOTZER,

University of Michigan

CHRISTOPHER C. GREEN,

Wayne State University

DIANE E. GRIFFIN,

Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health

J.C. HERZ,

Batchtags, LLC

ALLISON HICKEY,

Accenture National Security Services

J. JEROME HOLTON,

ARES Systems Group

KENNETH KRESS,

KBK Consulting

FREDERICK R. LOPEZ,

AMC Incorporated

GILMAN G. LOUIE,

Alsop-Louie Partners

STUART PARKIN,

IBM Almaden Research Center

JULIE J.C.H. RYAN,

George Washington University

Staff

MICHAEL A. CLARKE, Lead DEPS Board Director

CARTER W. FORD, Program Officer

DANIEL E.J. TALMAGE, JR., Program Officer

MARGUERITE SCHNEIDER, Administrative Coordinator

KAMARA BROWN, Research Associate

SARAH CAPOTE, Research Associate

SHANNON THOMAS, Program Associate

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2010. Seeing Photons: Progress and Limits of Visible and Infrared Sensor Arrays. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12896.
×

Preface

The Department of Defense has recently highlighted intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) capabilities as a top priority for U.S. warfighters. Contributions provided by ISR assets in the operational theaters in Iraq and Afghanistan have been widely documented in press reporting. While the United States continues to increase investments in ISR capabilities, other nations not friendly to the United States will continue to seek countermeasures to U.S. capabilities.

The Technology Warning Division of the Defense Intelligence Agency’s (DIA’s) Defense Warning Office (DWO) has the critical responsibility, in collaboration with other components of the intelligence community (IC), for providing U.S. policy makers insight into technological developments that may impact future U.S. warfighting capabilities. To this end, the IC requested that the National Research Council (NRC) investigate and report on key visible and infrared detector technologies, with potential military utility, that are likely to be developed in the next 10-15 years. This study is the eighth in a series sponsored by the DWO and executed under the auspices of the NRC TIGER (Technology Insight—Gauge, Evaluate, and Review) Standing Committee.

A committee of experts in the scientific and technical areas relating to visible and infrared detectors was formed to conduct this study. Faced with a relatively short time frame for completing the study, the committee very much appreciates the timely and informed cooperation of the IC members who sponsored the study, as well as the many government, industry, and university participants who contributed valuable information during the committee’s meetings.

Page viii Cite
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2010. Seeing Photons: Progress and Limits of Visible and Infrared Sensor Arrays. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12896.
×

We wish to thank all of the committee members for their efforts in producing this report in a very short period of less than four months from first meeting to peer review. In addition, the peer reviewers and monitor provided insightful and useful comments that improved the quality of the report. A sincere thank you is due to the NRC staff including Carter Ford, Sarah Capote, Marguerite Schneider, and Urrikka Woods. The contributions of Norm Haller in providing organizational and technical writing assistance were also of immense value to the committee.


Steven R.J. Brueck, Chair

Paul McManamon, Vice Chair

Committee on Developments in Detector Technologies

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2010. Seeing Photons: Progress and Limits of Visible and Infrared Sensor Arrays. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12896.
×

Acknowledgment of Reviewers

This report has been reviewed in draft form by individuals chosen for their diverse perspectives and technical expertise, in accordance with procedures approved by the National Research Council’s (NRC’s) Report Review Committee. The purpose of this independent review is to provide candid and critical comments that will assist the institution in making its published report as sound as possible and to ensure that the report meets institutional standards for objectivity, evidence, and responsiveness to the study charge. The review comments and draft manuscript remain confidential to protect the integrity of the deliberative process. We wish to thank the following individuals for their review of this report:

R. Stephen Berry, University of Chicago

James Coleman, University of Illinois

Ruth David, Anser, Inc.

Donald Gaver, Naval Postgraduate School

Anthony Hyder, University of Notre Dame

Kenneth Kress, KBK Consulting, Inc.

Robert Latiff, Science Applications International Corporation

Manijeh Razeghi, Northwestern University.

Although the reviewers listed above have provided many constructive comments and suggestions, they were not asked to endorse the conclusions or recommendations nor did they see the final draft of the report before its release. The review of this report was overseen by Elsa Garmire, Dartmouth College. Appointed

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2010. Seeing Photons: Progress and Limits of Visible and Infrared Sensor Arrays. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12896.
×

by the NRC, she was responsible for making certain that an independent examination of this report was carried out in accordance with institutional procedures and that all review comments were carefully considered. Responsibility for the final content of this report rests entirely with the authoring committee and the institution.

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2010. Seeing Photons: Progress and Limits of Visible and Infrared Sensor Arrays. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12896.
×
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2010. Seeing Photons: Progress and Limits of Visible and Infrared Sensor Arrays. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12896.
×
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2010. Seeing Photons: Progress and Limits of Visible and Infrared Sensor Arrays. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12896.
×
   

  Complementary Metal Oxide–Semiconductor Imagers,

 

42

   

 Avalanche Photodiodes,

 

45

   

 Near Infrared,

 

49

   

  Silicon,

 

49

   

  Intensifiers,

 

49

   

 Short-wavelength Infrared,

 

50

   

 Mid-, Long-, and Very Long Wavelength Infrared,

 

50

   

  Brief History of Infrared Detection,

 

50

   

  Indium Antimonide,

 

51

   

  Mercury Cadmium Telluride,

 

51

   

  Strained-layer Superlattice,

 

54

   

  Quantum-well Infrared Photodetectors and Quantum-dot Infrared Photodetectors,

 

55

   

 Very Long Wavelength Infrared,

 

56

   

 Fabrication of Detectors and Focal Plane Arrays,

 

56

   

 Detectors,

 

56

   

 Focal Plane Arrays,

 

57

   

 Manufacturing Infrastructure,

 

58

   

 Concluding Thoughts,

 

58

3

 

KEY CURRENT TECHNOLOGIES AND EVOLUTIONARY DEVELOPMENTS

 

60

   

 Introduction,

 

60

   

 Key Technologies Expected to Drive Advancements in Existing Detector Technologies over the Next 10-15 Years,

 

61

   

 Ultralarge-format Focal Plane Arrays,

 

62

   

 Mosaic Tiling Technologies,

 

63

   

 Pixel Size Reduction,

 

65

   

 Smarter Pixels and On-focal-plane Processing,

 

67

   

 3-D Integration and Improved Hybridization Technology,

 

71

   

 Devices Able to Perform at Higher Temperatures,

 

71

   

 Multicolor Pixels,

 

73

   

 Improved SWIR Arrays,

 

76

   

 Photon Counting Technologies and Lower Readout Noise,

 

77

   

 Curved Focal Surfaces,

 

79

   

 Lower Power,

 

79

   

 Radiation Hardening,

 

79

   

 Cost Reduction,

 

80

   

 Improved Cooler Technologies,

 

81

   

  Cryocoolers,

 

82

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2010. Seeing Photons: Progress and Limits of Visible and Infrared Sensor Arrays. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12896.
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2010. Seeing Photons: Progress and Limits of Visible and Infrared Sensor Arrays. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12896.
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Acronyms

ABL airborne laser

ADC analog-to-digital converter

AGC automatic gain control

APD avalanche photodiode

APS active pixel sensor

ARGUS-IS Autonomous Real-time Ground Ubiquitous Surveillance Imaging System

ARTEMIS Advanced Responsive Tactically Effective Military Imaging Spectrometer

ASAT antisatellite (capability)

ASIC application-specific integrated circuit

ATC/R automatic target cuing-recognition

BLIP background-limited infrared photodetection

CCD charge-coupled device

CDL Common Data Link

CMOS complementary metal oxide semiconductor

CNT carbon nanotube

COP coefficient of performance

COTS commercial off-the-shelf

CPU central processing unit

CTE charge transfer efficiency

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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2010. Seeing Photons: Progress and Limits of Visible and Infrared Sensor Arrays. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12896.
×

CTIA capacitor transimpedance amplifier

CZT cadmium zinc telluride

3-D three-dimensional

DARPA Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency

DCT discrete cosine transform

DIA Defense Intelligence Agency

DOD Department of Defense

DRAM dynamic random access memory

DWELL (Quantum) Dots in a (quantum) well detector

DWO Defense Warning Office

DWT discrete wavelet transform

EMI electromagnetic interference

EO electro-optical

FET field-effect transistor

FLIR forward-looking infrared

FOV field of view

FPA focal plane array

FPDP front-panel data port

FPGA field-programmable gate array

GEO geosynchronous orbit

GM-APD geiger mode avalanche photodiode

GPU graphics processing unit

G-R generation-recombination

HDMI high-definition multimedia interface

HEO high Earth orbit

IC integrated circuit; intelligence community

IED improvised explosive device

IR infrared

IRST infrared search and track system

ISR intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance

ITAR International Traffic in Arms Regulations

ITO indium tin oxide

JPEG Joint Photographic Experts Group

JWST James Webb Space Telescope

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2010. Seeing Photons: Progress and Limits of Visible and Infrared Sensor Arrays. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12896.
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LACOSTE Large Area Coverage Optical Search-while-Track and Engage

LADAR laser detection and ranging

LED light-emitting diode

LEO low Earth orbit

LPE liquid-phase epitaxy

LRU line-replaceable unit

LVDS low-voltage differential signaling

LWIR long-wavelength infrared

MBE molecular beam epitaxy

MCT mercury cadmium telluride

MDE Multicore Development Environment

MEMS microelectromechanical system

MEO middle Earth orbit

MGM metal-graphene-metal

MOS metal oxide semiconductor

MTF modulation transfer function

MWIR mid-wavelength infrared

NA numerical aperture

NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration

NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization

NEP noise-equivalent power

NIR near infrared

NNI National Nanotechnology Initiative

NRC National Research Council

NRDA National Research and Development Act

NTIS National Technical Information Service

NUC nonuniformity correction

OTCCD orthogonal transfer CCD

PCR polymerase chain reaction

PnC phononic crystal

QDIP quantum-dot IR photodetector

QE quantum efficiency

QWIP quantum-well IR photodetector

R&D research and development

RF radio frequency

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2010. Seeing Photons: Progress and Limits of Visible and Infrared Sensor Arrays. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12896.
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RGB red, green, blue (color model)

ROIC readout integrated circuit

RTG radioisotope thermoelectric generator

RTI Research Triangle Institute

SERS surface-enhanced Raman scattering

Si PIN diode with an intrinsic silicon layer between the P- and N-type regions

SITP Shanghai Institute of Technical Physics

SLS strain-layer superlattice

SOI silicon on insulator

SOT statement of task

SPD single-photon detector

SPW surface plasma wave

SWaP size, weight, and power

SWIR short-wavelength infrared

SWNT single-wall carbon nanotube

TDI time delay-and-integrate

TE thermoelectric

TIGER Standing Committee on Technology Insight—Gauge, Evaluate, and Review

TOMBO Thin Observation Module using Bound Optics

UGS unattended ground sensor

UV ultraviolet

VLWIR very long wavelength infrared

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The Department of Defense recently highlighted intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) capabilities as a top priority for U.S. warfighters. Contributions provided by ISR assets in the operational theaters in Iraq and Afghanistan have been widely documented in press reporting. While the United States continues to increase investments in ISR capabilities, other nations not friendly to the United States will continue to seek countermeasures to U.S. capabilities.

The Technology Warning Division of the Defense Intelligence Agency's (DIA) Defense Warning Office (DWO) has the critical responsibility, in collaborations with other components of the intelligence community (IC), for providing U.S. policymakers insight into technological developments that may impact future U.S. warfighting capabilities.

To this end, the IC requested that the National Research Council (NRC) investigate and report on key visible and infrared detector technologies, with potential military utility, that are likely to be developed in the next 10-15 years. This study is the eighth in a series sponsored by the DWO and executed under the auspices of the NRC TIGER (Technology Insight-Gauge, Evaluate, and Review) Standing Committee.

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