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Committee on Nutrient Requirements of Fish and Shrimp
Board on Agriculture and Natural Resources
Division on Earth and Life Studies
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THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS 500 Fifth Street, N.W. Washington, DC 20001
NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the
National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy
of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of
the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competences and with regard
for appropriate balance.
This study was supported by a grant from the Agricultural Research Service of the United States
Department of Agriculture under Contract No. 59-0790-5-186, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration under Award No. NA08OAR4170833; the United Soybean Board under Project
No. 8490; and internal National Research Council funds derived from sales of publications in the
Animal Nutrition Series. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this
publication are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the organizations or
agencies that provided support for the project.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Nutrient requirements of fish and shrimp / Committee on the Nutrient Requirements of Fish and
Shrimp, Board on Agriculture and Natural Resources, Division on Earth and Life Studies, National
Research Council of the National Academies.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-0-309-16338-5 (cloth)
ISBN-10: 0-309-16338-2 (cloth)
ISBN-13: 978-0-309-16339-2 (pdf)
ISBN-10: 0-309-16339-0 (pdf)
1. Fishes—Nutrition—Requirements. 2. Shrimps—Nutrition—Requirements. 3. Fishes—
Feeding and feeds. 4. Shrimps—Feeding and feeds. I. National Research Council (U.S.).
Committee on the Nutrient Requirements of Fish and Shrimp.
SH156.N865 2011
595.3’88—dc22
2011008752
Additional copies of this report are available from the National Academies Press, 500 Fifth Street,
N.W., Lockbox 285, Washington, DC 20055; (800) 624-6242 or (202) 334-3313 (in the Washington
metropolitan area); Internet, http://www.nap.edu.
Copyright 2011 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America
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Vest are chair and vice chair, respectively, of the National Research Council.
www.national-academies.org
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COMMITTEE ON NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS OF FISH AND SHRIMP
RONALD W. HARDY, Chair, University of Idaho, Hagerman
DELBERT M. GATLIN, III, Vice-Chair, Texas A&M University, College Station
DOMINIQUE P. BUREAU, University of Guelph, Ontario
LOUIS R. D’ABRAMO, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State
D. ALLEN DAVIS, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama
JOHN E. HALVER, University of Washington, Seattle
ÅSHILD KROGDAHL, Norwegian School of Veterinary Science, Oslo, Norway
FRANÇOISE MÉDALE, French National Institute for Agricultural Research (INRA),
Pee-Sur-Nivelle, France
SHI-YEN SHIAU, National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung
DOUGLAS R. TOCHER, University of Stirling, Scotland
Staff
AUSTIN J. LEWIS, Study Director
RUTHIE S. ARIETI, Research Associate
ERIN P. MULCAHY, Senior Program Assistant (through August 2010)
External Support
PAULA T. WHITACRE (Full Circle Communications), Editor
v
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BOARD ON AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES
NORMAN R. SCOTT, Chair, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York
PEGGY F. BARLETT, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
HAROLD L. BERGMAN, University of Wyoming, Laramie
RICHARD A. DIXON, Samuel Roberts Noble Foundation, Ardmore, Oklahoma
DANIEL M. DOOLEY, University of California, Oakland
JOAN H. EISEMANN, North Carolina State University, Raleigh
GARY F. HARTNELL, Monsanto Company, St. Louis, Missouri
GENE HUGOSON, Minnesota Department of Agriculture, St. Paul
KIRK C. KLASING, University of California, Davis
VICTOR L. LECHTENBERG, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana
PHILIP E. NELSON, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana
ROBERT PAARLBERG, Wellesley College, Watertown, Massachusetts
KEITH PITTS, Curragh Oaks Consulting, Fair Oaks, California
CHARLES W. RICE, Kansas State University, Manhattan
HAL SALWASSER, Oregon State University, Corvallis
PEDRO A. SANCHEZ, The Earth Institute, Columbia University, Palisades, New York
ROGER A. SEDJO, Resources for the Future, Washington, DC
KATHLEEN SEGERSON, University of Connecticut, Storrs
MERCEDES VÁZQUEZ-AÑÓN, Novus International, Inc., St. Charles, Missouri
Staff
ROBIN A. SCHOEN, Director
KAREN L. IMHOF, Administrative Assistant
AUSTIN J. LEWIS, Senior Program Officer
EVONNE P. Y. TANG, Senior Program Officer
PEGGY TSAI, Program Officer
CAMILLA YANDOC ABLES, Associate Program Officer
KARA N. LANEY, Associate Program Officer
RUTH S. ARIETI, Research Associate
JANET M. MULLIGAN, Research Associate
KAMWETI MUTU, Research Associate
ERIN P. MULCAHY, Senior Program Assistant (through August 2010)
KATHLEEN REIMER, Program Assistant (from August 2010)
vi
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Acknowledgments
This report has been reviewed in draft form by persons to endorse the conclusions or recommendations, nor did
chosen for their diverse perspectives and technical expertise they see the final draft of the report before its release. The
in accordance with procedures approved by the National review of this report was overseen by Robert R. Stickney,
Research Council’s Report Review Committee. The purpose Texas A&M University. Appointed by the National Research
of this independent review is to provide candid and criti- Council, he was responsible for making certain that an
cal comments that will assist the institution in making its independent examination of this report was carried out in
published report as sound as possible and to ensure that the accordance with institutional procedures and that all review
report meets institutional standards of objectivity, evidence, comments were carefully considered. Responsibility for the
and responsiveness to the study charge. The review com- final content of this report rests entirely with the author com -
ments and draft manuscript remain confidential to protect mittee and the institution.
the integrity of the deliberative process. We wish to thank The Committee on Nutrient Requirements of Fish and
the following for their review of this report: Shrimp thanks the U.S. Department of Agriculture, the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and the
Geoff L. Allan, Port Stephens Fisheries Centre, New United Soybean Board for contributing funds to support the
South Wales, Australia committee’s work. The committee has been fortunate to have
Ian P. Forster, Fisheries and Oceans Canada, British Dr. Austin Lewis, Senior Program Officer, Ruthie Arieti,
Columbia, Canada Research Associate, and Erin Mulcahy, Senior Program As-
Menghe H. Li, Mississippi State University, Mississippi sistant, assigned to the committee. Dr. Lewis has provided
State excellent guidance, advice, and encouragement throughout
Ingrid Lupatsch, Centre for Sustainable Aquaculture the development of the report, and the committee is grate-
Research, Swansea University, UK ful for his sustained support and friendship. Ms. Arieti has
Wing Keong Ng, Universiti Sains, Malaysia been extremely effective at keeping the process of writing,
Marty Alan Riche, Harry K. Dupree Stuttgart National revising, and editing sections moving along smoothly as well
Aquaculture Research Center, Agricultural Research as keeping committee members informed and on track. The
Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, FL committee thanks Robin Schoen, Director of the Board on
Michael B. Rust, National Marine Fisheries Service, Na- Agriculture and Natural Resources, for her efforts to get the
tional Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, WA revision underway and for her support and encouragement
Wendy M. Sealey, Bozeman Fish Technology Center, during its preparation. The committee members wish to
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, MT thank their colleagues Arlene Ali, Brett Glencross, Katheline
Albert G. J. Tacon, Aquaculture Consultant, Vista, CA Hua, Kyeong-Jun Lee, Yu-Hung Lin, Biswamitra Patro, and
Carl D. Webster, Aquaculture Research Center, Ken- Guillaume Salze, whose assistance was essential to complete
tucky State University, Frankfort the publication and Victoria Blondin for producing original
Robert P. Wilson, Emeritus, Mississippi State University, drawings of fish anatomy. Finally, the committee wishes to
Mississippi State thank the National Research Council for giving the members
Thomas R. Zeigler, Zeigler Bros, Inc., PA the opportunity to produce a new revised version of the re-
port that they hope will guide the aquaculture feed industry,
Although the reviewers listed above have provided many scientists, students, and others who share their passion for
constructive comments and suggestions, they were not asked fish and shrimp nutrition for many years to come.
vii
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Contents
SUMMARY 1
1 INTRODUCTION 4
References, 5
2 BASIC CONCEPTS AND METHODOLOGY 6
Determination of Nutrient Requirements, 6
Experimental Design and Conditions, 6
Replicates in the Experimental Design, 9
Measured Responses, 9
Estimating Quantitative Nutrient Requirements, 11
Conclusions, 13
References, 14
3 DIGESTIVE PHYSIOLOGY OF FISH AND SHRIMP 15
Fish, 15
Shrimp, 25
Conclusions, 28
References, 29
4 DIETARY ENERGY UTILIZATION AND METABOLIC INTEGRATION 34
Standard Energy Partitioning Scheme—NRC 1981 Nomenclature, 34
Gross Energy and Intake of Energy, 35
Fecal Energy Losses—Digestible Energy, 36
Nonfecal Losses—Metabolizable Energy, 36
Surface Energy Losses, 37
Heat Losses, 37
Basal/Minimal Metabolism, 38
Effect of Body Weight on Basal Metabolism, 38
Effect of Temperature on Basal Metabolism, 39
Basal Metabolism of Shrimp, 40
Maintenance Energy Requirement, 40
Heat Losses for Voluntary Activity, 42
Heat Increment of Feeding, 42
Estimates of Heat Increment of Feeding, 42
Digestion and Absorption Processes, 43
Formation and Excretion of Metabolic Waste, 44
Transformation of Substrates and Retention in Tissues, 44
ix
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x CONTENTS
Practical Net Energy Systems, 44
Recovered Energy, 46
Reproduction and Gonads—Ovum Energy, 47
Calculation of Energy Requirement for Growth, 48
Limitations of Nutritional Energetics Approaches, 50
References, 51
5 PROTEINS AND AMINO ACIDS 57
Proteins and Amino Acids: Biochemistry, Roles, and Overview of
Metabolism, 57
Essential Amino Acids—Biochemistry, Roles, and Deficiency Signs, 63
Quantitative Protein and Essential Amino Acid Requirements, 70
Quantifying Essential Amino Acid Requirements, 73
Summary of Published Estimates of Essential Amino Acid Requirements of
Fish and Shrimp, 75
Essential Amino Acid Requirements in the Context of Feed Formulation, 75
References, 92
6 LIPIDS 102
Fatty Acid Structure and Nomenclature, 102
Lipid Class Structures, 102
General Lipid Metabolism, 105
Dietary Lipid Level, 106
Specific Requirements, 107
Other Issues in Lipid Nutrition, 123
References, 125
7 CARBOHYDRATES AND FIBER 135
Types of Carbohydrates, 135
Nonstarch Polysaccharides in Fish and Shrimp Diets: Physiological
Consequences, 144
Digestibility of Starch, 146
Metabolic Fate of Glucose, 149
Nutritional Role of Digestible Carbohydrates in Fish and Shrimp, 156
References, 157
8 MINERALS 163
Calcium and Phosphorus, 168
Magnesium, 170
Sodium, Potassium, and Chloride, 171
Chromium, 172
Copper, 172
Iodine, 173
Iron, 173
Manganese, 175
Selenium, 175
Zinc, 176
Other Minerals, 176
Sources and Forms, 177
Interactions with Other Dietary Components, 179
References, 179
9 VITAMINS 186
Fat-Soluble Vitamins, 186
Water-Soluble Vitamins, 201
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xi
CONTENTS
Other Vitamin-Like Compound, 209
References, 210
10 FEED ADDITIVES 221
Antimicrobial Agents, 221
Antioxidants, 221
Binding Agents, 222
Color/Pigmentation Agents, 222
Enzymes, 224
Organic Acids, 225
Feeding Stimulants/Palatability Enhancers, 225
Immunostimulants, 226
Probiotics and Prebiotics, 227
Hormones, 228
References, 228
11 ANTINUTRITIONAL FACTORS AND ADVENTITIOUS TOXINS
IN FEEDS 232
Antinutrients in Plant Feedstuffs, 233
Combined Effects of Plant Antinutrients, 242
Antinutrients in Animal Feedstuffs, 243
Adventitious Toxins, 244
Unknown Compounds, 246
Conclusions, 246
References, 246
12 DIGESTIBILITY AND AVAILABILITY 253
Methods Used in Digestibility Determination, 253
Digestibility of Feed Ingredients, 255
References, 268
13 NUTRIENT DELIVERY AND FEEDING PRACTICES 272
Feeding Early Life Stages, 272
Production Diets and Feed Management, 273
Feed Utilization and Fish Growth, 274
Pollution Loading and Waste Management, 281
Conclusions, 282
References, 282
14 LARVAL NUTRITION 286
Digestive Enzymes, 286
Relationship of Larval Stage, Duration of Gut Retention, and Level of
Enzyme Activity, 287
Nutritional Enrichment of Live Food, 288
Formulated Diets, 288
Nutrient Requirements, 291
Conclusions, 295
References, 295
15 INGREDIENTS, FORMULATION, AND PROCESSING 299
Feed Ingredients, 299
Feed Formulation, 300
Feed Manufacturing, 301
Feed Quality Assessment, 302
Environmental and Sustainability Concerns, 303
References, 303
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xii CONTENTS
16 REPLACEMENT OF MARINE RESOURCES: EFFECTS OF
ALTERNATIVE INGREDIENTS AND STRATEGIES ON
NUTRITIONAL QUALITY 304
Limitations to Supply and Use of Marine Resources, Fish Meal, and
Fish Oil, 304
Substitution of Fish Meal, 305
Substitution of Fish Oil, 308
Conclusions, 318
References, 318
17 CRITICAL RESEARCH NEEDS 323
Requirements, Delivery, and Interaction of Nutrients, 323
Fish Meal and Fish Oil Alternatives, 324
Diet Formulations and Processing, 324
Nutrigenomic Effects and Metabolism, 325
Conclusions, 325
18 NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS TABLES 326
19 FEED COMPOSITION TABLES 334
20 COMMON AND SCIENTIFIC NAMES OF SPECIES DISCUSSED
IN THIS REPORT 348
APPENDIXES
A COMMITTEE STATEMENT OF TASK 351
B ABBREVIATONS AND ACRONYMS 352
C COMMITTEE MEMBER BIOGRAPHIES 358
D RECENT PUBLICATIONS OF THE BOARD ON AGRICULTURE
AND NATURAL RESOURCES 361
Policy and Resources, 361
Animal Nutrition Program—Nutrient Requirements of Domestic
Animals Series and Related Titles, 362
INDEX 363
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Tables and Figures
TABLES
3-1 Digestive Enzymes of the Digestive Tract, 21
4-1 Terminology of Types of Dietary Energy and Energy Budget Components, 35
4-2 Estimate of Maintenance Energy Requirement of Different Fish and Shrimp
Species Obtained Through Feeding Trials, 41
4-3 Estimates of Maintenance, Cost of Protein and Lipid Deposition, 45
4-4 Energy and Oxygen Requirements and Expected Feed Efficiency of Rainbow
Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), 49
4-5 Energy and Oxygen Requirements and Expected Feed Efficiency of European Sea
Bass (Dicentrarchus labrax), 49
4-6 Energy and Oxygen Requirements and Expected Feed Efficiency of Asian Sea
Bass (Lates calcarifer), 50
5-1 Amino Acid Composition of Different Body Proteins of Animals, 58
5-2 Amino Acid Composition (g/16 g N) of Various Fish and Shrimp Species, 59
5-3 Essential and Nonessential Amino Acids, 59
5-4 Recommended Dietary Protein Levels for Various Fish Species of Commercial
Importance (As-Fed Basis), 70
5-5 Recommended Dietary Protein Levels of Different Shrimp Species, 71
5-6 Arginine, 76
5-7 Histidine, 78
5-8 Isoleucine, 78
5-9 Leucine, 79
5-10 Lysine, 80
5-11 Methionine, 82
5-12 Phenylalanine, 84
5-13 Threonine, 85
5-14 Tryptophan, 86
5-15 Valine, 86
5-16 Summary of Studies on Essential Amino Acid Requirements of Shrimp, 87
5-17 Arginine Requirement of Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) According to
Different Modes of Expression, 90
5-18 Dietary Arginine Level Expected to Meet Requirement of Rainbow Trout
(Oncorhynchus mykiss), 90
5-19 Ideal Amino Acid Profile for Teleost Fish and Penaeid Shrimp Derived from a
Synthetic Review of the Literature, 91
xiii
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xiv TABLES AND FIGURES
5-20 Digestible Essential Amino Acid Requirements (% Diet Dry Matter) Estimated
Using a Factorial Model for Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), 91
5-21 Digestible Essential Amino Acid Requirements (% Diet Dry Matter) Estimated
with a Factorial Model for Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar), 91
6-1 Reported Quantitative Essential Fatty Acid Requirements of Juvenile and Subadult
Freshwater and Diadromous Species of Finfish, 109
6-2 Reported Quantitative Essential Fatty Acid Requirements of Larvae and Early
Juveniles of Finfish, 110
6-3 Reported Quantitative Essential Fatty Acid Requirements of Juvenile and Subadult
Marine Species of Finfish, 111
6-4 Reported Quantitative Essential Fatty Acid Requirements of Shrimp, 113
6-5 Reported Phospholipid Requirements in Juvenile and Larval Shrimp Species, 118
6-6 Reported Quantitative and Qualitative Phospholipid Requirements of Finfish, 119
6-7 Reported Cholesterol/Sterol Requirements of Shrimp and Other Crustaceans, 122
7-1 Carbohydrate Categories, 136
7-2 Carbohydrates in Selected Ingredients Used for Fish and Shrimp Diets, 138
7-3 Starch Content and Characteristics of Starches of Some Selected Ingredients for
Fish and Shrimp Diets, 141
7-4 Apparent Digestibility Coefficient of Starch According to the Sources and the
Dietary Levels in Different Fish and Shrimp Species, 147
7-5 Effect of Oral, Intraperitoneal, or Intravenous Administration of Different
Carbohydrates Sources on Blood Glucose Levels and Return to the Basal
Level, 150
7-6 Changes in Liver Glycogen Content with Fasting and Feeding Status, 154
7-7 Effect of Carbohydrate Sources and Levels on Glycogen Content in Different Fish
and Shrimp Species, 155
8-1 Minerals and Some of Their Prominent Functions and Deficiency Signs Observed
in Fish and Shrimp, 163
8-2 Macromineral Requirements of Fish, 164
8-3 Micromineral Requirements of Fish, 166
8-4 Mineral Requirements of Crustaceans, 167
9-1 Historical Vitamin Diagnostic Signs Reported in Fish and Shrimp, 187
9-2 Historical Vitamin Requirements Estimates for Growing Fish Determined with
Chemically Defined Diets in a Controlled Environment, 190
9-3 Historical Vitamin Requirements Estimates for Growing Shrimp Determined with
Chemically Defined Diets in a Controlled Environment, 194
9-4 Historical Vitamin C Requirements Estimates for Growing Fish and Shrimp with
Chemically Defined Diets in a Controlled Environment, 195
10-1 Xanthophyll Content of Plant Materials and Astaxanthin Content of Animal
Products Used in Aquatic Feeds, 223
11-1 Important Antinutrients Present in Some Commonly Used Potential Fish Feed
Ingredients, 232
11-2 Adventitious Toxins and Other Undesirable Substances That May Contaminate
Fish Feed, 233
12-1 Apparent Digestibility of Protein in Selected Feed Ingredients for Several Fish
Species and Shrimp, 258
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xv
TABLES AND FIGURES
12-2 Amino Acid Availability and Protein Digestibility Values of Selected Feed
Ingredients for Atlantic Salmon, Rainbow Trout, Striped Bass, Channel Catfish,
Nile Tilapia, Gilthead Sea Bream, Siberian Sturgeon, Largemouth Bass, Pacu,
Rockfish, Yellowtail, Silver Perch, and Pacific White Shrimp, 260
12-3 Apparent Digestibility of Energy in Selected Diet Ingredients of Several Fish
Species and Pacific White Shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei), 264
12-4 Apparent Digestibility of Lipid and Carbohydrate in Selected Feed Ingredients for
Fish Species and Pacific White Shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei), 266
12-5 Phosphorus Availability of Selected Feed Ingredients for Several Fish Species and
Pacific White Shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei), 267
13-1 General Daily Feeding Rates and Frequency Guide for the Production of Channel
Catfish, Common Carp, and Nile Tilapia, 279
13-2 Example of Daily Digestible Energy (DE) and Feed Requirement of Rainbow
Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), 279
13-3 Example of Feed Consumption Rates for Channel Catfish (Ictalurus
punctatus), 280
16-1 Fatty Acid Compositions (Percentage of Total Fatty Acids) of Major Vegetable Oils
and Animal Fats, 310
16-2 World Oil and Fat Production 2008, 311
16-3 Effect of Complete or Partial Replacement of Dietary Fish Oils by Vegetable Oils
on Fatty Acid Compositions (Percentage of Weight) of Total Lipid of Flesh of
Salmonids and Marine Fish, 313
18-1 Nutrient Requirements of Freshwater Fish (dry-matter basis), 327
18-2 Nutrient Requirements of Marine Fish (dry-matter basis), 329
18-3 Nutrient Requirements of Shrimp (dry-matter basis), 331
18-4 Partial Summary of Deficiency Signs and Pathologies Associated with Deficiencies
of Essential Nutrients (For a More Complete Description, Consult the Chapters on
Specific Nutrients—Chapters 5–9), 333
19-1 Typical Dry Matter and Proximate Composition Values for Natural and Chemically
Defined Ingredients Commonly Used in Aquatic Animal Feeds (as-fed basis), 335
19-2 Amino Acid Composition of Ingredients (as-fed basis), 337
19-3 Mineral Composition of Ingredients Commonly Used in Aquatic Animal Feeds
(as-fed basis), 340
19-4 Vitamin Composition of Ingredients Commonly Used in Aquatic Animal Feeds
(as-fed basis), 342
19-5 Fatty Acid (Percentage of Total Fatty Acids) and Cholesterol Composition of
Common Animal Fats, Fish Oils, and Vegetable Oils (as-fed basis), 345
19-6 Chemical Composition of Some Purified Feed Ingredients Commonly Used for
Aquatic Animal Research (as-fed basis), 347
20-1 Common and Scientific Names of Species Discussed in This Report, 348
FIGURES
2-1 Models for the interpretation of dose-response experiments, 12
3-1 Comparative digestive anatomy of fish, 16
3-2 Organization of internal organs in a generalized fish, 17
3-3 Drawing of stomach and pyloric ceca in Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua), 18
3-4 Anatomy of the digestive tract of shrimp, 26
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xvi TABLES AND FIGURES
4-1 Schematic representation of the energy flow through an animal, 35
4-2 Fasting heat losses of rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss, 39
4-3 Illustration of the concept of maintenance and fasting heat losses, 40
4-4 Recovered energy and metabolizable energy in rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus
mykiss, 41
4-5 Recovered energy and metabolizable energy in Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar, 43
5-1 Relationship between protein mass and live weight of rainbow trout
(Oncorhynchus mykiss), 58
5-2 Relationship between water mass and protein mass of rainbow trout
(Oncorhynchus mykiss), 58
5-3 Effect of lysine and DE content of the diet on efficiency of lysine utilization of
rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), 63
5-4 Protein intake per kilogram of live weight gain in different fish and shrimp species,
chicken, and swine, 71
5-5 Meeting essential amino acid requirements of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus
mykiss) using three different approaches, 89
6-1 Palmitic (16:0) and oleic (18:1n-9) acids showing the n carbon numbering
system, 103
Arachidonic (20:4n-6) and docosahexaenoic (22:6n-3) acids showing the n and Δ
6-2
carbon numbering systems, 103
6-3 The structures of cholesterol and triacylglycerol, 104
6-4 The structures of the main phospholipid classes, 104
6-5 Pathways of biosynthesis of C20 and C22 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty
acids, 108
7-1 Structure of the main pentoses and hexoses, 136
The α- and β-anomers of glucose, 137
7-2
7-3 Structure of amylose, 141
7-4 Structure of amylopectin, 142
7-5 Categories of dietary carbohydrates based on current analytical methods, 143
7-6 Structure of cellulose, 143
7-7 Structure of a chitosan unit that composes chitin, 145
7-8 Scheme of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis, 153
13-1 Proximate components of rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss, 274
