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Renewable Fuel Standard: Potential Economic and Environmental Effects of U.S. Biofuel Policy (2011)

Chapter: Appendix M: Summary of Literature Estimates

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Suggested Citation:"Appendix M: Summary of Literature Estimates." National Research Council. 2011. Renewable Fuel Standard: Potential Economic and Environmental Effects of U.S. Biofuel Policy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13105.
×

M

Summary of Literature Estimates

Appendix Table M-1 Ethanol Production Research Estimates

Type of Cost Assumption Value cited Value in 2007 Reference
Oil price $60/barrel Elobeid et al. (2006)
Ethanol price Analysis range $1.50-$3.50/gal Lambert and Middleton (2010)
Minimum for industry development $1.70/gal
Historical trend Poil/29 Elobeid et al. (2006)
Energy equivalent factor (EV) 0.667 Elobeid et al. (2006)
0.667 Tokgoz et al. (2007)
Tax credit Corn $0.45/gal $0.45/gal 2008 Farm Bill
Cellulosic $1.01/gal $1.01/gal 2008 Farm Bill
Byproduct credit Cellulosic $0.14-0.21/gal* Aden et al. (2002)
$0.16/gal* Khanna and Dhungana (2007)
2.61 kWh/gal Aden (2008)
$0.12/gal** Khanna (2008)
Rank from low to high excess electricity Aspen wood Corn stover Poplar Switchgrass Huang et al. (2009)
Corn $0.48/gal Khanna (2008)
Suggested Citation:"Appendix M: Summary of Literature Estimates." National Research Council. 2011. Renewable Fuel Standard: Potential Economic and Environmental Effects of U.S. Biofuel Policy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13105.
×
Type of Cost Assumption Value cited Value in 2007 Reference
Investment cost 69.3 MMGY $197.4 million Aden et al. (2002)
(Cellulosic
biorefineries)
55.5 MMGY $231.7 million $231.7 million Aden (2008)
50 MMGY $294 million Wright and Brown (2007)
100 MMGY $400 million Taheripour and Tyner (2008)
Stover (69.6) $202.2 million Huang et al. (2009)
Switchgrass (64) (0.46/gal if 10-10) $212.1 million $0.501
Hybrid poplar (68) (0.53/gal if 10-10) $203.3 million $0.58
Aspen wood (86) (0.50/gal if 10-10) $187 million $0.545
(0.34/gal if 10-10) $0.37
$0.55/gallon $0.55/gal Jiang and Swinton (2008)
Other costs Partial variable costs $0.11/gal Aden et al. (2002)
“Other” costs $0.11/gal Aden et al. (2002)
Total non-feedstock costs $1.48/gal Chen et al. (2010)
Enzyme cost $0.07-0.20/gal Aden et al. (2002)
$0.32/gal $0.32/gal Aden (2008)
2012 target $0.10/gal Aden (2008)
$0.14-0.18/gal Bothast (2005)
$0.18/gal Jha et al. (Presentation)
$0.40-$1.00/gal $0.40-$1.00/gal Industry Source
$0.10-0.25/gal Tiffany et al. (2006)
Operating costs Stover $1.42/gal2 $1.58/gal Huang et al. (2009)
Switchgrass (crop) $1.73/gal $1.92/gal
Switchgrass (grass) $1.86/gal $2.06/gal
Hybrid poplar $1.83/gal $2.03/gal
Aspen wood $1.56/gal $1.73/gal
$1.10/gal $1.10/gal Jiang and Swinton (2008)
Ethanol yield (Gal/dry ton) Stover 87.9 Aden et al. (2002)
Stover (current) 71.9 Aden (2008)
Stover (theoretical) 112.7 Aden (2008)
Stover (2012 target) 90 Aden (2008)
Stover Switchgrass Miscanthus (Nth generation plant) 79.2 Khanna and Dhungana (2007)
Suggested Citation:"Appendix M: Summary of Literature Estimates." National Research Council. 2011. Renewable Fuel Standard: Potential Economic and Environmental Effects of U.S. Biofuel Policy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13105.
×
Type of Cost Assumption Value cited Value in 2007 Reference
Stover 72 McAloon et al. (2000)
Stover 70 gal/raw ton Tokgoz et al. (2007)
Stover 70 Petrolia (2008)
Stover 96 Comis (2006)
Switchgrass
(range)
60-140 Crooks (2006)
Switchgrass
(typical)
80-90
Stover 80 Perlack and Turhollow (2002)
Stover 79.2 Khanna (2008)
Miscanthus Switchgrass (Nth generation plant)
Switchgrass 80-90 BRDI (2008)
Switchgrass 110
(theoretical)
Woody 89.5
80-120 Atchison and Hettenhau (2003)
Stover (base) 67.8 Tiffany et al. (2006)
Stover (future) 89.7
Stover 89.8 Huang et al. (2009)
Switchgrass 82.7
Hybrid poplar 88.2
Aspen wood 111.4
Switchgrass 54.4 Jiang and Swinton (2008
Stover
Cellulosic (Nth plant) 79 Chen et al. (2010)
Stover (current) Stover (projected) 67.4 Sheehan et al. (2003)
89.8
Stover (current) 79.2 Wallace et al. (2005)
Stover (theoretical)
107
Optimal plant size Cellulosic 2,294-4,408 Huang et al. (2009)
Online days 350 Aden et al. (2002)
350 Huang et al. (2009)

1 Updated using building materials price index.

2 Updated using machinery price index.

*Updated using EIA (2008).

**Not updated since author did not provide year of estimate.

Suggested Citation:"Appendix M: Summary of Literature Estimates." National Research Council. 2011. Renewable Fuel Standard: Potential Economic and Environmental Effects of U.S. Biofuel Policy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13105.
×

Appendix Table M-2 Harvest and Maintenance1

Type of Feedstock Type of Cost Cited Cost per ton ($) Cost per ton (2007$) Reference
Corn stover Baling, stacking and grinding 26 45 Hess et al. (2007)
Corn stover Collection 31-36 66-77 McAloon et al. (2000)
Corn stover Collection 35-46 64-84 McAloon et al. (2000)
Corn stover Collection 17.70 17.70 Perlack (2007) Presentation
Corn stover Up to Storage 20-21 36-39 Sokhansanj and Turhollow (2002)
Corn stover 28 36 Suzuki (2006)
Corn stover Baling and staging 26 47 Aden et al. (2002)
Corn stover Harvest 14 14 Edwards (2007)
Corn stover Custom Harvest Brechbill and Tyner (2008a)
 Bale 7.47 7.47
 Rake and Bale 8.84 8.84
 Shred, Rake, and Bale 10.70 10.70
Corn stover Harvest 35.41-36.58 35.41-36.58 Khanna (2008)
Corn stover Combine, Shred, Bale and Stack 19.16 24.33 Haung et al. (2009)
Corn stover Harvest and Bale 7.26 7.26 Lamert and Middleton (2010)
Corn stover Harvest cost 19.6 36 Jiang and Swinton (2008)
Corn stover or Switchgrass Move to fieldside 2 2 Brechbill and Tyner (2008a)
Switchgrass Collection 12-22 16-28 Kumar and Sokhansanj (2007)
Switchgrass Harvest 32 32 Duffy (2007)
Switchgrass Harvest 35 58 Khanna et al. (2008)
Switchgrass Harvest,
maintenance and establishment
123.5/acre 210/acre Khanna and Dhungana (2007)
Switchgrass Harvest 15 26 Perrin et al. (2008)
Switchgrass Custom Harvest Brechbill and Tyner (2008a)
 Bale 2.01 2.01
 Rake and Bale 3.09 3.09
 Shred, Rake and Bale 4.79 4.79
Switchgrass Harvest 27.8-34.72 27.8-34.72 Khanna (2008)
Switchgrass’ Harvest (square bales) 21.86 27.8 Huang et al. (2009)
Switchgrass Weed control 9.36/acre 9.36/acre2 University of Tennessee switchgrass budget (2008)
Suggested Citation:"Appendix M: Summary of Literature Estimates." National Research Council. 2011. Renewable Fuel Standard: Potential Economic and Environmental Effects of U.S. Biofuel Policy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13105.
×
Type of Feedstock Type of Cost Cited Cost per ton ($) Cost per ton (2007$) Reference
Mow, rake, bale, equipment, repair, interest, operating capital 242.92/acre 242.92/acre
Switchgrass Maintenance and fertilization Mooney et al. (2009)
   0 lb N/acre 17.23/acre 17.23/acre
   60 lb N/acre 46.5/acre 46.5/acre
   120 lb N/acre 72.7/acre 72.7/acre
   180 lb N/acre 99/acre 99/acre
Switchgrass Harvest cost (function of yield) Mooney et al. (2009)
   7.7 tons/acre 200/acre 200/acre
   12.5 tons/acre 311.85/acre 311.85/acre
   2.4 tons/acre 79/acre 79/acre
   7.2 tons/acre 190/acre 190/acre
Switchgrass Total production cost 54.4 54.4 Jiang and Swinton (2008)
Prairie grasses (include switchgrass) Harvest 17.7-19.3 Tiffany et al. (2006)
Miscanthus Harvest 33 54 Khanna et al. (2008)
Miscanthus Harvest,
maintenance, and establishment
301/acre 512/acre Khanna and Dhungana (2007)
Miscanthus Harvest 18.72-32.65 18.72-32.65 Khanna (2008)
Straw Harvest and bale 7.26 7.26 Lamert and Middleton (2010)
Nonspecific 10-30 15-45 Mapemba et al. (2007)
Nonspecific 23 38 Mapemba et al. (2008)
Hybrid poplar and Aspen wood Logging cost Huang et al. (2009)
 Range 14-28 17.8-34.6
 Assumed 14.5 18.4
Chipping cost
 Range 12-27 15.2-34.3
 Assumed
(Minnesota)
12.7 16.1
Aspen wood Stumpage 51.9 66 Huang et al. (2009)
Woody biomass Cut and extract to roadside 35-873 USFS (2003, 2005)
Woody biomass Roadside 40-46 40-46 BRDI (2008)
Woody biomass Stumpage 4 4 BRDI (2008)
Short-rotation
woody
Harvest/collection 17-29/acre 17-29/acre BRDI (2008)
Suggested Citation:"Appendix M: Summary of Literature Estimates." National Research Council. 2011. Renewable Fuel Standard: Potential Economic and Environmental Effects of U.S. Biofuel Policy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13105.
×
Type of Feedstock Type of Cost Cited Cost per ton ($) Cost per ton (2007$) Reference
Woody (slash) Collect and transport 2.8 m 24.32/Gt
31.17/Dt
24.32/Gt
31.17/Dt
Han et al. (2010)
Woody biomass Up to roadside and on truck 25/Dt 25/Dt* Sohngen et al. (2010)
Woody biomass Up to roadside and on truck (high) 34/Dt 34/Dt (2009$) Sohngen et al. (2010)
Delivered cost range 34-65 34-65 (2009$)
Woody biomass Up to roadside 30-50 30-504 Jenkins et al. (2009)
Woody residues Delivered cost
 West 56/GMT 86/Dt* (2008$) Spelter and Toth (2009)
 North 49/GMT 75/Dt* (2008$) Spelter and Toth (2009)
 South 42/GMT 66/Dt* (2008$) Spelter and Toth (2009)
 Northeast 38/GMT 58/Dt* (2008$) Spelter and Toth (2009)

1 Harvest and maintenance costs were updated using USDA-NASS agricultural fuel, machinery, and labor prices from 1999-2007 (USDA-NASS, 2007a,b).

2 Values are in 2008$.

3 Price not updated.

4 This value was based on a summary of the literature and therefore does not have a relevant year for cost.

*Assume a conversion of 0.59 for green tons to dry tons.

Appendix Table M-3 Nutrient and Replacement1

Type of Feedstock Type of Cost Cited Cost per ton ($) Cost per ton (2007$) Reference
Corn stover 10.2 14.1 Hoskinson et al. (2007)
Corn stover 4.6 8.4 Khanna and Dhungana (2007)
Corn stover 7 14.4 Aden et al. (2002)
Corn stover 4.2 4.2 Petrolia (2008)
Corn stover 10 21 Perlack and Turhollow (2003)
Corn stover 6.4-12.22 Atchison and Hettenhaus (2003)
Corn stover Whole plant harvest 9.7 13.3 Karlen and Birrell (2007)
Corn stover Cob and top 50% harvest 9.5 13.1 Karlen and Birrell (2007)
Corn stover Bottom 50% harvest 10.1 13.9 Karlen and Birrell (2007)
Corn stover 15.64 15.64 Brechbill and Tyner (2008a)
Corn stover 7.26 10 Huang et al. (2009)
Corn stover 6.5 13.7 Jiang and Swinton (2008)
Corn stover Replace N, P, K 21.70 21.70 (2009$) Karlen (2010)
Suggested Citation:"Appendix M: Summary of Literature Estimates." National Research Council. 2011. Renewable Fuel Standard: Potential Economic and Environmental Effects of U.S. Biofuel Policy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13105.
×
Type of Feedstock Type of Cost Cited Cost per ton ($) Cost per ton (2007$) Reference
Corn stover or Straw 11.13 15.40 Lambert and Middleton (2010)
Switchgrass 6.7 12.1 Perrin et al. (2008)
Switchgrass 10.8 19.77 Khanna et al. (2008)
Switchgrass Fertilizer, equipment, labor 83.86/acre 83.86/acre3 University of Tennessee (2008)
Miscanthus 2.5 4.6 Khanna et al. (2008)
Miscanthus 4.20 7.73 Cost using average fertilizer rates from literature summarized in Khanna et al. (2008) and updated Khanna et al. (2008) costs

1 Nutrient and replacement costs were updated using USDA-NASS agricultural fertilizer prices from 1999-2007 (USDA-NASS, 2007a,b).

2 Price not updated.

3 Value in 2008$.

Appendix Table M-4 Distance

Distance
(miles)
Type Reference
46-134 Round-trip Mapemba et al. (2007)
22-62 One-way Perlack and Turhollow (2003)
22-61 One-way Perlack and Turhollow (2002)
50 Round-trip Khanna et al. (2008)
50 One-way max English et al. (2006)
50 One-way Vadas et al. (2008)
100 One-way (wood) USFS (2003, 2005)
10-50 One-way Atchison and Hettenhaus (2003)
5-50 One-way Brechbill and Tyner (2008a,b)
16.6-47 One-way average Perlack and Turhollow (2002)
50 One-way max Taheripour and Tyner (2008)
75 One-way max BRDI (2008)
50 One-way Tiffany et al. (2006)
83 One-way (wood) Sohngen et al. (2010)
46-138 One-way range (wood) Sohngen et al. (2010)
50 One-way (wood) Spelter and Toth (2009)
Suggested Citation:"Appendix M: Summary of Literature Estimates." National Research Council. 2011. Renewable Fuel Standard: Potential Economic and Environmental Effects of U.S. Biofuel Policy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13105.
×

Appendix Table M-5 Transportation Cost1

Type of Feedstock Type of Cost Cost cited ($) Cost (2007$) Reference
Corn stover Per ton 8.85 12.5 English et al. (2006)
Corn stover Per ton 10.25 27 Hess et al. (2007)
Corn stover DVC2 0.15 0.35 Kaylen et al. (2000)
Corn stover Max DVC for positive NPV 0.28 0.66 Kaylen et al. (2000)
Corn stover Per ton 10.8 10.8 Perlack (2007)
Corn stover Per ton 13 31 Aden et al. (2002)
Corn stover Per ton 4.2-10.5 11-27.7 Perlack and Turhollow (2002)
Corn stover DVC 0.08-0.29 0.17-0.63 Kumar et al. (2005)
DFC3 4.5 9.8
DFC range 0-6 0-13.3
Corn stover DVC 0.18 0.32 Searcy et al. (2007)
DFC 4 7.3
Corn stover DVC 0.16 0.38 Kumar et al. (2003)
DFC 3.6 8.6
Corn stover 10 miles 3.4 Atchison and Hettenhaus (2003)
15 miles 5.1
30 miles 10.2
40 miles 13.5
50 miles 174
Corn stover DVC Petrolia (2008)
0-25 miles 0.13-0.23 0.13-0.23
25-100 miles 0.10-0.19 0.10-0.19
   >100 miles 0.09-0.16 0.09-0.16
DFC square bales 1.70 1.70
DFC round bales 3.10 3.10
Corn stover Per ton 10.9 13.8 Vadas et al. (2008)
Corn stover DFC 6.9 9.71 Huang et al. (2009)
DVC 0.16 0.23
Corn stover or Switchgrass Average DVC 0.20 0.20 Brechbill and Tyner (2008a,b)
Corn stover or Switchgrass Custom loading 1.15 1.15 Brechbill and Tyner (2008a)
Custom DVC 0.28 0.28
Owned DVC 0.12 0.12
Custom per ton
   10 miles 3.92 3.92
   20 miles 6.69 6.69
   30 miles 9.46 9.46
   40 miles 12.23 12.23
   50 miles 15 15
Corn stover Own equipment (per ton) Brechbill and Tyner (2008a)
   10 miles 3.31-6.18 3.31-6.185
   20 miles 4.65-7.52 4.65-7.52
   30 miles 5.99-8.86 5.99-8.86
   40 miles 7.33-7.71 7.33-7.71
   50 miles 8.67-9.05 8.67-9.05
Suggested Citation:"Appendix M: Summary of Literature Estimates." National Research Council. 2011. Renewable Fuel Standard: Potential Economic and Environmental Effects of U.S. Biofuel Policy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13105.
×
Type of Feedstock Type of Cost Cost cited ($) Cost (2007$) Reference
Switchgrass Own equipment (per ton) Brechbill and Tyner (2008a)
   10 miles 3.13-3.93 3.13-3.936
   20 miles 4.47-5.27 4.47-5.27
   30 miles 5.81-6.61 5.81-6.61
   40 miles 7.15-7.95 7.15-7.95
   50 miles 8.49-9.29 8.49-9.29
Switchgrass Per ton 14.75 14.75 Duffy (2007)
Switchgrass Per ton 19.2-23 27-32.4 Kumar and Sokhansanj (2007)
Switchgrass Per ton 13 28 Perrin et al. (2008)
Switchgrass Per ton 10.9 13.8 Vadas et al. (2008)
Switchgrass DFC 3.39 4.78 Huang et al. (2009)
DVC 0.16 0.23
Switchgrass Stage and load 19.15/acre 19.15/acre (2008$) UT (2008)
Native prairie (include switchgrass) Per ton 47 Tiffany et al. (2006)
Switchgrass or
Miscanthus
Per ton for 50 miles 7.9 17.1 Khanna et al. (2008)
Nonspecific Per ton 7.4-19.3 13.7-35.6 Mapemba et al. (2007)
Nonspecific Per ton 14.5 31.5 Mapemba et al. (2008)
Hybrid poplar and Aspen wood DFC 4.13 5.8 Huang et al. (2009)
DVC 0.16 0.23
Woody biomass Per ton 11-22 11-22 Summit Ridge Investments (2007)
Woody biomass DVC 0.2-0.6 Used 0.358 USFS (2003, 2005)
Woody biomass DVC 0.22 0.22 Sohngen et al. (2010)
Wood DVC 0.20-0.60 0.20-0.60 Jenkins et al. (2009)

1 Transportation costs were updated using USDA-NASS agricultural fuel prices from 1999-2007 (USDA-NASS, 2007a,b).

2 DVC is distance variable cost in per ton per mile.

3 DFC is distance fixed cost per ton.

4 Prices not updated.

5 Authors used 2006 wages and March 2008 fuel costs.

6 Authors used 2006 wages and March 2008 fuel costs.

7 Price not updated.

8 Price not updated.

Suggested Citation:"Appendix M: Summary of Literature Estimates." National Research Council. 2011. Renewable Fuel Standard: Potential Economic and Environmental Effects of U.S. Biofuel Policy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13105.
×

Appendix Table M-6 Storage1

Type of Feedstock Type of Cost Cited cost per ton ($) Cost per ton (2007$) Reference
Corn stover 4.44 5.64 Hess et al. (2007)
Corn stover Round bales 6.82 6.82 Petrolia (2008)
Square bales 12.93 12.93
Corn stover 4.39-21.95 4.39-21.95 Khanna (2008)
Stover or switchgrass Square bales 7.25 7.9 Huang et al. (2009)
Switchgrass 16.67 16.67 Duffy (2007)
Switchgrass 4.14 5.18 Khanna et al. (2008)
Switchgrass 4.43-21.68 4.43-21.68 Khanna (2008)
Miscanthus 4.40 5.50 Khanna et al. (2008)
Miscanthus 4.64-23.45 4.64-23.45 Khanna (2008)
Nonspecific 2 2.18 Mapemba et al. (2008)
Hybrid poplar or Aspen wood Keep on stump until needed 0 0 Huang et al. (2009)

1 Storage costs were updated using USDA-NASS Agricultural building material prices from 1999-2007 (USDA-NASS, 2007a,b).

Appendix Table M-7 Establishment and Seeding1

Type of Feedstock Type of Cost Land rent included Cited cost per acre ($) Cost per acre (2007$) Reference
Switchgrass   Yes 200 200 Duffy (2007)
Switchgrass   No
Yes
25.76
85.46
46
153
Perrin et al. (2008)
Switchgrass PV per ton
10 yr PV per acre
Amortized
   4% over 10 years
   8% over 10 years
No 7.21/ton

142.3
17.3
20.7
12.6/ton
249

30.25
36.25
Khanna et al. (2008)
Switchgrass   Yes 72.5-110 88.5-134 Vadas et al. (2008)
Switchgrass Grassland Cropland
(includes fertilizer)
No 134
161
180
216
Huang et al. (2009)
Switchgrass Prorated
Establishment and
Reseeding (10 years)
  45.69 45.692 UT (2008)
Switchgrass Plots with seeding:        
     2.5 lb/acre No 150 150 Mooney et al. (2009)
     5 lb/acre No 202.6 202.6  
     7.5 lb/acre No 255 255  
     10 lb/acre No 306.6 306.6  
Suggested Citation:"Appendix M: Summary of Literature Estimates." National Research Council. 2011. Renewable Fuel Standard: Potential Economic and Environmental Effects of U.S. Biofuel Policy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13105.
×
Type of Feedstock Type of Cost Land rent included Cited cost per acre ($) Cost per acre (2007$) Reference
     12.5 lb/acre No $359 $359  
Switchgrass Seed and fertilizer cost per acre (no equip/machinery) No $171 $171 (2008$) James et al. (2010)
Miscanthus PV per ton 20 yr PV per acre Amortized
   4% over 20 years
   8% over 20 years
No 2.29/ton
261
19
26.20
4/ton
457
33.2
45.87
Khanna et al. (2008)
Miscanthus Total
Amortized
   4% over 20 years
   8% over 20 years
No 1,206-2,413

88-175
121-242


176-350
242-484
Lewandowski et al. (2003)
Miscanthus Total rhizome cost perNo acre (no equip/labor) No 8,194 8,194 (2008$) James et al. (2010)
Miscanthus Total rhizome cost perNo acre – projected (no equipment/labor) No 227.61 227.61 (2008$) James et al. (2010)
Miscanthus Plugs No 3,000-4,000/ha 1,215-1,619/ac Jain et al. (2010)
Miscanthus Rhizomes in Illinois No 2,957/ha 1,197/ac Jain et al. (2010)
Hybrid poplar Total cutting cost per acre No 242 242 (2008$) James et al. (2010)
Hybrid poplar Includes nutrients (cropland) No 35 47 Huang et al. (2009)
Timber Yellow pine (South average)   386 386 (2008$) Cubbage et al. (2010)
Timber Yellow pine (NC)   430 430 (2008$) Cubbage et al. (2010)
Timber Douglas fir (NC, OR)   520 520 (2008$) Cubbage et al. (2010)

1 Establishment and Seeding costs were updated using USDA-NASS agricultural fuel and seed prices from 1999-2007 (USDA-NASS, 2007a,b).

2 Value in 2008$.

Suggested Citation:"Appendix M: Summary of Literature Estimates." National Research Council. 2011. Renewable Fuel Standard: Potential Economic and Environmental Effects of U.S. Biofuel Policy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13105.
×

Appendix Table M-8 Opportunity Cost1

Type of Feedstock Type of Cost Cited cost per acre ($) Cost per acre (2007$) Reference
Corn stover Feed value less harvest and nutrient cost 24/ton 24/ton Edwards (2007)
  @ 2.4 tons/acre 57/acre 57/acre  
Corn stover Lost profits 22-58 22-58 Khanna and Dhungana (2007)
Corn stover Lost profits when switch to continuous corn 94-140   Scenarios derived using Duffy (2010)
Switchgrass Cash rents 70
($14/ton)
70
($14/ton)
Brechbill and Tyner (2008a)
Switchgrass Lost profits 78-231 78-231 Khanna and Dhungana (2007)
Switchgrass Cash rental rate – alternative land use (TN) 68 68 Mooney et al. (2009)
Switchgrass Forgone profits per ton 46-103/Mt 42-93/ton Jain et al. (2010)
Switchgrass or
Miscanthus
Forgone profits – Michigan 366/ha 148/ac Jain et al. (2010)
Switchgrass or
Miscanthus
Forgone profits – Illinois 785/ha 318/ac Jain et al. (2010)
Switchgrass or
Miscanthus
Lost profits 78 76 Khanna et al. (2008)
Miscanthus Forgone profits per ton 19-103/Mt 17-93/ton Jain et al. (2010)
Miscanthus Lost profits 78-231 78-231 Khanna and Dhungana (2007)
Nonspecific Lost Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) payments if harvest every year 35 36 Mapemba et al. (2008)
Nonspecific Lost CRP payments if harvest once every 3 years 10.1 10.4 Mapemba et al. (2008)
Nonspecific Non-CRP land crops 10/ton 10.3/ton Mapemba et al. (2008)
Nonspecific   78 76 Khanna et al. (2008)
Woody biomass Alternative use 0-25 0-25 Summit Ridge Investments (2007)
Woody biomass Chip value 30/ton 30/ton2 USFS (2003, 2005)

1 Opportunity costs were updated using USDA-NASS agricultural land rent prices from 1999-2007 (USDA-NASS, 2007a,b).

2 Price not updated since no year was provided for initial estimate.

Suggested Citation:"Appendix M: Summary of Literature Estimates." National Research Council. 2011. Renewable Fuel Standard: Potential Economic and Environmental Effects of U.S. Biofuel Policy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13105.
×

Appendix Table M-9 Yield

Biomass Type Assumptions Estimated Yield
(tons acre-1)
Location Reference
Corn stover Soil tolerance 2.02 IL Khanna and Dhungana (2007)
Corn stover   2.4 IA Edwards (2007)
Corn stover 2000-2005 mean 2.31-3 WI Vadas et al. (2008)
Corn stover   2-3.8   Atchison and Hettenhaus (2003)
Corn stover 130 bu/acre yield
170 bu/acre yield
200 bu/acre yield
0-2.6
0-3.6
0-4.3
  Atchison and Hettenhaus (2003)
Corn stover Bale
Rake and bale
Shred, rake, and bale
1.62
2.23
2.98
IN Brechbill and Tyner (2008a)
Corn stover   1.1   Perlack and Turhollow (2002)
Corn stover Produced
Delivered
3.6
1.5
Midwest Sokhansanj and Turhollow (2002)
Corn stover Produced
Delivered
2.4-4
1.8-1.9
IL Khanna (2008)
Corn stover   3   BRDI (2008)
Corn stover Total produced
125 bu/acre
140 bu/acre
   >140 bu/acre

3.5
3.92
4
  Lang (2002)
Corn stover Total produced
Removable
4.2
2.94
IA Quick (2003)
Corn stover Collected 0.8-2.2 KY Prewitt et al. (2003)
Corn stover Collected (trial) 1.25-1.5 IA, WI Schechinger and Hettenhaus (2004)
Corn stover Four scenarios (assumed) 1.5, 3, 4, and 6 IA Duffy and Nanhou (2001)
Corn stover Produced 2.54 MN Haung et al. (2009)
Corn stover Previous study 1.6 MI James et al. (2010)
Corn stover Produced (150 bu/ac) 2.93 Corn Belt Jiang and Swinton (2008)
Corn stover Harvested (50%) 1.46 Corn Belt Jiang and Swinton (2008)
Corn stover No-till 0.67 Average Chen et al. (2010)
Switchgrass Field Trials 2.58 IA, IL Khanna and Dhungana (2007)
Switchgrass   4 IA Duffy (2007)
Suggested Citation:"Appendix M: Summary of Literature Estimates." National Research Council. 2011. Renewable Fuel Standard: Potential Economic and Environmental Effects of U.S. Biofuel Policy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13105.
×
Biomass Type Assumptions Estimated Yield
(tons acre-1)
Location Reference
Switchgrass Farm-scale 2.23 (5 year average)
(Range = 1.7-2.7)
3.12 (10 year average)
(Range = 2.6-3.5)
SD, NE Perrin et al. (2008)
Switchgrass Delivered yield (years 3-10) 3.13 IL Khanna et al. (2008)
Switchgrass Peak yield 4.2 IL Khanna et al. (2008)
Switchgrass 10 year PV 19.74 IL Khanna et al. (2008)
Switchgrass Nitrogen level 4-5.8 Upper Midwest Vadas et al. (2008)
Switchgrass Research blocks 7.14 (average)
9.8 (best)
Southern and Mid-Atlantic Lewandowski et al. (2003)
Switchgrass Plot trials 3.6-8.9 (previous)
2.3-4 (own)
United States Northern Shinners et al. (2006)
Switchgrass Plot trials 6.33
4.64-8.5
SE Fike et al. (2006)
Switchgrass Field trials Mean 1.12-4.1 ND Berdahl et al. (2005)
  Strains:
   Dacotah
1.11-4.22    
   ND3743 0.91-3.92
   Summer 1.18-4.38
   Sunburst 1.43-5.57
   Trailblazer 1.15-4.88
   Shawnee 1.06-4.5
   OK NU-2 0.89-4.18
   Cave-in-Rock 0.97-4.27
Switchgrass Plot trials 5.2-5.6
4.7-5
IA
NE
Vogel et al. (2002)
Switchgrass Field trials
    Mean
    Range
0.5-3.2
0-6.4
Northern Great Plains Schmer et al. (2006)
Switchgrass Peer-reviewed
articles
4.46   Heaton et al. (2004a)
Suggested Citation:"Appendix M: Summary of Literature Estimates." National Research Council. 2011. Renewable Fuel Standard: Potential Economic and Environmental Effects of U.S. Biofuel Policy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13105.
×
Biomass Type Assumptions Estimated Yield
(tons acre-1)
Location Reference
Switchgrass Farm trials (avg)
   Alamo (1 cut)
6.2 VA, TN, WV, KY, NC McLaughlin and Kszos (2005)
   Alamo (1 cut) 5.4 IA
   Alamo (1 cut) 5.8-7.2 AL, GA
   Alamo (2 cut ) 7 VA, TN, WV, KY, NC
   Alamo (2 cut) 7.2-10.3 AL
   Kanlow (1 cut) 6.2 VA, TN, WV, KY, NC
   Kanlow (1 cut) 5.8 IA
   Kanlow (1 cut) 5.2-7 AL, GA
   Kanlow (1 cut) 9.2 NE
   Kanlow (2 cut) 6.9-8.1 AL
   Cave-in-rock (1 cut) 7.3 NE
4.2 KS
   Rockwell (1 cut) 4.2 KS
   Shelter (1 cut) 4.9 ND
   Sunburst (1 cut) 4.4 ND
   Trailblazer (1 cut)    
Best 12.2 VA, TN, WV, KY, NC
   Alamo (1 cut) 11 TX, AR, LA
   Alamo (1 cut ) 7.8 IA
   Alamo (1 cut) 15.4 AL
   Alamo (1 cut) 11.3 VA, TN, WV, KY, NC
   Alamo (2 cut) 15.4 Al
   Alamo (2 cut) 10.4 VA, TN, WV, KY, NC
   Kanlow (1 cut) 11 AL, GA
   Kanlow (1 cut) 6.2 ND
   Sunburst (1 cut) 5.4 ND
   Trailblazer (1 cut)    
Switchgrass U.S. average 4.2   McLaughlin et al. (2002)
Switchgrass   5 IN Brechbill and Tyner (2008a)
Switchgrass Alamo 5.35-6.9 18 sites Walsh (2008)
   Kanlow 5.2-6.9 18 sites
Max one year 15.4 AL
Switchgrass Delivered 2.3-2.5 IL Khanna (2008)
Switchgrass   4.2-10.3   BRDI (2008)
Switchgrass First 0 AR Popp and Hogan (2007)
  Second year 3  
Third+ year 5  
Switchgrass Assumptions     Kszos et al. (2002)
   Lake states 4.8  
   Corn Belt 5.98  
   Southeast 5.49  
   Appalachian 5.84  
   North Plains 3.47  
   South Plains 4.3  
   Northeast 4.87  
Switchgrass   4 Northern Plains Tiffany et al. (2006)
Suggested Citation:"Appendix M: Summary of Literature Estimates." National Research Council. 2011. Renewable Fuel Standard: Potential Economic and Environmental Effects of U.S. Biofuel Policy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13105.
×
Biomass Type Assumptions Estimated Yield
(tons acre-1)
Location Reference
Switchgrass   7-16 Southeast Comis (2006)
    5-6 Western Corn Belt  
    1-4 ND  
Switchgrass   1-4 IA Gibson and Barnhart
    2-6.4   (2007)
Switchgrass Cropland and grassland 4.9 MN Huang et al. (2009)
Switchgrass 80% of Miscanthus     Smeets et al. (2009)
  2004 6.7 Poland  
    7.1 Hungary  
    5.4 United Kingdom  
    9 Italy  
    5.8 Lithuania  
  2030 (1.5% increase/year) 9.4 Poland  
  9.8 Hungary  
    7.6 United Kingdom  
    12 Italy  
    8 Lithuania  
  3 experiments on loss 3.8-6.7 Italy Monti et al. (2009)
  Sustainable yield
(124 kg N/acre)
6.7 United States  
Switchgrass One cut 5.8 OK Thomason et al. (2005)
  Two cut 5.6    
  Three cut 7.3    
  Max yield (2 harvests) 16.4    
Switchgrass Predicted yields   KS Nelson et al. (2006)
     0-200 lbs/acre N 2.5-5.9    
     100 lbs/acre N 4.6    
Switchgrass Max (Alamo) 10 TX Muir et al. (2001)
  Average (2 sites) 4.8-6.5    
Switchgrass 3 years of data (avg) 5.5 LA Kiniry et al. (2005)
    7.7 AR  
    8.3-10 TX  
  7 years of data (avg) 6.6 TX  
Switchgrass Cave-in-Rock (2 cut) 2.8 PA Sanderson (2008)
  Shawnee (2 cut) 2.7    
  Trailblazer (2 cut) 2.6    
  Mean (2 cut) 2.7    
  Cave-in-Rock (3 cut) 3.2    
  Shawnee (3 cut) 3.2    
  Trailblazer (3 cut) 3.2    
  Mean (3 cut) 3.2    
Suggested Citation:"Appendix M: Summary of Literature Estimates." National Research Council. 2011. Renewable Fuel Standard: Potential Economic and Environmental Effects of U.S. Biofuel Policy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13105.
×
Biomass Type Assumptions Estimated Yield
(tons acre-1)
Location Reference
Switchgrass One-cut range 5-9 TN Reynolds et al. (2000)
  Two-cut range 6.8-10.3    
  Cave-in-rock (2 cut) 8.7    
  Alamo (2 cut) 8.9    
  Kanlow (2 cut) 8.2    
  Shelter (2 cut) 8.1    
Switchgrass Alamo (1 cut) 5.4-5.9 TX, Upper South Lewandowski et al.
    11.6 AL (2003)
  Alamo (2 cut) 15.4 AL  
  Kanlow (1 cut) 4.5-5.5 TX, Upper South  
    8.3 AL  
  Kanlow (2 cut) 10.3 AL  
  Kanlow (3-4 years) 5 Britain  
  Cave-in-Rock (1 cut) 2.4-4.2 TX, Upper South  
    4.2 AL  
  Cave-in-Rock (2 cut) 4.6 AL  
  Cave-in-Rock (3-6 years) 4.7 Britain  
Switchgrass Alamo (3-4 years) 4.9-8.8 TX Cassida et al. (2005b)
  Caddo (3-4 years) 2.2-2.7    
  Alamo (3 years) 4.8 LA  
  Caddo (3 years) 0.5    
  Alamo (3 years) 7.5 AR  
  Caddo (3 years) 3.3    
Switchgrass Kanlow (avg) 5.9 AL Bouton et al. (2002)
  Alamo (avg) 6.0    
Switchgrass Cave-in-rock (1 cut) 3.9-7.3 Southeast (6) Fike et al. (2006b)
  Shelter (1 cut) 3.7-6.8    
  Alamo (1 cut) 4.8-9.8    
  Kanlow (1 cut) 5.4-9.5    
  Cave-in-rock (2 cut) 5.8-9.5    
  Shelter (2 cut) 4.9-9.1    
  Alamo (2 cut) 6-10    
  Kanlow (2 cut) 6-9.5    
Switchgrass Alamo (1 cut) 1.2-9 Texas Ocumpaugh et al. (2003)
  Alamo (2 cut) 1.3-8.6    
Switchgrass Upland (1 cut) 4.8-5.3   Parrish et al. (2003)
  Upland (2 cut) 6.5-6.7    
  Lowland (1 cut) 6.6-7    
  Lowland (2 cut) 6.8-7.3    
Switchgrass Alamo 1.6 KS Taliaferro (2002)
    2.8 AR  
    2.8 VA  
    2.8 OK  
  Kanlow 1.4 KS  
    2.9 AR  
    2.5 VA  
    2.8 OK  
Suggested Citation:"Appendix M: Summary of Literature Estimates." National Research Council. 2011. Renewable Fuel Standard: Potential Economic and Environmental Effects of U.S. Biofuel Policy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13105.
×
Biomass Type Assumptions Estimated Yield
(tons acre-1)
Location Reference
Switchgrass Cave-in-rock
3 year average
2.2
5.2
Northern Illinois
Central Illinois
Pyter et al. (2007)
  2.7 Southern Illinois  
Switchgrass POLYSYS
assumption
4.87 Northeast De La Torre Ugarte et al. (2003)
5.84 Appalachian
5.98 Corn Belt
4.8 Lake states
5.49 Southeast
4.30 Southern Plains
3.47 Northern Plains
Switchgrass Calibrated values
for 2008
(assumed 2% growth following 2008)
3.5-6.5 Appalachian Marshall and Sugg (2010)
5.16-6.4 Corn Belt  
3.8-6.5 Delta states  
4.5-6.0 Lake states  
3 Mountain states  
4.8-6.0 Northern Plains  
3.2-6.2 Northeast  
3.5-6.3 Southern Plains  
4.4-6.5 Southeast  
Switchgrass Assumption 4 Southern MI James et al. (2010)
Switchgrass Previous Literature 4.46-6.69   Reijnders (2010)
Switchgrass Plots – varying seed and nitrogen 3.8-7.9 TN Mooney et al. (2009)
Switchgrass One year max – plot 10.2 TN Mooney et al. (2009)
Switchgrass Plots 4 IA Lemus et al. (2002)
Switchgrass Assumption (prev studies) 3.6 Corn Belt Jiang and Swinton (2008)
Switchgrass Simulated
(MISCANMOD)
3.8 U.S. Average Chen et al. (2010)
Switchgrass Average model yield (range) 6.8 (3.6-17.8) Midwest Jain et al. (2010)
Switchgrass Farm-gate yield (annualized yield after losses) 3.75-4.2 Midwest Jain et al. (2010)
Switchgrass Average observed peak yield 6.6 Midwest Jain et al. (2010)
Wheat straw 1 BRDI (2008)
Suggested Citation:"Appendix M: Summary of Literature Estimates." National Research Council. 2011. Renewable Fuel Standard: Potential Economic and Environmental Effects of U.S. Biofuel Policy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13105.
×
Biomass Type Assumptions Estimated Yield
(tons acre-1)
Location Reference
Wheat Straw Estimated 0.27 Average Chen et al. (2010)
Miscanthus Simulated 8.9 IL Khanna and Dhungana (2007)
Miscanthus   14.5 avg
12-17 range
114.58 (20 year PV)
IL Khanna et al. (2008)
Miscanthus Potential
Delivered
12-18
8.1-8.5
IL Khanna (2008)
Miscanthus 3 year average 9.8 Northern Illinois Pyter et al. (2007)
15.5 Central Illinois
15.8 Southern Illinois
  1 year 14.1 Urbana, Illinois  
Miscanthus Field experiment 5.71 (14 year)
3.43-11.73 (3 year)
EU Christian et al. (2008)
Miscanthus   1.8-19.6 EU Lewandowski et al. (2003)
Miscanthus Projection 13.36 (mean)
10.93-17.81
  Heaton et al. (2004b)
Miscanthus Peer-reviewed
articles
10 U.S. and EU Heaton et al. (2004a)
Miscanthus 3 year state average 13.2 IL Heaton et al. (2008)
Miscanthus 3 year max state average 17 IL Heaton et al. (2008)
Miscanthus Assumption 10 MI James et al. (2010)
Miscanthus Peak
Delayed
7.5-17.2
4.3-11.6
EU Clifton-Brown et al. (2004)
Miscanthus Autumn yields without irrigation 4.5-11.15 EU Lewandowski et al. (2000)
Miscanthus Yield range (high- end irrigated) 0.9-19.6 EU Lewandowski et al. (2000)
Miscanthus Modeled harvestable yield 6.2-9.4 EU Stampfl et al. (2007)
Miscanthus Above ground
Mean harvested
6.6-14.9
5.2
Germany Kahle et al. (2001)
Miscanthus First year average
First year max
First year min
Second year average
Second year max
Third year max
0.85
2.6
0.16
3.8
12
18.2
EU Clifton-Brown et al. (2001)
Miscanthus 1996 (drought)
1997
3.4
5.9
Denmark Vargas et al. (2002)
Suggested Citation:"Appendix M: Summary of Literature Estimates." National Research Council. 2011. Renewable Fuel Standard: Potential Economic and Environmental Effects of U.S. Biofuel Policy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13105.
×
Biomass Type Assumptions Estimated Yield
(tons acre-1)
Location Reference
Miscanthus First year average
First year max
Second year average
Second year max
Third year average
Third year max
0.85
1.34
2.8
4.3
7.3
11.
Germany Clifton-Brown and
Lewandowski (2002)
Miscanthus Assumption 9.81 Southern MI James et al. (2010)
Miscanthus Previous literature 4.46-5.8   Reijnders (2010)
Miscanthus Simulated
(MISCANMOD)
11.6 U.S. average Chen et al. (2010)
Miscanthus Average model yield (range) 19 (0-27.7) Midwest Jain et al. (2010)
Miscanthus Farm-gate yield (annualized yield after losses) 6.3-8.6 Midwest Jain et al. (2010)
Miscanthus Average observed peak yield 16.6 Midwest Jain et al. (2010)
Hybrid poplar
Assumption
3.5-5.3
3.43-4
4
Lake states
MN
Huang et al. (2009)
Poplar 10 year average
(best growing taxa)
3.7 Upper MI Miller and Bender (2008)
Poplar Assumption 5 Southern MI James et al. (2010)
Hybrid poplar POLYSYS
assumption
3.99 NE De La Torre Ugarte et al.
(2003)
3.56 Appalachian
4.63 Corn Belt
4.41 Lake states
4.50 Southeast
3.75 Southern Plains
3.83 Northern Plains
5.73 Pacific Northwest
Willow 10 year average (best taxa) 3.4 Upper Michigan Miller and Bender (2008)
Willow POLYSYS
assumption
4.9 Northeast De La Torre Ugarte et al. (2003)
4.50 Appalachian
4.70 Corn Belt
4.60 Lake states
Aspen wood   0.446 (dry) MN Huang et al. (2009)
SRWC   5-12   BRDI (2008)
Woody biomass Stock 4.6-39   USFS (2003, 2005)
Suggested Citation:"Appendix M: Summary of Literature Estimates." National Research Council. 2011. Renewable Fuel Standard: Potential Economic and Environmental Effects of U.S. Biofuel Policy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13105.
×
Biomass Type Assumptions Estimated Yield
(tons acre-1)
Location Reference
Wood residue 2006 average removal rate in Mississippi (lower bound) 1.1 Mississippi USDA Forest Service data
Yellow pine 15 m3/hectare/yr 4.3 (2.3 – 4)1 Southern U.S. Cubbage et al. (2010)
Yellow pine 12.5 m3/hectare/yr 3.6 (2 – 3.3) North Carolina Cubbage et al. (2010)
Douglas fir 14 m3/hectare/yr 4 (3.3) Oregon Cubbage et al. (2010)
Douglas fir 18 m3/hectare/yr 5.1 (4.25) North Carolina Cubbage et al. (2010)
Sorghum Previous literature 16.41   Reijnders (2010)

1 The first value is derived using a general conversion factor of 0.64 dry metric tons per cubic meter (DMT/m3) for softwoods. The yields in parentheses are based on conversion factors provided by engineeringtoolbox.com of 0.35-0.60 DMT/m3 and 0.53 DMT/m3 for Yellow Pine and Douglas Fir, respectively. (Accessed September 15, 2010) http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/wood-density-d_40.html.

Appendix Table M-10 Interest Rate

Details Rate Reference
  8% Brechbill and Tyner (2008a,b), Brechbill et al. (2008)
  7.5% Quick (2003)
  7.5% Sokhansanj and Turhollow (2002)
Establishment and seeding 8% Duffy and Nanhou (2001)
Operating expenses 9% Duffy and Nanhou (2001)
Real discount rate 4% Popp and Hogan (2007)
Farmer’s real opportunity cost of machinery 5% James et al. (2010)
Real discount rate (PV calc) 6.5% de la Torre Ugarte et al. (2003)
Nominal interest rate 8% Mooney et al. (2009)
Real discount rate 5.4% Mooney et al. (2009)
Establishment and seeding 4% Jain et al. (2010)
Suggested Citation:"Appendix M: Summary of Literature Estimates." National Research Council. 2011. Renewable Fuel Standard: Potential Economic and Environmental Effects of U.S. Biofuel Policy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13105.
×

Appendix Table M-11 Stand Length

Crop Length Reference
Switchgrass 10 years Brechbill et al. (2008)
Switchgrass 10 years Duffy and Nanhou (2001)
Switchgrass 12 years Popp and Hogan (2007)
Switchgrass 20 years Tiffany et al. (2006)
Switchgrass 10 years Khanna (2008)
Switchgrass 10 years Khanna et al. (2008)
Switchgrass 10 years Khanna and Dhungana (2007)
Switchgrass 10+ years Lewandowski et al. (2003)
Switchgrass 10+ years Fike et al. (2006)
Switchgrass 10 years James et al. (2010)
Switchgrass 10 years de la Torre Ugarte et al. (2003)
Switchgrass 10 years Mooney et al. (2009)
Switchgrass 5 years1 Mooney et al. (2009)
Switchgrass 10 years Miller and Bender (2008)
Switchgrass 10 years Jain et al. (2010)
Miscanthus 20 years Khanna (2008)
Miscanthus 20 years Khanna et al. (2008)
Miscanthus 20 years Khanna and Dhungana (2007)
Miscanthus 20-25 years Lewandowski et al. (2003)
Miscanthus 10 years James et al. (2010)
Miscanthus 15 years Jain et al. (2010)
Miscanthus 10 years (sensitivity) Jain et al. (2010)
Short-rotation poplar 10 years James et al. (2010)
Poplar 10 year analysis Miller and Bender (2008)
Poplar 6-10 years de la Torre Ugarte et al. (2003)
Willow 10-year analysis Miller and Bender (2008)
Willow 22 years de la Torre Ugarte et al. (2003)
Yellow pine (South U.S.) 30 years Cubbage et al. (2010)
Yellow pine (NC) 23 years Cubbage et al. (2010)
Douglas fir 45 years Cubbage et al. (2010)

1 Based on the assumption that it will be optimal to replace with improved seed and contracts.

Appendix Table M-12 Yield Maturity Rate

Type of Feedstock Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Reference
Switchgrass 20-35% 60-75% 100% Walsh (2008)
Switchgrass No harvest - -  
Switchgrass 30% 67% 100% Kszos et al. (2002)
Switchgrass 0 60% 100% Popp and Hogan (2007)
Switchgrass ~33% ~66% 100% McLaughlin and Kszos (2005)
Switchgrass Max at 3 years     James et al. (2010)
Switchgrass 30% 67% 100% de la Torre Ugarte et al. (2003)
Switchgrass 14% of 3rd year 59% of 3rd year   Mooney et al. (2009)
Switchgrass 30-100% 67-100% 100% Jain et al. (2010)
Miscanthus 2-5 years for full - - Heaton et al. (2004)
Miscanthus Max at 4 years - - Atkinson (2009)
Miscanthus 2 years in warm climate - - Clifton-Brown et al. (2001)
3 years in cooler climates
Miscanthus Max at 3 years - - James et al. (2010)
Miscanthus 0 40-50% 100% Jain et al. (2010)
Willow 60% in year 4, 100% after - - de la Torre Ugarte et al. (2003)
Timber 5-year establishment period - - Cubbage et al. (2010)
Suggested Citation:"Appendix M: Summary of Literature Estimates." National Research Council. 2011. Renewable Fuel Standard: Potential Economic and Environmental Effects of U.S. Biofuel Policy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13105.
×

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Suggested Citation:"Appendix M: Summary of Literature Estimates." National Research Council. 2011. Renewable Fuel Standard: Potential Economic and Environmental Effects of U.S. Biofuel Policy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13105.
×

English, B.C., D.G. De La Torre Ugarte, K. Jensen, C. Hellwinckel, J. Menard, B. Wilson, R. Roberts, and M. Walsh. 2006. 25% Renewable Energy for the United States By 2025: Agricultural and Economic Impacts. Knoxville: University of Tennessee.

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Fike, J.H., D.J. Parrish, D.D. Wolf, J.A. Balasko, J.J.T. Green, M. Rasnake, and J.H. Reynolds. 2006b. Long-term yield potential of switchgrass-for-biofuel systems. Biomass and Bioenergy 30(3):198-206.

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Suggested Citation:"Appendix M: Summary of Literature Estimates." National Research Council. 2011. Renewable Fuel Standard: Potential Economic and Environmental Effects of U.S. Biofuel Policy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13105.
×

Kumar, A., and S. Sokhansanj. 2007. Switchgrass (Panicum vigratum, L.) delivery to a biorefinery using integrated biomass supply analysis and logistics (IBSAL) model. Bioresource Technology 98(5):1033-1044.

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Lewandowski, I., J.C. Clifton-Brown, J.M.O. Scurlock, and W. Huisman. 2000. Miscanthus: European experience with a novel energy crop. Biomass and Bioenergy 19(4):209-227.

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McLaughlin, S.B., and L.A. Kszos. 2005. Development of switchgrass (Panicum virgatum) as a bioenergy feedstock in the United States. Biomass and Bioenergy 28(6):515-535.

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Mooney, D.F., R.K. Roberts, B.C. English, D.D. Tyler, and J.A. Larson. 2009. Yield and breakeven price of “Alamo” switchgrass for biofuels in Tennessee. Agronomy Journal 101(5):1234-1242.

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Suggested Citation:"Appendix M: Summary of Literature Estimates." National Research Council. 2011. Renewable Fuel Standard: Potential Economic and Environmental Effects of U.S. Biofuel Policy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13105.
×

Prewitt, R.M., M.D. Montross, S.A. Shearer, T.S. Stombaugh, S.F. Higgins, S.G. McNeill, and S. Sokhansanj. 2007. Corn stover availability and collection efficiency using typical hay equipment. Transactions of the American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers 50(3):705-711.

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Suggested Citation:"Appendix M: Summary of Literature Estimates." National Research Council. 2011. Renewable Fuel Standard: Potential Economic and Environmental Effects of U.S. Biofuel Policy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13105.
×

USDA-NASS (U.S. Department of Agriculture - National Agricultural Statistics Service). 2007b. Agricultural Prices 2006 Summary. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture - National Agricultural Statistics Service.

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Suggested Citation:"Appendix M: Summary of Literature Estimates." National Research Council. 2011. Renewable Fuel Standard: Potential Economic and Environmental Effects of U.S. Biofuel Policy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13105.
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In the United States, we have come to depend on plentiful and inexpensive energy to support our economy and lifestyles. In recent years, many questions have been raised regarding the sustainability of our current pattern of high consumption of nonrenewable energy and its environmental consequences. Further, because the United States imports about 55 percent of the nation's consumption of crude oil, there are additional concerns about the security of supply. Hence, efforts are being made to find alternatives to our current pathway, including greater energy efficiency and use of energy sources that could lower greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions such as nuclear and renewable sources, including solar, wind, geothermal, and biofuels. The United States has a long history with biofuels and the nation is on a course charted to achieve a substantial increase in biofuels.

Renewable Fuel Standard evaluates the economic and environmental consequences of increasing biofuels production as a result of Renewable Fuels Standard, as amended by EISA (RFS2). The report describes biofuels produced in 2010 and those projected to be produced and consumed by 2022, reviews model projections and other estimates of the relative impact on the prices of land, and discusses the potential environmental harm and benefits of biofuels production and the barriers to achieving the RFS2 consumption mandate.

Policy makers, investors, leaders in the transportation sector, and others with concerns for the environment, economy, and energy security can rely on the recommendations provided in this report.

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