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TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY
ECOSYSTEMS
MANAGING THE LIVING WORLD
TWO CENTURIES AFTER DARWIN
REPORT OF A SYMPOSIUM
Committee for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services: A Symposium
U.S. National Committee for DIVERSITAS
Board on International Scientific Organizations
Policy and Global Affairs
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THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS 500 Fifth Street, N.W. Washington, DC 20001
NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing
Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils
of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the
Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were
chosen for their special competences and with regard for appropriate balance.
Support for this workshop was provided by the National Science Foundation (Award
No. 0829957); the U.S. Department of Agriculture, U.S. Forest Service (Award No.
09DG-11132650-190); the U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanographic
and Atmospheric Administration (Award No. DG133F09SE1942) and the U.S. Depart-
ment of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey (Award No. G09PX01652). Additional
resources that made the symposium possible were provided by Defenders of Wildlife
and the International Union for Conservation of Nature. Any opinions, findings, con-
clusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the author(s)
and do not necessarily reflect the views of the organizations or agencies that provided
support for the project.
International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-309-20901-4
International Standard Book Number-10: 0-309-20901-3
Cover photo credits: Chilean loon: Andrew Hendry, McGill University; Trinidadian frog:
Andrew Hendry; Seed bank: A. McRobb Copyright Royal Botanical Garden; Kew
Chilean Mountain scene: Andrew Hendry; Diatom: Paul Falkowski, Rutgers University;
Galapagos Seal: Andrew Hendry; Alaskan Bears: Andrew Hendry; Darwin: Bigstock
Photo.com; and background of geese taking off: Andrew Hendry, McGill University.
Additional copies of this report are available from the National Academies Press, 500
Fifth Street, N.W., Lockbox 285, Washington, DC 20055; (800) 624-6242 or (202)
334-3313 (in the Washington metropolitan area); Internet, http://www.nap.edu.
Copyright 2011 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America
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The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of
distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the
furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the
authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a man-
date that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters.
Dr. Ralph J. Cicerone is president of the National Academy of Sciences.
The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of
the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers.
It is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with
the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government.
The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at
meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior
achievements of engineers. Dr. Charles M. Vest is president of the National Academy
of Engineering.
The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences
to secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination
of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the
responsibility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to
be an adviser to the federal government and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues
of medical care, research, and education. Dr. Harvey V. Fineberg is president of the
Institute of Medicine.
The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in
1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy’s
purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in
accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become
the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the Na-
tional Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and
the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both
Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Ralph J. Cicerone and Dr. Charles M. Vest
are chair and vice chair, respectively, of the National Research Council.
www.national-academies.org
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COMMITTEE FOR BIODIVERSITY AND
ECOSYSTEM SERVICES: A SYMPOSIUM
Peter R. Crane (NAS), Chair, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut
Ann P. Kinzig, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona
Thomas E. Lovejoy, The H. John Heinz III Center for Science,
Economics, and the Environment, Washington, D.C.
Harold A. Mooney (NAS), Stanford University, Palo Alto, California
Charles A. Perrings, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona
National Research Council Staff
Margaret R. Goud Collins, Senior Program Officer
Avihai Ostchega, Senior Program Assistant (until April 1, 2010)
Lynelle Vidale, Senior Program Assistant (from April 1, 2010)
v
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U.S. NATIONAL COMMITTEE FOR DIVERSITAS
Peter R. Crane (NAS), Chair, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut
Rodolfo Dirzo (NAS), Stanford University, Stanford, California
Michael Donoghue (NAS), Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut
Ann P. Kinzig, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona
Thomas E. Lovejoy, The H. John Heinz III Center for Science,
Economics, and the Environment, Washington, D.C.
Harold A. Mooney (NAS), Stanford University, Palo Alto, California
Lynne Parenti, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian
Institution, Washington, D.C.
Stephen Polasky (NAS), University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota
Cristián Samper, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian
Institution, Washington, D.C.
Jorge Soberón, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas
James Tiedje (NAS), Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan
National Research Council Staff
Margaret R. Goud Collins, Senior Program Officer
Avihai Ostchega, Senior Program Assistant (until April 1, 2010)
Lynelle Vidale, Senior Program Assistant (from April 1, 2010)
vi
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STEPHEN SCHNEIDER (1945–2010)
Stephen Schneider was an extraordinarily talented scientist who
dedicated his professional life to understanding the complexities of the
earth’s climate system and to urging action to avoid the most dangerous
consequences of anthropogenic climate change. Along with his wife,
Terry Root, he was also a tireless voice elucidating the consequences of
climatic change for the Earth’s biodiversity. He commanded the at-
tention of international leaders in science, policy, and business, and
used that attention to transform both climate science and the science-
policy dialogue. His was a formidable intellect, a “few in a generation”
talent, but his heart was larger—the size of the planet he worked so
hard to save.
vii
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It is interesting to contemplate a tangled bank, clothed with many
plants of many kinds, with birds singing on the bushes, with vari-
ous insects flitting about, and with worms crawling through the
damp earth, and to reflect that these elaborately constructed forms,
so different from each other, and dependent upon each other in so com-
plex a manner, have all been produced by laws acting around us.
Charles Darwin, Origin of Species, 1859; emphasis added
viii
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Preface and Acknowledgments
The two hundredth anniversary of the birth of Charles Darwin, February
12, 2009, occurred at a critical time for the United States and the world.
A global financial crisis had demonstrated the extent of interconnections
among the world’s economies, but also alarming instability in the economic
systems on which the entire world depends. The analogy with ecological
systems was both clear and troubling. Recognition of human-induced
changes in global climate was also stimulating urgent discussion of priorities
for mitigation and adaptation. Policies governing crucial systems for human
well-being, such as energy, agriculture, and trade, were being rethought. A
new presidential administration was also developing new approaches to re-
spond to these complex, interconnected issues, and had indicated its desire
to incorporate the best scientific guidance available.
In honor of Darwin’s birthday, the National Research Council ap-
pointed a committee under the auspices of the U.S. National Committee
(USNC) for DIVERSITAS to plan a Symposium on Twenty-first Century
Ecosystems. The purpose of the symposium was to capture some of the
current excitement and recent progress in scientific understanding of eco-
systems, from the microbial to the global level, while also highlighting how
improved understanding can be applied to important policy issues that
have broad biodiversity and ecosystem effects. The meeting was an effort
to bring together the academic community, the nongovernmental organiza-
tion (NGO) community, and policy makers to share their perspectives on
how biodiversity and ecosystems should be conserved and managed for the
ix
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x PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
future. In selecting trade, energy, climate, and agriculture as the key issues
for exploration at the symposium, the committee sought to highlight the
economic, public health, and societal costs and benefits of policies that have
ecological and biodiversity dimensions. The aim was to help inform new
policy approaches that could satisfy human needs while also maintaining
the integrity of the goods and services provided by biodiversity and ecosys-
tems over both the short and the long terms.
The symposium, held on February 11–12, 2009, included presenta-
tions from 37 speakers from around the world (Appendix A). The audito-
rium at the American Association for the Advancement of Science was filled
to capacity for most of both days of the symposium; there was a total of
400 registrants. The presentations were also available to a worldwide audi-
ence via simultaneous webcasting, and an estimated 2,000 or more people
watched at least some portion of the webcast. The video was subsequently
posted on the World Wide Web, with a link from the USNC DIVERSITAS
Web site (http://www.nationalacademies.org/usnc-diversitas).
This report does not provide a session-by-session summary of the pre-
sentations at the symposium. Instead, the symposium steering committee
identified eight key themes that emerged from the lectures, which were
addressed in different contexts by different speakers. The focus here is on
general principles rather than specifics. These eight themes provide a sharp
focus on a few concepts that enable scientists, environmental NGOs, and
policy makers to engage more effectively around issues of central impor-
tance for biodiversity and ecosystem management.
This report summarizes the views expressed by symposium partici-
pants. The symposium committee is responsible for the overall quality and
accuracy of the report as a record of what transpired at the symposium, but
the views contained in the report are not necessarily those of the symposium
committee, the USNC for DIVERSITAS, nor the National Academies.
The U.S. National Committee for DIVERSITAS and the symposium
committee gratefully acknowledge the contributions of the many people
and organizations that made this symposium a success. We especially thank
the speakers, who contributed their time and expertise for both their pre-
sentations and the accompanying discussions. We also thank the hundreds
of scientists, policy makers, and interested individuals who attended, and
whose questions and comments enlivened the discussion.
The organization of the symposium was accomplished with the coop-
eration of three lead partners: the American Association for the Advance-
ment of Science, which hosted the meeting in its auditorium and provided
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xi
PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
invaluable logistical support; the Smithsonian Institution National Museum
of Natural History, which hosted the speakers’ dinner in the Sant Ocean
Hall; and DIVERSITAS, which offered advice and expertise throughout the
organizing process. DIVERSITAS also contributed the global expertise of
its Scientific Committee (SC) by coordinating its annual SC meeting with
the Twenty-first Century Ecosystems Symposium.
We are grateful for the financial support provided by the National Sci-
ence Foundation through its grant supporting the U.S. National Commit-
tee for DIVERSITAS, and by three federal agencies that awarded generous
grants to support the symposium: the National Oceanographic and Atmo-
spheric Administration, the U.S. Geological Survey, and the U.S. Forest
Service. We are also grateful for the support of Defenders of Wildlife and
the International Union for Conservation of Nature.
This report has been reviewed in draft form by individuals chosen for
their diverse perspectives and technical expertise, in accordance with pro-
cedures approved by the National Academies’ Report Review Committee.
The purpose of this independent review is to provide candid and critical
comments that will assist the institution in making its published report as
sound as possible and to ensure that the report meets institutional standards
for quality and objectivity. The review comments and draft manuscript
remain confidential to protect the integrity of the process.
We wish to thank the following individuals for their review of this
report: David Blockstein, Senior Scientist, National Council for Science
and the Environment; Frank Casey, Director, Conservation Economics
Program, Defenders of Wildlife; Christopher Field, Director, Department
of Global Ecology, Carnegie Institution for Science; John M. Fitzgerald,
J.D., Policy Director, Society for Conservation Biology; Falk Huettmann,
Institute of Arctic Biology, University of Alaska, Fairbanks; Calestous Juma,
Professor of the Practice of International Development, Harvard University
Kennedy School of Government.
Although the reviewers listed above have provided many constructive
comments and suggestions, they were not asked to endorse the content of
the report, nor did they see the final draft before its release. Responsibility
for the final content of this report rests entirely with the authoring com-
mittee and the institution.
Peter R. Crane
Chair, Committee for Biodiversity and
Ecosystem Services: A Symposium
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Contents
1 INTRODUCTION 1
2 EIGHT THEMES FOR MANAGING THE LIVING WORLD 11
Theme 1: Learning What We Have, 11
Theme 2: Learning How Ecosystems Are Working and
Changing, 16
Theme 3: Saving What We Can, 22
Theme 4: Managing Ecosystem Services as Complex Adaptive
Systems, 26
Theme 5: Increasing Capacity to Inform Policy Through
Integrated Science, 31
Theme 6: Increasing Societal Capacity to Manage and Adapt to
Environmental Change, 37
Theme 7: Strengthening International Institutions and
U.S. Engagement and Leadership, 41
Theme 8: Accounting for the Value of Nature, 44
Concluding Thoughts, 48
APPENDIXES
A Symposium Program 49
B Selected Definitions 55
C Biographies of Speakers 57
D Biographies of Symposium Committee Members 73
xiii
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