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Committee on Assessing Requirements for Sustained Ocean Color Research and Operations
Ocean Studies Board
Division on Earth and Life Studies
Space Studies Board
Division on Engineering and Physical Sciences
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THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS 500 Fifth Street, N.W. Washington, DC 20001
NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the
National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy
of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of
the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competences and with regard
for appropriate balance.
This study was supported by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration under grant num -
ber NNX09AP57G, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration under contract number
DG133R08CQ0062, the National Science Foundation under grant number OCE-0948911, and
the Office of Naval Research under contract number N00014-05-G-0288. Any opinions, findings,
conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and do not
necessarily reflect the views of the organizations or agencies that provided support for the project.
International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-309-21044-7
International Standard Book Number-10: 0-309-21044-5
Additional copies of this report are available from the National Academies Press, 500 Fifth Street,
N.W., Lockbox 285, Washington, D.C. 20055; (800) 624-6242 or (202) 334-3313 (in the Washington
metropolitan area); Internet, http://www.nap.edu.
Copyright 2011 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America
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The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished
scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and
technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by
the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government
on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Ralph J. Cicerone is president of the National Academy of
Sciences.
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Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its
administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences
the responsibility for advising the federal government. The National Academy of Engineering
also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and
research, and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. Charles M. Vest is president
of the National Academy of Engineering.
The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to secure
the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters
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Fineberg is president of the Institute of Medicine.
The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to
associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy’s purposes of furthering
knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with general policies
determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the
National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the
government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered
jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Ralph J. Cicerone and Dr. Charles M.
Vest are chair and vice chair, respectively, of the National Research Council.
www.national-academies.org
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COMMITTEE ON ASSESSING REQUIREMENTS FOR SUSTAINED OCEAN COLOR
RESEARCH AND OPERATIONS
JAMES A. YODER (Chair), Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Massachusetts
DAVID ANTOINE, Marine Optics and Remote Sensing Lab, Laboratoire d’Océanographie de
Villefranche, Villefranche-sur-Mer, Cedex, France
CARLOS E. DEL CASTILLO,* Johns Hopkins University, Laurel, Maryland
ROBERT H. EVANS, University of Miami, Florida
CURTIS MOBLEY, Sequoia Scientific Inc., Bellevue, Washington
JORGE L. SARMIENTO, Princeton University, New Jersey
SHUBHA SATHYENDRANATH, Dalhousie University, Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, Canada
CARL F. SCHUELER, Orbital Sciences Corporation, Santa Barbara, California
DAVID A. SIEGEL, University of California, Santa Barbara
CARA WILSON, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Fisheries Service,
Pacific Grove, California
Staff
CLAUDIA MENGELT, Senior Program Officer
ARTHUR A. CHARO, Senior Program Officer
HEATHER CHIARELLO, Senior Program Assistant
JEREMY JUSTICE, Senior Program Assistant
EMILY OLIVER, Program Assistant
* Resigned from the committee to take a position with NASA.
v
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OCEAN STUDIES BOARD
DONALD F. BOESCH (Chair), University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science
EDWARD A. BOYLE, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
CORTIS K. COOPER, Chevron Corporation, California
JORGE E. CORREDOR, University of Puerto Rico, Mayagüez
KEITH R. CRIDDLE, University of Alaska, Fairbanks
JODY W. DEMING, University of Washington
ROBERT HALLBERG, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and Princeton
University, New Jersey
DEBRA HERNANDEZ, Hernandez and Company, South Carolina
ROBERT A. HOLMAN, Oregon State University
KIHO KIM, American University, Washington, D.C.
BARBARA A. KNUTH, Cornell University, New York
ROBERT A. LAWSON, Science Applications International Corporation, California
GEORGE I. MATSUMOTO, Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute, California
JAY S. PEARLMAN, The Boeing Company (Retired), Washington
ANDREW A. ROSENBERG, Conservation International, Virginia
DANIEL L. RUDNICK, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, California
ANNE M. TREHU, Oregon State University
PETER L. TYACK, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Massachusetts
DON WALSH, International Maritime Incorporated, Oregon
DAWN J. WRIGHT, Oregon State University
JAMES A. YODER, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Massachusetts
OSB Staff
SUSAN ROBERTS, Director
DEBORAH GLICKSON, Senior Program Officer
CLAUDIA MENGELT, Senior Program Officer
KIM WADDELL, Senior Program Officer
MARTHA MCCONNELL, Program Officer
SHUBHA BANSKOTA, Financial Associate
PAMELA LEWIS, Administrative Coordinator
SHERRIE FORREST, Associate Program Officer
HEATHER CHIARELLO, Senior Program Assistant
LAUREN HARDING, Program Assistant
vi
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SPACE STUDIES BOARD
CHARLES F. KENNEL (Chair), Scripps Institution of Oceanography at the University of
California, San Diego
JOHN KLINEBERG (Vice Chair), Space Systems/Loral, California (Retired)
MARK R. ABBOTT, Oregon State University
STEVEN J. BATTEL, Battel Engineering, Arizona
YVONNE C. BRILL, Aerospace Consultant, New Jersey
ELIZABETH R. CANTWELL, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, California
ANDREW B. CHRISTENSEN, Dixie State College/Aerospace Corporation, California
ALAN DRESSLER, The Observatories of the Carnegie Institution, California
JACK D. FELLOWS, University Corporation for Atmospheric Research, Colorado
HEIDI B. HAMMEL, AURA, Connecticut
FIONA A. HARRISON, California Institute of Technology
ANTHONY C. JANETOS, University of Maryland
JOAN JOHNSON-FREESE, Naval War College, Rhode Island
ROBERT P. LIN, University of California, Berkeley
MOLLY K. MACAULEY, Resources for the Future, Washington, DC
JOHN F. MUSTARD, Brown University, Rhode Island
ROBERT T. PAPPALARDO, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology
JAMES PAWELCZYK, Pennsylvania State University
MARCIA J. RIEKE, University of Arizona
SOROOSH SOROOSHIAN, University of California, Irvine, Earth Science and Applications
DAVID N. SPERGEL, Princeton University, New Jersey
JOAN VERNIKOS, Thirdage LLC, Virginia
WARREN M. WASHINGTON, National Center for Atmospheric Research, Colorado
CLIFFORD M. WILL, Washington University
CHARLES E. WOODWARD, University of Minnesota
THOMAS H. ZURBUCHEN, University of Michigan
SSB Staff
MICHAEL MOLONEY, Board Director*
JOSEPH K. ALEXANDER, Senior Program Officer
TERRI BAKER, Senior Program Assistant
CARMELA J. CHAMBERLAIN, Administrative Coordinator*
ARTHUR A. CHARO, Senior Program Officer
SANDRA J. GRAHAM, Senior Program Officer
LEWIS GROSWALD, Research Associate
CATHERINE A. GRUBER, Editor, SSB*
RODNEY N. HOWARD, Senior Project Assistant
CELESTE A. NAYLOR, Information Management Associate*
TANJA E. PILZAK, Manager, Program Operations*
IAN W. PRYKE, Senior Program Officer
ROBERT L. RIEMER, Senior Program Officer*
ABIGAIL SHEFFER, Associate Program Officer
CHRISTINA O. SHIPMAN, Financial Officer*
DAVID H. SMITH, Senior Program Officer
LINDA WALKER, Senior Project Assistant
SANDRA WILSON, Financial Assistant*
DIONNA WILLIAMS, Program Associate
* Staff of another NRC Board who are shared with the SSB.
vii
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Preface
O
cean biology and biogeochemistry entered a new Operational Environmental Satellite System (NPOESS)
era with the launch of the National Aeronautics and platforms was to provide ocean color observations beyond
Space Administration’s (NASA) Coastal Zone Color MODIS, particularly for operational users. However, many
Scanner (CZCS) in 1978. For the first time, maps of phy- ocean color users felt isolated from the planning for VIIRS
toplankton biomass (chlorophyll)—a key measurement of and were unimpressed with the technical specifications
marine ecosystems—could be produced from space observa- and proposed mission operations. Many, if not most, users
tions with the potential for daily to interannual observations did not believe VIIRS could sustain the SeaWiFS/MODIS-
at ocean basin scales. Led by scientists based at NASA- Aqua time-series for quantitative observations. Meanwhile,
Goddard Space Flight Center and supported by academic SeaWiFS, both MODIS instruments, and the European
partners at the University of Miami and around the world, Space Agency’s Medium-Resolution Imaging Spectrometer
the capability to process and distribute the data developed (MERIS) instrument were beyond their design lifetime. This
rapidly. As a result, the numbers of applications and users was the environment during which the committee began its
also grew quickly. By the time the Sea-viewing Wide Field- task in 2010 to assess the “continuity of satellite ocean color
of-view Sensor (SeaWiFS) launched in 1997, regional to data and associated climate research products . . . at signifi-
global maps of phytoplankton chlorophyll and other products cant risk for the U.S. ocean color community.”
derived from satellite measurements of water-leaving radi- The committee met with experts in and out of govern-
ance (ocean color) were accessible to users all over the world ment and hosted a community workshop to get opinions on
and had become an essential measurement for the study and VIIRS and non-U.S. options for future satellite ocean color
analysis of ocean biogeochemistry and ocean ecosystems. measurements for U.S. users. The committee considered sen-
M oderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer sor specifications, mission operation scenarios, calibration
( MODIS)-Terra launched in 1999 and MODIS-Aqua and validation plans (or lack thereof), data exchange poli-
launched in 2002; the latter was a follow-on to SeaWiFS. cies and related issues. Our task was complicated owing to
Both had nominal ocean color capabilities, although process- major developments in ocean color remote sensing in 2010,
ing Terra data for quantitative ocean color measurements which included: the NPOESS program was significantly
proved to be an almost insurmountable challenge with only restructured to become the Joint Polar Satellite System
modest recent success. The increase in the number of inter- (JPSS); a team from the National Institute of Standards and
national users and the increase in applications, however, did Technology (NIST) characterized the VIIRS sensor with
not lead to a clear path forward to sustain a quantitative time- unanticipated positive results; NASA announced the Pre-
series of satellite ocean color observations by U.S. sensors Aerosol-Clouds-Ecosystem (PACE) mission, which included
beyond MODIS. International partners, such as the Japanese an advanced ocean color instrument for launch in 2019;
and European Space Agency (ESA), also launched sensors, and SeaWiFS stopped operating. With the exception of the
but some were short-lived, others were not suitable for global demise of SeaWiFS, all of these were positive developments
observations, and others had initial challenges to support and strongly influenced our report and its conclusions. Most
data distribution for the international user community. In recently (April 2011) Congress finally approved the U.S.
the United States, the Visible Infrared Imager Radiometer government’s FY11 budget, which included significant cuts
Suite (VIIRS) instrument for the National Polar-orbiting to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s
(NOAA’s) satellite programs in comparison to the President’s
FY11 budget submission. The implication of these cuts for
ix
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x PREFACE
VIIRS on NPOESS Preparatory Project (NPP) and JPSS-1 Finally, I am most grateful to the National Research
are not known to the committee. Council (NRC) staff—Study Director, Claudia Mengelt;
Many individuals from NASA, NOAA, private industry, Senior Program Assistant, Jeremy Justice; Program Assis-
and academia attended the open sessions of our meetings tant, Emily Oliver; Senior Program Assistant, Heather
and contributed essential information. In particular, many Chiarello; and Ocean Studies Board Director, Susan Roberts
of these individuals helped the committee understand very for all of the time and effort they dedicated to the completion
technical issues as well as the complex organizational issues of this report.
associated with the restructuring of NPOESS. I am also
grateful to the committee members who worked so well Jim Yode, Chair
together and were able to come to consensus on all of the Committee on Assessing Requirements for
important issues. Sustained Ocean Color Research and Operations
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Acknowledgment of Reviewers
T
his report was greatly enhanced by the participants of process. We wish to thank the following individuals for their
the meetings held as part of this study. The committee participation in their review of this report:
would first like to acknowledge the efforts of those
WILLIAM M. BALCH, Bigelow Laboratory for
who gave presentations at meetings: Steve Ackleson (ONR),
Bob Arnone (NRL), Paula Bontempi (NASA), Emmanuel Ocean Sciences, Boothbay Harbor, Maine
MICHAEL BEHRENFELD, Oregon State University,
Boss (University of Maine), Tony Busalacchi (University of
Maryland), Curt Davis (OSU), Paul DiGiacomo (NOAA), Corvallis
OTIS BROWN, Cooperative Institute for Climate and
James Gleason (NASA), Bruce Guenther (NOAA), Carol
J ohnson (NIST), Henri Laur (ESA), Charles McClain Satellites, North Carolina
JANET CAMPBELL, University of New Hampshire,
( NASA), Hiroshi Murakami (JAXA), Steve Murawski
(NOAA), Fred Pratt (GSF), Peter Regner (ESA), Karen Dover
CURTISS DAVIS, Oregon State University, Corvallis
St. Germaine (NOAA), Phil Taylor (NSF), Kevin Turpie
HEIDI DIERSSEN, University of Connecticut, Avery
(NASA), Menghua Wang (NOAA), Stan Wilson (NOAA),
and Giuseppe Zibordi (Joint Research Centre, Ispra). These Point, Groton
HOWARD GORDON, University of Miami, Florida
talks helped set the stage for fruitful discussions in the closed
ANDRE MOREL, Marine Optics and Remote Sensing
sessions that followed.
The committee is also grateful to a number of people who Lab, Villefranche-sur-mer, France
provided important discussion, submitted white papers, and
helped improve the quality of this report: Paul DiGiacomo Although the reviewers listed above have provided
(NOAA), Carol Johnson (NIST),Charles McClain (NASA), many constructive comments and suggestions, they were
Stan Wilson (NOAA), and Shelby Wood. n ot asked to endorse the conclusions or recommenda-
This report has been reviewed in draft form by individu- tions nor did they see the final draft of the report before
als chosen for their diverse perspectives and technical exper- its release. The review of this report was overseen by
Francisco P. Chavez, Monterey Bay Aquarium Research
tise, in accordance with procedures approved by the NRC’s
Report Review Committee. The purpose of this independent I nstitute, appointed by the Divison on Earth and Life
review is to provide candid and critical comments that will Studies, who was responsible for making certain that an
assist the institution in making its published report as sound independent examination of this report was carried out in
as possible and to ensure that this report meets institutional accordance with institutional procedures and that all review
standards for objectivity, evidence, and responsiveness to the comments were carefully considered. Responsibility for the
study charge. The review comments and draft manuscript final content of this report rests entirely with the authoring
remain confidential to protect the integrity of the deliberative committee and the institution.
xi
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Contents
SUMMARY 1
1 INTRODUCTION 8
Deriving Ocean Properties from Ocean Color Radiance, 8
Rationale for This Study, 10
The Study’s Task, 12
Report Roadmap, 12
2 SUSTAINING AND ADVANCING OCEAN COLOR RESEARCH AND
OPERATIONS 14
Research and Societal Applications of Ocean Color Products, 14
Ocean Color Data Specifications in Support of Ocean Color Applications, 25
Conclusion, 27
3 LESSONS LEARNED FROM OCEAN COLOR SATELLITE MISSIONS AND
ESSENTIAL REQUIREMENTS FOR FUTURE SUCCESS 28
The Coastal Zone Color Scanner: Proof of Concept, 28
Lessons from the SeaWiFS/MODIS Era, 29
Lessons from the European MERIS Mission, 30
Essential Requirements for Success, 31
Conclusion, 42
4 CAPABILITIES OF CURRENT AND PLANNED OCEAN COLOR
SENSOR MISSIONS 46
Current and Planned Ocean Color Sensors, 46
Analysis of Capabilities and Gaps, 47
Ensuring Global High-Quality Ocean Color Data for the Next Two to Five Years, 48
Ensuring Global High-Quality Ocean Color Data for the Next Five to Ten Years, 54
Conclusion, 56
5 ADVANCING GLOBAL OCEAN COLOR REMOTE SENSING INTO THE
FUTURE 58
Enhancements for the Future, 58
Sustaining Ocean Color Remote Sensing Over the Long Term, 64
Conclusion, 68
REFERENCES 70
xiii
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xiv CONTENTS
APPENDIXES
79
A Past, Present, and Planned Sensors
87
B Vicarious Calibration
90
C Comprehensive Oceanic and Atmospheric Optical Datasets
94
D Commercial GEO-Satellite Hosted Remote Sensing
96
E Acronyms
98
F Committee and Staff Biographies
