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3
Diffusion of Life Sciences
Research Capacity and Applications
C
hapter 3 addresses the second of the major trends considered by
the committee: the increasing diffusion of life sciences research
and its implications for the Biological and Toxin Weapons Conven-
tion (BWC). The chapter first examines the growing diffusion of research
capacity and applications around the globe, illustrated by the rise in inter-
national research collaboration, and briefly discusses some of the specific
developments enabling these collaborations. It then presents two exam -
ples of how the BWC can take advantage of global diffusion to enhance
the effective implementation of the treaty. The final section of the chapter
discusses a different sort of diffusion: the increasing ability to carry out
life sciences research outside traditional institutional settings.
3.1 GLOBAL R&D CAPACITY AND INTERNATIONAL
COLLABORATIONS IN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
3.1.1 The Growth of International S&T Collaboration
The increasingly widespread access and ease of use of communica-
tions technologies, combined with the growing availability of resources
to support research (see Section 3.1.2), support the continuing expansion
of global research capacity and an ever larger number of international
collaborations in science and technology (S&T). Workshop presentations
illustrated how global capacity in the life sciences has become; examples
included studies at the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) in
Kenya on Rift Valley fever (de Villiers, 2010) and at the Centre for Systems
59
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60 TRENDS RELEVANT TO THE BIOLOGICAL WEAPONS CONVENTION
and Synthetic Biology at the University of Kerala, which organized the
first synthetic biology conference in India and created a wiki to encour-
age information sharing among Indian laboratories engaged in synthetic
biology research (Dhar, 2010).
Data from studies in the United States and the United Kingdom
(Adams et al., 2007; NSB, 2010; Royal Society, 2011b) indicate that the
number of international collaborations, as measured by jointly authored
scientific papers, continues to increase; in 2008 more than one-third of
scientific articles included authors from more than one country (Royal
Society, 2011b). Although the absolute numbers of scientific papers
remain highest for the United States and scientifically developed coun -
tries in Europe, countries such as China and India are experiencing par-
ticularly rapid growth in output. A recent report comparing the number
and growth rate of collaboratively authored papers among a sample
of six countries (United States, United Kingdom, France, Germany,
China, and India) over two time periods—1996 to 2000 and 2001 to 2005
found that, in all cases, more jointly authored papers were released in
2001-2005 than in 1996-2000. Although there were higher total numbers
of papers from the United States and European countries, the rate of
increase in joint papers was highest for China and India (Adams et
al., 2007). A recent analysis by the U.S. National Science Foundation
similarly observed that U.S. and European Union researchers’ “com -
bined world share of published articles decreased steadily from 69%
in 1995 to 59% in 2008 as Asia’s output increased. In little more than a
decade, Asia’s world article share expanded from 14% to 23%” (NSB,
2010). The additional observation that, as a general pattern, “collabo -
ration usually creates an increase in the indexed bibliometric impact”
of a journal article, such as through an increased number of citations
(Adams et al., 2007), suggests that collaborative research is producing
valuable science.
The workshop also highlighted that international S&T collaborations
are occurring not only among researchers in scientifically developed coun-
tries and between researchers in developed and developing countries
(sometimes referred to as North-South collaboration). The impressive
growth of scientific capacity among countries once considered “develop-
ing” has enabled collaborations among regional networks and increasingly
among scientists (South-South collaboration) (Hassan, 2007; Royal Society,
2011b; Sáenz et al., 2010; Thorsteinsdóttir et al., 2010; WHO, 2009). The
growing numbers of such regional and South-South collaborations appear
to be an important trend that is expected to continue (UNESCO, 2010).
Examples of effective international and regional collaborations pre-
sented at the workshop included multi-partner genomic sequencing
efforts (de Villiers, 2010; Pitt, 2010b), the global Human Genome Organi -
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DIFFUSION OF LIFE SCIENCES RESEARCH CAPACITY AND APPLICATIONS
zation (HUGO),1 and related initiatives like the Pan Asian SNP Consor-
tium (HUGO Pan-Asian SNP Consortium, 2009; Sudoyo, 2010). The SNP
Consortium links scientists in 11 Asian countries in efforts to catalogue
regional human genetic variation, fosters the exchange of knowledge
among partner countries, and enables knowledge transfer from more
scientifically advanced countries to partner countries seeking to increase
their scientific capacity.
The three additional examples described briefly below underscore the
growing role that regional and South-South collaborations are playing in
S&T and emphasize how truly global life sciences research has become:
• Cooperation between Cuba and Brazil in Biotechnology: The Finlay
Institute in Cuba and the Immunobiological Technology Institute
(Bio-Manguinhos) of the Oswaldo Cruz Foundation in Brazil part-
nered to develop and manufacture a meningitis vaccine for distri-
bution in Africa, building on the scientific expertise both countries
have in biotechnology. Reportedly, “between 2007 and 2009, some
19 million doses were produced and distributed in Burkina Faso,
Ethiopia, Mali and Nigeria. The vaccine’s price is much lower than
on the international market and lower than would be possible
without Cuba-Brazil cooperation” (Sáenz et al., 2010)
• Pan-African Cooperation in Health: The African Network for Drugs
and Diagnostics Innovation (ANDI) was recently established as
a partnership among national African organizations, the African
Development Bank, and the World Health Organization “to pro-
mote and sustain African-led health product innovation to address
African public health needs through efficient use of local knowl-
edge, assembly of research networks, and building of capacity to
support economic development” (http://www.andi-africa.org/).
The ANDI initiative will support projects undertaken by networks
of research centers, provide an information technology and data -
base backbone, and support the purchase of advanced laboratory
equipment such as nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and mass
spectrometry instruments (WHO, 2009). The project will tap into
and help connect existing R&D capacity in a variety of centers
within Africa (see Figure 3.1).
1 HUGO, created in 1998 as part of the earliest planning for the Human Genome Project,
promotes international coordination and collaboration in the study of the human genome.
It has grown from an initial membership of 42 scientists from 17 countries to more than
1,200 members from 69 countries. See HUGO website at http://www.hugo-international.
org/aboutus.php.
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62 TRENDS RELEVANT TO THE BIOLOGICAL WEAPONS CONVENTION
FIGURE 3.1 Distribution of R&D capacity in Africa based on analysis of journal
articles from 2004-2008 having corresponding authors located in Africa. The size
of the circles correlates with the numbers of published articles.
SOURCE: Nwaka et al. (2010).
• Cooperation among India, Brazil, and South Africa (IBSA): Although
health and health-related biotechnology is clearly an area of active
international collaboration, it is by no means the only scientific one.
IBSA was established in 2003 as a trilateral partnership between the
governments of India, Brazil, and South Africa. Within this frame-
work, a variety of cooperative S&T activities have been fostered.
The IBSA nanotechnology initiative, for example, is a partnership
between the ministries of science and technology of the coun -
tries that undertake nanotechnology-based projects in the areas of
advanced materials, energy, health and water, and human-capacity
building. The initiative has conducted several nanotechnology
schools, including one on health applications of nanotechnology
(held in November 2009 in South Africa) and one on sensor appli-
cations of advanced materials (held in November 2010 in India)
(http://www.ibsa-nano.igcar.gov.in/).
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DIFFUSION OF LIFE SCIENCES RESEARCH CAPACITY AND APPLICATIONS
As these examples illustrate, there can be multiple motivations for life
sciences researchers to engage in international collaborations beyond joint
publications. Regional and South-South collaborations, for example, may
involve alignment of shared research needs and priorities (e.g., in seek -
ing treatments for diseases endemic to a particular region, but rare else -
where), opportunities to bring together complementary types of expertise
in “South-South partnerships that synergize strengths and bolster com -
petitiveness” (Thorsteinsdóttir et al., 2010), or information sharing by
scientifically advanced countries in the South to support capacity building
in partner counties (Hassan, 2007). Ideally, all partners in a given collabo -
ration benefit, and one of the strongest incentives seems to be a desire to
work with the best people and facilities in a particular field. As a recent
analysis of international S&T collaborations noted:
Collaboration enhances the quality of scientific research, improves the
efficiency and effectiveness of that research, and is increasingly neces -
sary, as the scale of both budgets and research challenges grow. However,
the primary driver of most collaboration is the scientists themselves. In
developing their research and finding answers, scientists are seeking to
work with the best people, institutions and equipment which comple -
ment their research, wherever they may be. (Royal Society, 2011b:6)
The value of international collaboration is not limited to academic
research, as the Cuba-Brazil vaccine development example shows. Indus-
try also participates and benefits. As an examination of collaborations by
biotechnology companies in six developing countries concluded:
Collaboration between firms in the North and South can also facilitate
access to strategic knowledge and resources. This flow of resources is not
solely North to South, with developed countries being the providers of
knowledge; developing countries have been increasing their expertise
in this field and possess other resources, such as indigenous materials,
important for health biotech development. Furthermore, South-North
collaboration can open firms’ access to each other’s markets. For devel-
oping countries, it can be key to gain access to the rich markets in the
North, but market opportunities are also flourishing in the South. (Melon
et al., 2009:229)
3.1.2 Availability of Resources to Support Collaboration
Investments and Support for S&T
As mentioned in Chapter 1, advances in the life sciences are expected
to yield great benefits for health, economic growth and well-being, and
the environment. For many countries, they are a key element of invest-
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64 TRENDS RELEVANT TO THE BIOLOGICAL WEAPONS CONVENTION
ments in S&T as part of national strategies for development. As early as
1992, Agenda 21 from the United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development forecasted that:
By itself, biotechnology cannot resolve all the fundamental problems of
environment and development, so expectations need to be tempered by
realism. Nevertheless, it promises to make a significant contribution in
enabling the development of, for example, better health care, enhanced
food security through sustainable agricultural practices, improved sup-
plies of potable water, more efficient industrial development processes for
transforming raw materials, support for sustainable methods of afforesta-
tion and reforestation, and detoxification of hazardous wastes. (United
Nations Conference on Environment and Development, 1992:223)
More recently, in 2009 the Organisation for Economic Co-operation
and Development (OECD) released a major study on the potential contri-
butions of a “bioeconomy” in 2030, which it defined as “a world where
biotechnology contributes to a significant share of economic output.
The emerging bioeconomy is likely to involve three elements: the use of
advanced knowledge of genes and complex cell processes to develop new
processes and products, the use of renewable biomass and efficient bio-
processes to support sustainable production, and the integration of bio -
technology knowledge and applications across sectors” (OECD, 2009:8).
For developing countries, one of the key conclusions from the
UNESCO Science Report 2010 is worth quoting at length:
[T]he increase in the stock of “world knowledge”, as epitomized by new
digital technologies and discoveries in life sciences or nanotechnolo-
gies, is creating fantastic opportunities for emerging nations to attain
higher levels of social welfare and productivity. It is in this sense that
the old notion of a technological gap can today be considered a blessing
for those economies possessing sufficient absorptive capacity and ef -
ficiency to enable them to exploit their “advantage of relative backward -
ness”. Countries lagging behind can grow faster than the early leaders
of technology by building on the backlog of unexploited technology and
benefiting from lower risks. They are already managing to leapfrog over
the expensive investment in infrastructure that mobilized the finances of
developed countries in the 20th century, thanks to the development of
wireless telecommunications and wireless education (via satellites, etc),
wireless energy (windmills, solar panels, etc) and wireless health (tele-
medicine, portable medical scanners, etc). (UNESCO, 2010:25)
Moreover, the substantial trend over the past decade or more by
multinational corporations to diversify their research and development
facilities beyond their traditional bases in the West (Zanatta and Queiroz,
2007), combined with the growth of significant industries in countries
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DIFFUSION OF LIFE SCIENCES RESEARCH CAPACITY AND APPLICATIONS
such as India and China that are investing in the West (UNESCO, 2010)
provides another significant driver for the development of life sciences
capacity. AstraZeneca, for example, has research facilities in Shanghai,
China, and Bangalore, India.2 The effects of these commercial drivers on
particular areas of life sciences research are discussed in Chapter 2 and
examined more generally in Chapter 5.
Significant challenges remain to making this potential globally avail-
able, and the financial crisis of 2008 and its continuing perturbations have
slowed progress for some (UNESCO, 2010). Numerous reports from inter-
national and regional organizations recognize the challenges and offer les-
sons and strategies for overcoming them (see, for example, InterAcademy
Council, 2004; Juma and Serageldin, 2007). Efforts to take advantage of S&T
to support development and improved well-being can be expected to con-
tinue to provide a powerful impetus for the diffusion of research capacity.
Access to Computational and Data Resources
As discussed in Chapter 2, the availability of large amounts of data
storage capacity and powerful computational resources supports many
of the S&T developments surveyed at the workshop, particularly in the
omics fields and in systems and synthetic biology (see Section 2.1). Access
to computational resources continues to expand as the underlying infra -
structure is put in place worldwide. The ILRI research project on Rift
Valley fever described by Dr. de Villiers will generate large amounts of
sample meta-data in parallel with the storage of the samples themselves
in a biobank (De Villiers, 2010). The project plans to take advantage of
the possibilities offered by the completed installation of high-speed fiber-
optic cables along the east coast of Africa. The East Africa Submarine
Cable System (EASSy), completed in 2010, currently provides 4.72 tera-
bits per second network capacity (http://www.eassy.org/); additional
regional bandwidth is now provided by the East African Marine System
(TEAMS) and SEACOM cables completed in 2009, as well as by national
cable infrastructure. These networks will enable the project to use distrib -
uted computing (see Section 2.2.2), providing capacity equivalent to the
largest supercomputers.
Availability of Sophisticated Kits, Reagents, and Commercial Services
Global research capacity in the life sciences is also enabled by the
commercial availability of kits, reagents, and services to conduct scien -
2 Further information may be found at http://www.astrazeneca.com/Research/our-
global-reach.
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66 TRENDS RELEVANT TO THE BIOLOGICAL WEAPONS CONVENTION
tific protocols for cutting-edge research. A large number of multinational
suppliers produce kits containing reagents, enzymes, and step-by-step
instructions to conduct many of the basic laboratory techniques a life
sciences researcher might use, including nucleic acid and protein expres-
sion, purification, detection, and analysis.3 Commercial services are also
available for tasks like sequencing, DNA and protein synthesis, micro-
array construction, mass spectrometry analysis, and others. The avail -
ability of smaller, more automated, and easier to use bioinstrumentation
also facilitates the performance of laboratory research. In addition to
commercial high throughput sequencing services, for example, benchtop
DNA sequencers are now available for use within individual laboratories.
These tools, which can help increase the speed and efficiency of labora -
tory research, are available to scientists worldwide, although direct com -
mercial suppliers largely remain clustered in Europe, North America, and
parts of Asia.
Qualifying Comments: Continuing Limits on Access and Availability
Although life sciences research capacity is now globally distributed in
a very real sense, a variety of barriers remain for scientists in developing
countries (InterAcademy Council, 2004). One example, as discussed in
Chapter 2, is access to the Internet and other communications technolo -
gies, which facilitates global scientific collaboration. Despite continued
growth in usage, however, this access remains uneven.4 A recent report
from the Royal Society in the United Kingdom found, for example, that
“access to the net is growing very rapidly in some middle-income devel -
oping countries, such as South Korea (where access is almost universal)
and Brazil. But it is rising only very slowly in low-income countries: 0.06%
of the population in low-income countries had access to the web in 1997,
rising to 6% 10 years later” (Royal Society, 2011b). However, the same
report also noted that statistics on access among the general population of
a country are not the entire picture, because “scientists are one community
who are most likely to have good access. More troublesome for research-
ers is internet bandwidth which may be limited, or infrastructure issues
which may hinder the ability to communicate effectively. For example,
3 Major life sciences supply companies include Invitrogen (http://www.invitrogen.
com), Promega (http://www.promega.com), Qiagen (http://www.qiagen.com), Ambion
(http://www.ambion.com), Clontech (http://www.clontech.com), Sigma-Aldrich (http://
www.sigmaaldrich.com), Roche Applied Science (http://www.roche-applied-science.com),
Affymetrix (http://www.affymetrix.com), and many others.
4 As noted by participants in a 2009 workshop on the use of online resources for education
about biosecurity issues, it is not just developing countries that suffer from uneven access
to the Internet. Substantial parts of the rural United States, for example, either do not have
access to the Internet or have only very basic services (NRC, 2011a).
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DIFFUSION OF LIFE SCIENCES RESEARCH CAPACITY AND APPLICATIONS
power cuts are frequent in many universities across Africa and the inter-
net connection speed is low” (Royal Society, 2011b).
As noted above, direct suppliers of commercial life sciences kits, tools,
and services largely remain clustered in Europe, North America, and parts
of Asia, although networks of local distributors may exist. In addition to
the financial cost of ordering from commercial suppliers, researchers in
areas of the developing world may still experience challenges associated
with regulations and shipping times. A detailed discussion of these forces
is beyond the committee’s task. A major purpose of this section has been
to highlight the increasingly global nature of current life sciences research
and the growing role of regional and South-South scientific collaborations,
while recognizing that advanced S&T capacity is not yet evenly distrib-
uted worldwide.
3.1.3 Discussion and Implications
The diffusion of research capacity and its applications is directly rel -
evant to two articles of the BWC:
• Article III, which states: “Each State Party to this Convention
undertakes not to transfer to any recipient whatsoever, directly or
indirectly, and not in any way to assist, encourage, or induce any
State, group of States or international organizations to manufacture
or otherwise acquire any of the agents, toxins, weapons, equipment
or means of delivery specified in Article I of this Convention.”
(United Nations, 2011:2)5
• Article X, which states: “(1) The States Parties to this Convention
undertake to facilitate, and have the right to participate in, the full-
est possible exchange of equipment, materials and scientific and
technological information for the use of bacteriological (biological)
agents and toxins for peaceful purposes. Parties to the Convention
in a position to do so shall also cooperate in contributing individu -
ally or together with other States or international organizations to
the further development and application of scientific discoveries
in the field of bacteriology (biology) for prevention of disease, or
for other peaceful purposes. (2) This Convention shall be imple-
mented in a manner designed to avoid hampering the economic
or technological development of States Parties to the Convention
or international cooperation in the field of peaceful bacteriologi -
cal (biological) activities, including the international exchange of
5 “The Second, Third, Fourth and Sixth Review Conferences affirmed that Article III is
sufficiently comprehensive to cover any recipient whatsoever at the international, national
or sub-national levels. [VI.III.8, IV.III.1, III.III.1, II.III.1].” (United Nations, 2007:6)
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68 TRENDS RELEVANT TO THE BIOLOGICAL WEAPONS CONVENTION
bacteriological (biological) and toxins and equipment for the pro-
cessing, use or production of bacteriological (biological) agents and
toxins for peaceful purposes in accordance with the provisions of
the Convention.” (United Nations, 2011:3)
The relationship between Article III and Article X has been the source
of debate since the BWC’s entry into force; the list of common understand-
ings achieved at various review conferences reflects the continuing effort
to find a satisfactory mix of policies to address both aspects of this com -
mon disarmament bargain.6 The debates have sharpened since the early
1990s, when the Australia Group expanded its focus from chemical weap-
ons to include biological weapons and placed export controls on certain
dual use biological equipment and a number of pathogens and toxins. 7
The Chemical Weapons Convention and the Nuclear Non-Proliferation
Treaty contain similar provisions and debates, but the pervasively dual
nature of life sciences research discussed in Chapter 1 makes this problem
particularly difficult for the BWC.8
The continuing, rapid diffusion of research capacity and knowledge
poses a profound challenge to those aspects of nonproliferation policy
that rely on controlling access to knowledge, materials, and technolo-
gies. Given that there is little hope of reversing this trend—and multiple
reasons beyond the commitments in Article X to see it as positive and
6 For example, with slightly different wording the Second, Third, Fourth, and Sixth Review
Conferences all “noted States Parties should not use the provisions of this Article to impose
restrictions and/or limitations on transfers for purposes consistent with the objectives and
provisions of the Convention of scientific knowledge, technology, equipment and materials
under Article X. [VI.III.10, IV.III.4, III.III.2, II.III.2]” (ibid., p. 7).
7 “The Australia Group (AG) is an informal forum of countries which, through the har-
monisation of export controls, seeks to ensure that exports do not contribute to the develop -
ment of chemical or biological weapons. Coordination of national export control measures
assists Australia Group participants to fulfill their obligations under the Chemical Weapons
Convention and the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention to the fullest extent pos -
sible” (Australia Group, http://www.australiagroup.net/en/index.html, accessed October
20, 2011). The AG membership currently includes 40 countries as well as the European
Commission.
8 Chemical and nuclear weapons also involve dual use technologies; one distinguishing
feature of biological weapons is that the dual use relationship is deeper and more extensive
than in these other fields. For biological weapons, it is much harder to identify S&T that is
primarily “weapons relevant” or primarily “legitimate.” The issue of scaling up is even more
important; for CW, agent quantity can play a key role in distinguishing between offensive
and defensive intentions (the definition of CW refers to consistency of types and quantities
of toxic chemicals with regard to permitted purposes); in BW that is less relevant given the
nature of biological agents, including self-replicating organisms, and the different scenarios
of hostile use, some of which require relatively small quantities.
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beneficial9—this argues for at least two important findings. First, it sug-
gests the importance of continuing attention to monitoring and assessing
the diffusion to try to anticipate the potential negative consequences and
of strengthening the capacity of States Parties to address them, for exam -
ple through their Article IV commitments to national implementation.
Second, it underscores the potential for a much larger number of States
Parties to contribute to the implementation of the convention, for example
by expanding global public health and disease surveillance capabilities,
or by playing leadership roles in capacity building in their regions. The
next two sections of the chapter provide examples of this second finding
in more detail.
3.2 DISEASE SURVEILLANCE AND RESPONSE SYSTEMS:
A RESEARCH AREA THAT EXEMPLIFIES GLOBAL
LIFE SCIENCES CAPACITY AND INTERNATIONAL
COLLABORATION RELEVANT TO THE BWC
3.2.1 Introduction
In 2007 the World Health Report from the World Health Organization
(WHO) warned
Today’s highly mobile, interdependent and interconnected world pro-
vides myriad opportunities for the rapid spread of infectious diseases …
Infectious diseases are now spreading geographically much faster than
at any time in history. It is estimated that 2.1 billion airline passengers
travelled in 2006; an outbreak or epidemic in any one part of the world
is only a few hours away from becoming an imminent threat somewhere
else … Infectious diseases are not only spreading faster, they appear
to be emerging more quickly than ever before. Since the 1970s, newly
emerging diseases have been identified at the unprecedented rate of one
or more per year. There are now nearly 40 diseases that were unknown a
generation ago. In addition, during the last five years, WHO has verified
more than 1100 epidemic events worldwide. (WHO, 2007b:x)
Becaause major parts of the public health response to infectious dis -
eases are the same whether the origins of an incidents are natural, unin -
tentional, or deliberate, as Dr. Raymond Lin of the Singapore National
Public Health Laboratory noted at the workshop, “Preparedness for natu -
9 See, for example, the discussions of advances in research in Section 2.1 and their potential
applications for health, the environment, and economic growth. For a more general discus -
sion, see NRC (2009b) and OECD (2009).
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70 TRENDS RELEVANT TO THE BIOLOGICAL WEAPONS CONVENTION
rally occurring infectious disease outbreaks equals preparedness for bio -
threat events” (Lin, 2010).
A critical area in which life sciences S&T is contributing to the opera -
tion of the BWC is thus in the development of systems for the surveil-
lance, detection, and identification of diseases in human, animal, and
plant communities. It also includes the development of vaccines and
medical countermeasures to prevent and respond to outbreaks of human
and animal diseases and the development of appropriate pesticides or
rapid if not preemptive development of genetically resistant cultivars for
plant diseases. This is a major example of how, over the years, the States
Parties to the BWC have increasingly recognized the importance of using
multiple means and methods to support the implementation of the treaty
in addition to the regulatory aspects of disarmament and nonproliferation
exemplified in Article IV. 10 This approach is commonly referred to as the
“web of prevention.”11
Because diseases do not recognize national borders, such systems
greatly benefit from international cooperation. And because many emerg-
ing diseases arise in regions such as Southeast Asia, Africa, and Latin
America (Jones et al., 2008), the ability to draw on global scientific capac -
ity also contributes significantly to the field.
Diseases of concern are not limited to human illnesses; agricultural
systems also remain vulnerable to devastating disease outbreaks (NRC,
2002). Vulnerabilities in agricultural systems exist because of both local-
scale and global movement of people, animals, and goods, as well as the
increasing prevalence of large-scale monoculture farming (Jeger, 2010). An
agricultural disease outbreak can produce significant economic impacts
and commercial implications even if the pathogen is present only in low
numbers. For example, 53 countries banned the import of U.S. beef fol-
lowing the first detection in 2003 of bovine spongiform encephalopathy
(BSE), or mad cow disease, in the United States, causing the beef industry
estimated losses of several billion dollars in 2004 (CDC, 2004; Coffey et
al., 2005). Although the BSE case was not due to a biological weapons
attack and many markets gradually reopened, the potential economic
10 Prevention for human, animal, or plant health, for example, is distinct from the range
of other political, military, and technical measures that States Parties may take to prevent
an intentional biological attack.
11 The International Committee of the Red Cross coined the phrase as part of its 2004
initiative on “Biotechnology, Weapons, and Humanity”; more information is available at
http://www.icrc.org/eng/resources/documents/misc/5vdj7s.htm. Also see Rappert and
McLeish (2007).
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consequences of an incident are clear.12 Only limited plant and animal dis-
ease surveillance and identification systems currently exist (for example,
monitoring of sentinel plants), and lack of funding has remained a chal -
lenge in this area.
3.2.2 Improving Disease Surveillance
International collaboration on the development of integrated and
multidimensional disease surveillance systems provides clear benefits
for understanding and monitoring human, animal, and plant diseases
whether they are natural outbreaks, unintentional releases such as patho-
gen escape from a laboratory, or intentional exposures (Jeger, 2010; Lin,
2010). A variety of clinical and epidemiological monitoring tools can be
used as part of surveillance systems, including testing relevant sentinel
sites, screening blood samples from particular groups, or analyzing data
from disease-specific Internet searches and Twitter postings to help esti -
mate the prevalence of an infection (Lin, 2010). Communications systems
are also important to rapidly share information about disease incidents. 13
The program of annual meetings of experts and States Parties—the
intersessional process—undertaken by the BWC States Parties in 2002
has provided the basis for the growing attention to the role that global
health security plays in supporting the BWC regime. The annual meetings
in 2004 and 2009 were devoted to global health topics, and the United
Nations website for the meetings contains materials related to dozens
12 An example from plant pathology would be Karnal bunt of wheat caused by Tilletia
indica. The United States was free of this disease until it showed up on wheat in Arizona
in 1996 and later in Texas and California. Nearly all countries that import wheat from the
United States had and still have quarantine against introduction of this pathogen, whether
on wheat for seed or food. Immediately, a $5 billion U.S. wheat export industry was in
jeopardy as wheat-importing countries turned to Australia, Argentina, and Canada for
their wheat. In response, the U.S. Department of Agriculture implemented a policy whereby
wheat-producing states were surveyed and declared Karnal bunt free, state by state, for the
export market, while wheat from states with the pathogen was dedicated for domestic use
only. Karnal bunt is actually a minor disease of wheat, and the designation of T indica as a
quarantined pathogen has been political and not based on science. Nevertheless, the vulner-
ability of the U.S. wheat industry remains (Bonde et al., 1997).
13 An initiative from the nongovernmental community that preceded—and served as
a model for—current intergovernmental efforts, the International Society for Infectious
Diseases operates ProMed-mail, which provides reports on emerging infectious disease
outbreaks online as well as through an email listserv and also operates region-specific
notifications for areas such as Africa, the former Soviet Union, and Southeast Asia (http://
www.promedmail.org/).
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72 TRENDS RELEVANT TO THE BIOLOGICAL WEAPONS CONVENTION
of presentations and other events.14 The WHO, the World Organization
for Animal Health (OIE), and the United Nations Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO) all made presentations at the 2009 meeting of experts.
One of the outcomes from the meetings has been increasing connections
between the BWC and the WHO, especially with regard to the implemen-
tation of the International Health Regulations (IHRs) adopted in 2005,
because improved capacities to monitor and report disease outbreaks
serve the goals of both regimes.15
OIE’s participation in the intersessional meetings reflects increasing
international attention to the connections between human and animal dis-
eases. The WHO, OIE, and FAO are partners in the Global Early Warning
and Response System (GLEWS), launched in 2006, which is
a joint system that builds on the added value of combining and coordi -
nating the alert and response mechanisms of OIE, FAO and WHO for
the international community and stakeholders to assist in prediction,
prevention and control of animal disease threats, including zoonoses,
through sharing of information, epidemiological analysis and joint field
missions to assess and control the outbreak, whenever needed. (http://
www.glews.net/)
The growing emphasis on public health can be controversial. There
continue to be concerns about the “securitization of health” by drawing
14 See http://www.unog.ch/80256EE600585943/(httpPages)/04FBBDD6315AC720C125
7180004B1B2F?OpenDocument. In 2004, the focus was “strengthening and broadening na -
tional and international institutional efforts and existing mechanisms for the surveillance,
detection, diagnosis and combating of infectious diseases affecting humans, animals, and
plants; and in 2009 it was enhancing international cooperation, assistance and exchange in
biological sciences and technology for peaceful purposes, promoting capacity building in the
fields of disease surveillance, detection, diagnosis, and containment of infectious diseases:
(1) for States Parties in need of assistance, identifying requirements and requests for capacity
enhancement; and (2) from States Parties in a position to do so, and international organiza -
tions, opportunities for providing assistance related to these fields.”
15 “The International Health Regulations (IHR) are an international legal instrument that
is binding on 194 countries across the globe, including all the Member States of WHO. Their
aim is to help the international community prevent and respond to acute public health risks
that have the potential to cross borders and threaten people worldwide. … The IHR, which
entered into force on 15 June 2007, require countries to report certain disease outbreaks and
public health events to WHO. Building on the unique experience of WHO in global disease
surveillance, alert and response, the IHR define the rights and obligations of countries to
report public health events, and establish a number of procedures that WHO must follow in
its work to uphold global public health security. The IHR also require countries to strengthen
their existing capacities for public health surveillance and response. WHO is working closely
with countries and partners to provide technical guidance and support to mobilize the re -
sources needed to implement the new rules in an effective and timely manner. Timely and
open reporting of public health events will help make the world more secure” (WHO, What
Are the IHR?, http://www.who.int/features/qa/39/en/index.html).
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DIFFUSION OF LIFE SCIENCES RESEARCH CAPACITY AND APPLICATIONS
the WHO and the IHR into the realm of biosecurity (Kelle, 2006; Tucker,
2005).16 On the other hand, participants in the meetings hosted by the BWC
ISU and key States Parties to prepare for the Review Conference tended
to emphasize the perceived benefits to viewing cooperation on disease
surveillance via Article X (China, Canada, and BWC ISU, 2010; Indonesia,
Norway, and BWC ISU, 2010), as do a number of national strategy docu-
ments (see, for example, White House, 2009a).
3.2.3 Laboratory Analysis and Response Capabilities
As discussed in Chapter 2, advances in technologies such as biosen -
sors (Section 2.1.7), along with other forms of epidemiological monitoring
(Jeger, 2010; Kurochkin, 2010; Lin, 2010; Resnick, 2010), help build the
essential components of an effective public health system. In addition
to clinical and epidemiological monitoring to detect a disease outbreak,
laboratory analyses are a valuable part of the disease surveillance and
response system to identify and characterize the pathogen in more detail
(Lin, 2010; Murch, 2010). Particular genetic mutations of a pathogen may
be associated with greater virulence or with antimicrobial drug resistance,
for example. Genetic sequencing and other laboratory studies may help
to identify particular changes to be monitored. Human, animal, and plant
pathogens evolve as they spread, and scientific approaches can help trace
the likely movement of pathogen strains over time and location. A closely
related field, bioforensics, which uses scientific tools to help identify the
origin of a particular pathogen and thus has the potential to support
the investigation of natural disease outbreaks or potential bioweapons
incidents as well as to contribute to the global network of national and
international public health disease surveillance labs, is discussed in the
next section.
The increased attention to global health security has included a sig-
nificant expansion of laboratory capacity in many parts of the world, in
part to support research and in part to enable identification of outbreaks
close to the source. The increase in the number of laboratories working
with highly dangerous pathogens has sparked concerns about safety and
security. The 2007 World Health Report warned:
As activities related to infectious disease surveillance and laboratory
research have increased in recent years, so too has the potential for out-
breaks associated with the accidental release of infectious agents. Breaches
in biosafety measures are often responsible for these accidents. At the
same time, opportunities for malicious releases of dangerous pathogens,
16A review of this debate in the context of the development of biosecurity as an issue may
be found in Koblentz (2010).
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74 TRENDS RELEVANT TO THE BIOLOGICAL WEAPONS CONVENTION
once unthinkable, have become a reality, as shown by the anthrax letters
in the United States of America in 2001. (WHO, 2007b:xi)
The most recent edition of the WHO’s Biosafety Manual, published
in 2004, discusses biosecurity for the first time (WHO, 2004). The WHO’s
2006 Biorisk Management: Laboratory Biosecurity Guidance provides
guidance to member states for developing national approaches that can
“strike a balance” between traditional biosafety and more recent security
concerns (WHO, 2006:1).17 And a 2010 report offers guidance on measures
to address the risks of laboratory accidents or potential deliberate misuse
“within the context of promoting and harnessing the power of the life
sciences to improve health for all people” (WHO, 2010:1).
In 2008, the European Committee for Standardization (CEN) pub-
lished its International Laboratory Biorisk Management Standard, which
seeks “to set requirements necessary to control risks associated with
the handling or storage and disposal of biological agents and toxins in
laboratories and facilities” (CEN, 2008:8). The recent rapid growth of
national and regional biosafety associations is intended to develop the
capacity to implement and sustain high standards for laboratory safety
and security.18 In addition, a number of important initiatives focused
specifically on security by national governments, regional organizations,
and international partnerships are bringing substantial resources to bear
to improve safety and security at laboratories around the world, along
with more general public health capacity-building for surveillance and
diagnosis.19 Examples include the U.S. National Strategy for Countering
Biological Threats (White House, 2009a) and the programs to implement
it, the European Commission’s CBRN Centres of Excellence, and the G8
Global Partnership Against the Spread of Weapons and Materials of Mass
Destruction.20
17 The most recent edition of the Biosafety in Microbiological and Biomedical Laboratories from
the U.S. National Institutes of Health, another widely used reference document, also added
a discussion of laboratory biosecurity (CDC/NIH, 2007).
18 Additional information may be found at the website of the International Federation
of Biosafety Associations (IFBA) at http://www.internationalbiosafety.org/english/index.
asp.
19 The U.S. national strategy may be found at http://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/
files/National_Strategy_for_Countering_BioThreats.pdf. Information about the Centres of
Excellence may be found at http://www.cbrn-coe.eu/. The 2011 report on the G8 Global
Partnership may be found at http://www.g20-g8.com/g8-g20/g8/english/the-2011-
s ummit/declarations-and-reports/appendices/report-on-the-g8-global-partnership-
angainst-the.1353.html.
20 For more information see, for example, the Biosecurity Engagement Program of the U.S.
Department of State at http://www.bepstate.net/, the Centres of Excellence at http://www.
cbrn-coe.eu/, and the G8 Global Partnership at http://www.canadainternational.gc.ca/g8/
summit-sommet/2003/mass-destruction-massive.aspx?view=d.
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DIFFUSION OF LIFE SCIENCES RESEARCH CAPACITY AND APPLICATIONS
Although disease monitoring and surveillance is critically impor-
tant, a workshop participant eloquently noted that “surveillance without
response is nothing but the quantification of misery.” Immunological
research to develop vaccines and medical countermeasures helps to pro-
vide a capability to respond to identified outbreaks, and some of the
recent advances are discussed in Section 2.1.3. The field also benefits
directly from collaborative international scientific research as shown in
Figure 3.2. The sizes of the circles on the figure represent numbers of
jointly authored scientific papers in the field of vaccine development,
while the lines represent co-author linkages. Although the United States
and Europe are heavily represented, the map indicates that countries like
Brazil, South Africa, India, China, and Thailand show nodes of significant
involvement as well.
In the area of animal diseases, a very recent global initiative may
contribute to the research capacity to better understand some of these
diseases. The Global Strategic Alliances for the Coordination of Research
on the Major Infectious Diseases of Animals and Zoonoses (STAR-IDAZ)
will include multiple partner counties and will be coordinated by the
U.K. Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) with
the goal of improving information sharing, research coordination, and
priority setting (http://www.star-idaz.net/).
FIGURE 3.2 Patterns of international, multi-author journal publications in the
field of vaccine development.
SOURCE: Ilchmann et al. (2011), reprinted with permission from the Harvard
Sussex Program.
Figure 3-2
low-res, bitmapped
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76 TRENDS RELEVANT TO THE BIOLOGICAL WEAPONS CONVENTION
3.2.4 Discussion and Implications
The combination of tools including sensors, forensics and other labo-
ratory investigations, epidemiological monitoring, and vaccine research—
and its increasingly global distribution—contribute to the development of
effective disease detection, investigation, and response systems. The spe-
cific tools and capabilities needed to investigate a disease outbreak will be
scenario dependent, and it remains difficult to provide real-time awareness
using surveillance networks. However, these multiple tools can provide a
network of complementary support including general detection or rapid
screening to flag a likely outbreak, specific diagnosis and more detailed
characterization of the pathogen, and potential treatments that can be
deployed to protect at-risk populations. Global travel and trade and the
potential commercial as well as health implications of disease outbreaks
highlight vulnerabilities in the system and also emphasize the important
role of international cooperation in disease monitoring and response.
3.3 MICROBIAL FORENSICS:
AN OPPORTUNITY TO TAKE ADVANTAGE OF GROWING
INTERNATIONAL S&T CAPACITY TO SUPPORT THE BWC
One of the fundamental components of any investigation of alleged
hostile use of biological agents, whether by states or non-state actors, will
be scientific analysis to support efforts at attribution. Science may not
offer definitive solutions for all scenarios, but it often plays a special role
in supporting other aspects of an investigation. The investigation of the
2001 anthrax mailings in the United States highlighted the role of micro-
bial forensics in support of pathogen identification and attribution and
served as a driver for the development of new microbial forensics tools
and approaches (Connell, 2010; NRC, 2011b).
Contrary to the images from popular media, however, microbial
forensics is in the early stages of development and faces substantial chal -
lenges that involve fundamental scientific questions. Dr. Randall Murch
of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University noted in his
workshop presentation that many of the tools employed to investigate
the anthrax strains are unique to that case and that only limited foren -
sic systems have been worked out for other pathogens of interest. As a
result, anthrax remains almost a unique case for which detailed forensics
approaches are currently possible (Murch, 2010). Gaps in the development
of microbial forensics that were identified during the discussions included
a lack of common approaches and standards, as well as a lack of agree -
ment on proper sample storage to prevent contamination.
Given the controversies likely to surround any investigation of
alleged use, there could be substantial advantages to building capacity
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in microbial forensics via international collaborations that engage the
broader scientific community. The goal would be to create a shared techni-
cal understanding of the possibilities—and limitations—of the scientific
basis for microbial forensic analysis. Because many of the challenges are
also important questions for the life sciences and related disciplines more
generally, these collaborations could engage the very best scientific talent
across a range of fields. The diffusion of research capacity described in this
chapter means that the effort could be genuinely international from the
beginning. Such collaborations would complement work already being
done by government agencies and scientists in a number of countries,
and could build connections between this work and the contributions
to be made by the wider scientific community. Examples of some of the
science questions identified by Dr. Murch and carried into the workshop
discussions include:
• How can systematics and genomics be reconciled to provide pre-
cise, consistent, and robust approaches to identifying and charac -
terizing sources of microorganisms that can be used as biothreat
agents?
• How could microbial systems be sampled to effectively address
forensic questions?
• What are the “big leaps” in physico-chemical methodology and
technology development that are needed for microbial forensics
and what would be gained from them?
• What is the optimal and most adaptive combination of genomic
and physico-chemical methods to achieve maximal forensic exploi-
tation for current and future biothreat agents?
• What is the most robust statistical approach for defining and com -
municating certainty/uncertainty for microbial samples from
known and questioned sources?
• What computational and bioinformatics tools are needed to sup-
port microbial forensics and what strategic approach could be
developed to achieve them?
• What science has yet to be developed to distinguish among natu-
ral, deliberate, and unintentional outbreaks, and how can the time
to doing so be reduced?
In addition to supporting investigations of alleged hostile uses of
biological agents, advances in technology to support microbial forensics
could be potentially applied to further the development of biosurveillance
and detection systems. The challenge of building capacity for micro-
bial forensics presents one opportunity to take advantage of life sciences
research from around the world to support the work of the BWC.
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78 TRENDS RELEVANT TO THE BIOLOGICAL WEAPONS CONVENTION
3.4 DOING LIFE SCIENCES RESEARCH
OUTSIDE TRADITIONAL INSTITUTIONS
The abundance of kits and commercial services now associated with
modern life sciences research discussed in Section 3.1.2 above, coupled
with excitement about the possibilities of discovery in rapidly advancing
S&T, supports another important form of diffusion: enabling individuals
and groups to do research outside traditional research institutions. In
some cases these are trained scientists taking advantage of commercial
kits and services, as well as the availability of secondhand equipment, to
build their own laboratories and conduct experiments (Carlson, 2005). In
other cases these are individuals who are undertaking research without
having the detailed biological or mechanistic understanding previously
required in the life sciences. Innovative approaches to engaging students
in hands-on research early in their studies are another example. Although
there are important differences among the cases, they are all frequently
included in discussions of “amateur,” “garage,” or “do-it-yourself” (DIY)
biology (Ledford, 2010; Penders, 2011).
3.4.1 Engaging Students: The International Genetically
Engineered Machines (iGEM) Competition
The creation of registries of biological “parts” (sequences of DNA that
can be combined in a straightforward manner to ultimately perform par-
ticular biological functions),21 a key goal for one portion of the synthetic
biology community, also raises the possibility that steps used in traditional
genetic engineering and molecular biology are becoming more standard-
ized and easier to accomplish. iGEM, which began at the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology (MIT) in 2003, provides teams of undergraduate
students with an assortment of standard parts to use to design new biolog-
ical systems; the competition has recently added a division for high school
teams.22 The 2010 competition included 130 groups from more than 29
countries, including 5 teams from countries in Latin America and Africa.
Projects in 2010 included the modification of biosynthetic pathways (Slo -
venia); the creation of a “Virus Construction Kit” of components for adeno-
associated virus (AAV)-based viral gene therapy (Freiburg, Germany); and
the creation of a bacterial diagnostic biosensor designed to respond as a
population to a particular viral infection (WITS, South Africa). Reflecting
the growing global participation, the 2011 competition will begin with
21 The Registry of Standard Biological Parts, used by the iGEM competition, is available
online, as “part of the Synthetic Biology community’s efforts to make biology easier to en -
gineer” (http://partsregistry.org/).
22 More information is available on the iGem website at http://ung.igem.org.
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DIFFUSION OF LIFE SCIENCES RESEARCH CAPACITY AND APPLICATIONS
regional competitions in Europe, Asia, and the Americas in October, fol-
lowed by the Worldwide Championship in November at MIT.
3.4.2 DIY Bio
Just as the iGEM competition arises out of the synthetic biology com-
munity, much of the excitement within and around the amateur biol-
ogy community has also come to be linked with the ability to manipu-
late DNA and with the synthetic biology goal of making biology easier to
engineer.23 The website Diybio.org (http://diybio.org/) lists local groups
of amateur biologists in a variety of major cities, primarily in the United
States and Europe, although groups are also listed in India and Singa-
pore. These local groups may offer community lab space to help facili-
tate hands-on experiments (e.g., Genspace in New York [http://genspace.
org/] or BioCurious in California [http://biocurious.org/]), or offer
training to help people get started. Some DIY biologists also construct
or purchase their own inexpensive versions of equipment for perform-
ing common laboratory tasks such as electrophoresis or thermal cycling,
and information and videos are available online (Ledford, 2010). See, for
example, Teklalabs (http://www.teklalabs.org/about/) and Singular-
ity Hub (http://singularityhub.com/2010/08/03/making-the-modern-
do-it-yourself-biology-laboratory-video/). It is not yet clear how widespread
truly amateur biology has become, but it seems reasonable to expect that this
trend will grow in the future. This underscores the need to understand how
training and know-how are propagated and cultures of safety are developed
in such noninstitutional environments. How does one identify and reach out
to those who may operate unaware of (or indifferent to) government regula-
tory frameworks, which is the typical province of the BWC?
3.4.3 Discussion and Implications
Improving the understanding of and excitement for life sciences
among the public can be seen as advantageous, because scientific research
relies on public trust and public funding and because policies to address
a range of issues require public engagement. It is obviously important
from a safety and security as well as an educational standpoint that
students and amateur/DIY biologists are able to safely conduct their
experiments and that they are able to understand possible risks and ethi-
cal considerations.
23 In the same manner that synthetic biologists have adopted electrical engineering and
computer science terminology (referring to DNA as the “software” of life for example), some
in the amateur biology community refer to themselves as “biohackers.”
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80 TRENDS RELEVANT TO THE BIOLOGICAL WEAPONS CONVENTION
iGEM requires teams to answer safety-related questions about their
proposed projects as part of their application for the competition, and
judges are to consider the answers in assessing the proposals. The website
includes references to various international, regional, and national policies
and regulations related to biosafety. The potential for intentional misuse
of research results is also addressed. The website includes references to
the BWC as the key international legal agreement and to resources related
to responsible conduct as well as national guidelines and regulations.24
Dr. Piers Millet from the BWC’s Implementation Support Unit serves as
an iGEM judge and resource, and in 2010 a U.S.-French team received a
special safety and security award for its development of screening soft -
ware to identify whether DNA parts in the iGEM Standard Registry of
Parts came from pathogens or toxins.25
According to its website, “One motivation for establishing DIYbio.
org in advance of widespread amateur activity in the life sciences is to
create a framework for best practices worldwide,” including resources on
biosafety and norms of ethics and practice (http://diybio.org/safety). In
the United States, the American Association for the Advancement of Sci -
ence is working with the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) on a series
of outreach activities to the amateur biology community. The meetings,
which began in 2009, include researchers, FBI and other government offi-
cials, and members of the amateur biology community (AAAS, 2011). The
FBI also has an active outreach program to U.S. iGEM teams.
Life sciences knowledge and research capacity continue to become
more available to communities who operate outside of traditional settings.
However, although commercial kits and services and other advances such
as standardized DNA parts provide efficiencies and ease-of-use, when it
comes to less highly trained practitioners, it is important to note that suc-
cessful achievement of experimental goals generally relies on more than
these products. Valuable knowledge and skills are also acquired through
experience, and the importance of having these additional levels of knowl-
edge increases with the complexity of the research projects undertaken.
24 For example, the iGEM website contains a box suggesting that “as a participant in iGEM,
there are three things you can do right now to help us secure our science:
• nclude something in your project description and presentations that demonstrates that
I
you have thought about how others could misuse your work
• Contribute to community discussions on what needs to go into a code against the use
of our science for hostile purposes (see A Community Response)
• Look into what security provisions, such as laws and regulations, are already in place
in your country (see Working within the Law).”
25 More information is available at http://2010.igem.org/Security.
