Below are the first 10 and last 10 pages of uncorrected machine-read text (when available) of this chapter, followed by the top 30 algorithmically extracted key phrases from the chapter as a whole.
Intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text on the opening pages of each chapter.
Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages.
Do not use for reproduction, copying, pasting, or reading; exclusively for search engines.
OCR for page 49
6
Papers on Research in
Preventing Violence Against
Women and Children
The science behind preventing violence against women and children
has evolved greatly over the past several decades. Several speakers offered
overviews of the research and described the growing awareness of the com-
plexities of the causes, risk factors, and adverse effects of such violence.
They also explored potential intervention points that were illuminated by
this discussion.
The first paper is a reprint from the World Health Organization pub-
lication Preventing Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Against Women
(WHO and LSHTM, 2010b). The full report provides an overview of the
magnitude of the issue; this workshop summary includes Chapter 3, which
is an in-depth analysis of preventive interventions in low- and middle-
income countries and was the basis for Claudia García-Moreno’s presenta-
tion at the workshop.
The second paper is adapted from the International Men and Gender
Equality Survey (IMAGES), a multi-country study that explored men’s per-
spectives on gender norms and violence. The survey examined the evolving
views of men on gender equality as well as whether these views affected
men’s sense of well-being and their commitment to reducing violence.
The third paper, by Claire Crooks from the University of Western
Ontario and the Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, provides an
overview of the intergenerational transmission of violence. It also explores
the ways in which violence against children can have long-term impacts
as well as what considerations are valuable in designing interventions to
prevent child maltreatment.
49
OCR for page 50
50 PREVENTING VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND CHILDREN
The final two papers, from Roger Fallot and Julian Ford, explore
secondary and tertiary prevention of the long-term effects of violence and
associated trauma by including the “trauma lens” in the provision of social
services as well as through the empowerment of individuals who are ex-
posed to violence. Trauma-informed care and psychosocial empowerment
are two means by which survivors of violence can overcome potential ad-
verse outcomes and prevent the recurrence of violence.
PREVENTING INTIMATE PARTNER AND SEXUAL VIOLENCE
AGAINST WOMEN: PRIMARY PREVENTION STRATEGIES1
Intimate partner and sexual violence are not inevitable—their levels
vary over time and between places because of a variety of social, cultural,
economic, and other factors. This can result in substantial differences
between and within countries in the prevalence of intimate partner and
sexual violence (WHO and LSHTM, 2010a). Most importantly, this varia-
tion shows that such violence can be reduced through well-designed and
effective programs and policies. There are important factors related to both
perpetration and victimization—such as exposure to child maltreatment,
witnessing parental violence, attitudes that are accepting of violence, and
the harmful use of alcohol—that can be addressed (WHO and LSHTM,
2010c).
At present, evidence on the effectiveness of primary prevention strate-
gies for intimate partner and sexual violence is limited, with the overwhelm-
ing majority of data derived from high-income countries (HICs)—primarily
the United States. Consequently, current high priorities in this field include
adapting effective programs from high-income to lower-income settings;
further evaluating and refining those for which evidence is emerging; and
developing and testing strategies that appear to have potential, especially
for use in low-resource settings, with rigorous evaluation of their effective-
ness. At the same time, the dearth of evidence in all countries means that
the generating of evidence and the incorporation of well-designed outcome
evaluation procedures into primary prevention programs are top priorities
everywhere. This will help to ensure that the efforts made in this area are
founded upon a solid evidence base. Furthermore, program developers
should be encouraged to explicitly base programs on existing theoretical
frameworks and models of behavior change to allow underlying mecha-
nisms to be identified and to make replication easier. Most of the evaluated
strategies aimed at preventing intimate partner and sexual violence have
1 Reprinted from World Health Organization and London School of Hygiene and Tropical
Medicine. 2010. Preventing intimate partner and sexual violence against women: Taking
action and generating evidence. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
OCR for page 51
51
PAPERS ON RESEARCH
targeted proximal risk factors—primarily at the individual and relationship
levels of the ecological model.
The Need for Upstream Action
In the public health framework, primary prevention means reducing
the number of new instances of intimate partner and sexual violence by
addressing the factors that make the first-time perpetration of such violence
more likely to occur. Primary prevention therefore relies on identifying the
“upstream” determinants and then taking action to address these. The
impact of widespread, comprehensive programs can then be measured
at the population level by comparing the rates at which such violence is
either experienced or perpetrated. Given the lifetime prevalence of intimate
partner and sexual violence, the hundreds of millions of women worldwide
in need of services would outstrip the capacity of even the best-resourced
countries (WHO and LSHTM, 2010a). A problem on this scale requires a
major focus on primary prevention.
Upstream actions can target risk factors across all four levels of the
ecological model. To decrease intimate partner and sexual violence at the
population level, it is particularly important to address the societal or outer
level of the model.
Such measures include national legislation and supportive policies
aimed at social and economic factors—such as income levels, poverty
and economic deprivation, patterns of male and female employment, and
women’s access to health care, property, education, and political participa-
tion and representation. It is sometimes even argued that programs that
aim to reduce intimate partner and sexual violence against women without
increasing male–female equity will ultimately not succeed in reducing vio-
lence against women. However, while many strategies involving legal and
educational reform and employment opportunities are being implemented
to increase gender equality, few have been assessed for their impact on inti-
mate partner and sexual violence, making the evaluation of such strategies
a priority. Any comprehensive intimate partner and sexual violence preven-
tion strategy must address these sociocultural and economic factors through
legislative and policy changes and by implementing related programs.
Creating a Climate of Non-Tolerance
Addressing risk factors at the societal level may increase the likelihood
of successful and sustainable reductions of intimate partner and sexual
violence. For example, when the law allows husbands to physically disci-
pline wives, implementing a program to prevent intimate partner violence
may have little impact. National legislation and supportive policies should
OCR for page 52
52 PREVENTING VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND CHILDREN
therefore be put in place to ensure that women have equal rights to political
participation, education, work, social security, and an adequate standard of
living. They should also be able to enter freely into a marriage or to leave
it, to obtain financial credit, and to own and administer property. Laws and
policies that discriminate against women should be changed, and any new
legislation and policies should be examined for their impact upon women
and men. Legislation and policies that address wider socioeconomic in-
equalities are likely to reduce other forms of interpersonal violence, which
will in turn help to reduce intimate partner and sexual violence.
Legislation and policies that address wider socioeconomic inequalities
can make a vital contribution to empowering women and improving their
status in society; to creating cultural shifts by changing the norms, attitudes,
and beliefs that support intimate partner and sexual violence; and to creat-
ing a climate of non-tolerance for such violence.
The human rights of girls and women need to be respected, protected,
and fulfilled as part of ensuring the well-being and rights of everyone in
society. As a first step toward this, governments should honor their commit-
ments in implementing the following international legislation and human-
rights instruments:
• Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination
Against Women (1979);
• The Convention on the Rights of the Child (1991);
• The Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women
(1993);
• The Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action (1995);
• The Millennium Declaration (2000); and
• The Inter-American Convention on the Prevention, Punishment and
Eradication of Violence Against Women (Convention of Belem do
Para, 1994).
Legislation and criminal justice systems must also be in place to deal
with cases of intimate partner and sexual violence after the event. These
systems should aim to help prevent further violence, facilitate recovery, and
ensure access to justice—for example, through the provision of specialized
police units, restraining orders, and multi-agency sexual assault response
teams. Potentially, legal protection against intimate partner and sexual vio-
lence helps to reinforce non-violent social norms by sending the message that
such acts will not be tolerated. Measures to criminalize abuse by intimate
partners and to broaden the definition of rape have been instrumental in
bringing these issues out into the open and dispelling the notion that such
violence is a private family matter. In this regard, they have been very im-
portant in shifting social norms (Heise and García-Moreno, 2002; Jewkes et
OCR for page 53
53
PAPERS ON RESEARCH
al., 2002). However, the evidence surrounding the deterrent value of arrest
in cases of intimate partner violence shows that it may be no more effective
in reducing violence than other police responses, such as issuing warnings or
citations, providing counseling, or separating couples (Fagan and Browne,
1994; Garner et al., 1995). Some studies have also shown increased abuse
following arrest, particularly for unemployed men and those living in im-
poverished areas (Fagan and Browne, 1994; Garner et al., 1995). Protec-
tive orders can be useful, but enforcement is uneven, and there is evidence
that they have little effect on men with serious criminal records (Heise and
García-Moreno, 2002). In cases of rape, reforms related to the admissibility
of evidence and removing the requirement for victims’ accounts to be cor-
roborated have also been useful but are ignored in many courts throughout
the world (Du Mont and Parnis, 2000; Jewkes et al., 2002).
Currently, on the whole, sufficient evidence of the deterrent effect of
criminal justice system responses on intimate partner and sexual violence
is still lacking (Dahlberg and Butchart, 2005). Dismantling hierarchical
constructions of masculinity and femininity predicated on the control of
women and eliminating the structural factors that support inequalities are
likely to make a significant contribution to preventing intimate partner
and sexual violence. However, these are long-term goals. Strategies aimed
at achieving these long-term objectives should be complemented by mea-
sures with more immediate effects that are informed by the evidence base
presented in this paper.
ASSESSING THE EVIDENCE FOR DIFFERENT
PREVENTION APPROACHES
From the perspective of public health, a fundamental question is, “Do
intimate partner and sexual violence prevention programs work?” That is
to say, are there certain programs or strategies that are effective in prevent-
ing or reducing intimate partner and sexual violence? Effectiveness can
only be demonstrated using rigorous research designs, such as randomized
controlled trials or quasi-experimental designs. These typically compare
the outcomes of an experimental group (which receives the program) with
a control or comparison group (which is as equivalent as possible to the
experimental group but which does not receive the program). One major
concern is to be able to rule out alternative explanations for any observed
changes in outcome in order to be confident that the changes really were
due to the program and not some other factor.
Although “testimonials” are not a sound basis for evaluating the ef-
fectiveness of a program, they can provide insights into its running and
on whether participants find it worthwhile. However, approaches that are
based upon testimonials might expend significant resources and capacity on
OCR for page 54
54 PREVENTING VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND CHILDREN
programs that may be ineffective or may even make things worse (Dahlberg
and Butchart, 2005). Various criteria have now been proposed to more
systematically evaluate the effectiveness of different programs. The most
stringent criteria involve program evaluation using experimental or quasi-
experimental designs; evidence of significant preventive effects; evidence of
sustained effects; and the independent replication of outcomes.
In spite of the emphasis on and visibility of efforts to promote gender
equality and prevent intimate partner and sexual violence, very few of the
programs reviewed in this paper meet all of these criteria, while others have
not been subjected to any kind of scientific evaluation. Rigorous scientific
evaluation of programs for preventing intimate partner and sexual violence
are even rarer in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). The field of
intimate partner and sexual violence prevention must therefore be consid-
ered to be at its earliest stages in terms of having an established evidence
base for primary prevention strategies, programs, and policies. The limited
evidence base for intimate partner and sexual violence prevention has three
important implications for this paper.
First, the paper extrapolates, when relevant, from the stronger evidence
base for child maltreatment and youth violence prevention but clearly
signals that these extrapolations remain speculative. Much, however, can
be learned from the literature on youth violence and child maltreatment
prevention.
Second, the paper describes those primary prevention programs that
have the potential to be effective either on the grounds of theory or
knowledge of risk factors—even if there is currently little or no evidence
to support them or where, in certain cases, they have not yet been widely
implemented. In the process, an attempt is made to draw attention to
the underlying theories, principles, and mechanisms on which the pro-
grams are based. However, it is noted that a firm theoretical base and
consistency with identified risk factors do not guarantee the success of
a program.
Third, the paper includes programs developed in LMIC settings on
condition that they have some supporting evidence (even if it is weak) or
are currently in the process of being evaluated, that they appear to have
potential on theoretical grounds, or that they address known risk factors.
The inclusion criteria are designed on the one hand to avoid setting the
bar of methodological standards too high—which would lead to the exclu-
sion of many of the programs developed in low-resource settings on the
grounds that they have no or low-quality evidence supporting them. On
the other hand, setting the bar too low would run the risk of appearing to
endorse programs unsupported by evidence. However, the limitations of the
evidence presented are clearly spelt out and the need for rigorous outcome
evaluation studies emphasized.
OCR for page 55
55
PAPERS ON RESEARCH
Although still in its early stages, there are sound reasons to believe that
this field is poised to expand rapidly in coming years. Some programs have
been demonstrated to be effective following rigorous outcome evaluations,
evidence is beginning to emerge to support the effectiveness of many more,
and suggestions for potential strategies have proliferated. Furthermore,
tried and tested methods for developing effective evidence-based primary
prevention programs and policies for other forms of interpersonal violence
have been reported. The field of evidence-based intimate partner and sexual
violence prevention now requires an open mind to promising approaches
and to innovative new ideas at all stages of the life cycle.
SUMMARY TABLES OF PRIMARY PREVENTION
STRATEGIES AND PROGRAMS
Table 6-1 summarizes the strength of evidence for the effectiveness of
those strategies to prevent intimate partner violence and sexual violence for
which some evidence is available. Strategies are grouped according to life
stage. An important distinction must be drawn between a strategy and a
specific program. Although specific programs may have been demonstrated
to be effective, this in no way implies that all other programs categorized
under the same strategy are also effective. For example, the Nurse Family
Partnership, developed in the United States, is a home-visitation program
that has been demonstrated to be effective in preventing child maltreatment.
Nevertheless, it is the only program within the broader strategy of home
visitation (which includes a multitude of different programs) that is sup-
ported by solid evidence of its effectiveness (MacMillan et al., 2009). The
outcome measures of effectiveness are described in Box 6-1.
Strategies are ranked for their effectiveness in preventing intimate part-
ner violence and sexual violence as follows:
• Effective: strategies that include one or more programs demon-
strated to be effective. Effective refers to being supported by mul-
tiple well-designed studies showing prevention of perpetration and/
or experience of intimate partner and/or sexual violence.
• Emerging evidence: strategies that include one or more programs
for which evidence of effectiveness is emerging. Emerging evidence
refers to being supported by one well-designed study showing pre-
vention of perpetration and/or experience of intimate partner and/
or sexual violence or studies showing positive changes in knowl-
edge, attitudes, and beliefs related to intimate partner violence and/
or sexual violence.
• Effectiveness unclear: strategies that include one or more programs
of unclear effectiveness due to insufficient or mixed evidence.
OCR for page 56
56 PREVENTING VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND CHILDREN
• Emerging evidence of ineffectiveness: strategies that include one or
more programs for which evidence of ineffectiveness is emerging.
Emerging evidence refers to being supported by one well-designed
study showing lack of prevention of perpetration and/or experience
of intimate partner and/or sexual violence or studies showing an
absence of changes in knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs related to
intimate partner violence and/or sexual violence.
• Ineffective: strategies that include one or more programs shown
to be ineffective. Ineffective refers to being supported by multiple
well-designed studies showing lack of prevention of perpetration
and/or experience of intimate partner and/or sexual violence.
• Probably harmful: strategies that include at least one well-designed
study showing an increase in perpetration and/or experience of
intimate partner and/or sexual violence or negative changes in
knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs related to intimate partner and/
or sexual violence.
As shown in Table 6-1, there is currently only one strategy for the
prevention of intimate partner violence that can be classified “effective”
at preventing actual violence. This is the use of school-based programs
to prevent violence within dating relationships. However, only three
such programs—described below—have been demonstrated to be effec-
tive, and these findings cannot be extrapolated to other school-based
programs using a different approach, content, or intensity. At present,
there are no correspondingly evaluated effective programs against sexual
violence.
TABLE 6-1 Primary Prevention Strategies for Intimate Partner Violence
and Sexual Violence for Which Some Evidence Is Available
Strategy Intimate Partner Violence Sexual Violence
During Infancy, Childhood,
and Early Adolescence
Interventions for children and adolescents 2 3
subjected to child maltreatment and/or
exposed to intimate partner violence
School-based training to help children 3 2
recognize and avoid potentially sexually
abusive situations
During Adolescence and Early Adulthood
School-based programs to prevent dating 1 N/A
violence
Sexual violence prevention programs for N/A 3
school and college populations
OCR for page 57
57
PAPERS ON RESEARCH
TABLE 6-1 Continued
Strategy Intimate Partner Violence Sexual Violence
Rape-awareness and knowledge programs N/A 4
for school and college populations
Education (as opposed to skills training) N/A 5
on self-defense strategies for school and
college populations
Confrontational rape prevention programs N/A 6
During Adulthood
Empowerment and participatory approaches 2 3
for addressing gender inequality:
Microfinance and gender-equality training
Empowerment and participatory approaches 2 3
for addressing gender inequality:
Communication and relationship skills
training (e.g., Stepping Stones)
Home-visitation programs with an intimate 3 3
partner violence component
All Life Stages
Reduce access to and harmful use of alcohol 2 3
Change social and cultural gender norms 3 2
through the use of social norms theory
Change social and cultural gender norms 2 3
through media awareness campaigns
Change social and cultural gender norms 2 3
through working with men and boys
1—Effective: strategies that include one or more programs demonstrated to be effective;
effective refers to being supported by multiple well-designed studies showing prevention of
perpetration and/or experiencing of intimate partner and/or sexual violence;
2—Emerging evidence of effectiveness: strategies that include one or more programs for which
evidence of effectiveness is emerging; emerging evidence refers to being supported by one well-
designed study showing prevention of perpetration and/or experiencing of intimate partner
and/or sexual violence or studies showing positive changes in knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs
related to intimate partner violence and/or sexual violence;
3—Effectiveness unclear: strategies that include one or more programs of unclear effectiveness
due to insufficient or mixed evidence;
4—Emerging evidence of ineffectiveness: strategies that include one or more programs for
which evidence of ineffectiveness is emerging; emerging evidence refers to being supported by
one well-designed study showing lack of prevention of perpetration and/or experience of inti-
mate partner and/or sexual violence or studies showing an absence of changes in knowledge,
attitudes, and beliefs related to intimate partner violence and/or sexual violence;
5—Ineffective: strategies that include one or more programs shown to be ineffective; ineffec-
tive refers to being supported by multiple well-designed studies showing lack of prevention of
perpetration and/or experiencing of intimate partner and/or sexual violence;
6—Probably harmful: strategies that include at least one well-designed study showing an in-
crease in perpetration and/or experience of intimate partner and/or sexual violence or negative
changes in knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs related to intimate partner and/or sexual violence;
N/A—Not applicable.
OCR for page 58
58 PREVENTING VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND CHILDREN
BOX 6-1
Outcome Measures of Effectiveness
The effectiveness of a program can be evaluated in terms of three different
types of outcome—each of which can be measured at different intervals after the
program:
1. Changes in knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs regarding intimate partner
and sexual violence. This is the weakest of the three outcomes because
changes in knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs do not necessarily lead to
changes in violent behavior. In this respect, even successful programs
in this area cannot be assumed to be effective at preventing actual inti-
mate partner or sexual violence without further research demonstrating
corresponding reductions in violent behavior.
2. Reductions in the perpetration of intimate partner or sexual violence.
3. Reductions in the experience of intimate partner or sexual violence.
Intimate partner violence is not a unitary construct and can take different
forms, including physical, sexual, and psychological violence. Despite this, out-
come evaluations generally do not examine effectiveness in relation to these
different types of violence—nor are programs generally designed to address
specific types of intimate partner violence in particular. It is possible that programs
considered to be effective or promising may only be so for certain forms of intimate
partner violence (Whitaker et al., 2007a).
Table 6-2 lists those strategies for which there is currently no evidence
or very weak evidence but that appear to have potential on the grounds of
theory, known risk factors, or outcome evaluations that are methodologi-
cally of lower quality; it also includes some promising strategies that are
currently undergoing evaluation.
All the strategies reviewed have been organized according to the main
life stages. When strategies are relevant to more than one life stage, they
have been categorized under the stage at which they are most often de-
livered. Strategies relevant to all life stages are described last. Because of
the way programs are organized, intimate partner violence is considered
here to include instances of sexual violence that occur within an intimate
partnership, while sexual violence is used here to refer to sexual violence
occurring outside intimate partnerships (i.e., perpetrated by friends, ac-
quaintances, or strangers). Dating violence can be considered to incorporate
both possibilities because dating partners can range from being little more
than acquaintances to more intimate partners. However, in Table 6-1 and
Table 6-2 dating violence is classified for the sake of convenience under
intimate partner violence.
OCR for page 59
59
PAPERS ON RESEARCH
TABLE 6-2 Primary Prevention Strategies for Intimate Partner Violence
and Sexual Violence with Potential
STRATEGY
During Infancy, Childhood, and Early Adolescence
Home-visitation programs to prevent child maltreatment
Parent education to prevent child maltreatment
Parent education to prevent child maltreatment
Improve maternal mental health
Identify and treat conduct and emotional disorders
School-based social and emotional skills development
Bullying prevention programs
During Adolescence and Early Adulthood
School-based multi-component violence prevention programs
During Adulthood
U.S. Air Force multi-component program to prevent suicide
During Infancy, Childhood, and Early Adolescence
Home-Visitation and Parent-Education Programs
to Prevent Child Maltreatment
As noted in earlier sections of this document, a history of child mal-
treatment substantially increases the risk of an individual becoming either
a perpetrator or victim of intimate partner violence and of sexual violence.
It is therefore reasonable to assume that preventing child maltreatment has
the potential to reduce subsequent intimate partner and sexual violence
(Foshee et al., 2009). However, direct evidence of the effect of such pro-
grams on the levels of intimate partner violence is currently still lacking.
In general, however, reducing the risk of the different forms of child
maltreatment reviewed in Preventing Child Maltreatment: A Guide to Taking
Action and Generating Evidence (WHO and International Society for Pre-
vention of Child Abuse and Neglect, 2006) can contribute to reducing the
intergenerational transmission of violence and abuse. The most promis-
ing strategies for preventing child maltreatment in this area include home-
visitation and parent-education programs (Mikton and Butchart, 2009).
However, neither type of program has been evaluated for its long-term effects
on the prevention of intimate partner and sexual violence among the grown-
up children of parents who were involved in such programs.
Improve Maternal Mental Health
Maternal depression (which affects at least 1 in 10 new mothers)
can interfere with good bonding and attachment processes. This in turn
OCR for page 106
106 PREVENTING VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND CHILDREN
TARGET has been evaluated in a series of real-world effectiveness stud-
ies as a group therapy for women and men in substance abuse treatment
as well as for incarcerated women, as a one-to-one therapy for low-income
women with complex trauma histories and girls involved in delinquency,
and as a combined group and milieu intervention for girls and boys placed
in juvenile detention centers (Frisman et al., 2008, Ford et al., in press-b, in
preparation; Ford and Hawke, in review). Group and milieu interventions
enable participants to provide one another with peer modeling, support,
and guidance as well as potentially enabling the program or community in
which they take place to become “trauma informed” (Fallot and Harris,
2008). Consistent with this view, TARGET was found to enable women
and men recovering from substance abuse to maintain a sense of realis-
tic confidence and optimism (“sobriety self-efficacy”), where others who
received substance abuse treatment as usual showed a marked decline in
this important resilience factor (Frisman et al., 2008). The benefits to the
entire setting were evident in findings from the evaluation of TARGET in
youth detention centers, in which every session of TARGET received by a
girl or boy was associated with a reduction in the number of behavioral
incidents and punitive sanctions imposed by staff during the first two weeks
of youths’ stay in the facilities (Ford and Hawke, in review). On the other
hand, many girls or women who have experienced violence may prefer
the privacy of a one-to-one therapy intervention, and TARGET showed
evidence of helping both underserved women and girls to not only reduce
their PTSD symptoms but also to increase their ability to regulate emotions
(Ford et al., in press-a, in press-b).
Implications of a Psychological Empowerment
Approach for Violence Survivors
To the extent that knowledge is power, providing women and children
who have experienced violence with de-stigmatizing explanations of why
they are struggling with persistent emotional distress and how they can
draw upon their inherent personal strengths to regain their emotional bal-
ance is a very direct and essential form of psychological empowerment.
Equally, if not more, important is bringing this same knowledge to the
many professionals, advocates, policy makers, funders, jurists, and regula-
tors who determine how scarce societal resources will be allocated both
to prevent violence and to restore the lives and well-being of survivors of
violence. If violence changes how survivors’ bodies respond to subsequent
stressors (non-violent as well as violent), then traumatic stress disorders
such as PTSD and its more complex variants are simply extreme versions
of the out-of-balance emotional states that everyone experiences. Therefore,
if recovery from the aftereffects of violence involves regaining or restoring
OCR for page 107
107
PAPERS ON RESEARCH
innate capacities for re-setting the body’s stress reaction systems—and, in
so doing, regaining or restoring the innate ability to regulate emotions and
maintain a generally healthy balanced emotional state despite expectable
perturbations—it is essential that not only violence survivors but also the
public at large (including those key determiners and providers of services)
are informed about why and how emotion regulation is essential not only
for survivors of violence but also on a larger scale to prevent violence. With
this perspective, it becomes possible to understand not only the aftereffects
of violence but also violence itself as resulting at least in part from emotion
dysregulation on a broad scale (e.g., uncivil discourse in politics or extreme
economic and social disparities). Knowledge and skills regarding emotion
regulation are essential not just for violence survivors, but for everyone.
REFERENCES
Adegoke, T. G., and D. Oladeji. 2008. Community norms and cultural attitudes and beliefs
factors influencing violence against women of reproductive age in Nigeria. European
Journal of Scientific Research 20:265-273.
Adi, Y., A. Killoran, K. Janmohamed, and S. Stewart-Brown. 2007. Systematic review of the
effectiveness of interventions to promote mental wellbeing in children in primary educa-
tion. Report 1: Universal approaches: non-violence related outcomes. London: National
Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence.
Ahmed, S. M. 2005. Intimate partner violence against women: Experiences from a woman-
focused development programme in Matlab, Bangladesh. Journal of Health, Population
and Nutrition 23(1):95-101.
Amaro, H. 2011. The Boston Consortium Model: Treatment of trauma among women with
substance use disorders. Paper presented at Workshop on Preventing Violence against
Women and Children, Institute of Medicine, Washington, DC. January 28.
Amoakohene, M. I. 2004. Violence against women in Ghana: A look at women’s perceptions
and review of policy and social responses. Social Science and Medicine 59:2373-2385.
Anderson, L. A., and S. C. Whiston. 2005. Sexual assault education programs: A meta-analytic
examination of their effectiveness. Psychology of Women Quarterly 29:374-388.
Anderson, P., D. Chisholm, and D. C. Fuhr. 2009. Effectiveness and cost-effectiveness
of policies and programmes to reduce the harm caused by alcohol. The Lancet
373(9682):2234-2246.
APA (American Psychiatric Association). 1997. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental
disorders (DSM), fourth edition. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.
APA. 2004. Practice guideline for the treatment of patients with acute stress disorder and post-
traumatic stress disorder. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.
Australian Centre for Posttraumatic Mental Health. 2007. Australian guidelines for the treat-
ment of adults with acute stress disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder. Melbourne,
Australia: Australian Centre for Posttraumatic Mental Health.
Bacon, H., and S. Richardson. 2001. Attachment theory and child abuse: An overview of the
literature for practitioners. Child Abuse Review 10:377-397.
Bair-Merritt, M. H., J. M. Jennings, R. Chen, L. Burrell, E. MacFarlane, L. Fuddy, and A. K.
Duggan. 2010. Reducing maternal intimate partner violence after the birth of a child:
A randomized controlled trial of the Hawaii Healthy Start home visitation program.
Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 164(1):16-23.
OCR for page 108
108 PREVENTING VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND CHILDREN
Baldry, A. C., and D. P. Farrington. 2007. Effectiveness of programs to prevent school bully-
ing. Victims and Offenders 2(2):183-204.
Bandura, A. 1977. Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Bandura, A. 1986. Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Barker, G., C. Ricardo, and M. Nascimento. 2007. Engaging men and boys in changing gender
based inequity in health: Evidence from programme interventions. Geneva, Switzerland:
World Health Organization.
Basile, K. C., M. F. Hertz, and S. E. Back. 2009. Intimate partner violence and sexual violence
victimization assessment instruments for use in healthcare settings: Version 1. Atlanta,
GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
Bilukha, O., R. A. Hahn, A. Crosby, M. T. Fullilove, A. Liberman, E. Moscicki, S. Snyder, F.
Tuma, P. Corso, A. Schofield, P. A. Briss, and Task Force on Community Preventive Ser-
vices. 2005. The effectiveness of early childhood home visitation in preventing violence:
A systematic review. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 28:11-39.
Bloom, S., and B. Farragher. 2010. Destroying sanctuary: The crisis in human service delivery
systems. New York: Oxford University Press.
Bowlby, J. 1980. Attachment and loss. New York: Basic.
Bowlby, J. 1990. A secure base: Parent-child attachment and healthy human development.
London: Routledge.
Breitenbecher, K. H., and C. A. Gidycz. 1998. Empirical evaluation of a program designed
to reduce the risk of multiple sexual victimization. Journal of Interpersonal Violence
13:472-488.
Breitenbecher, K. H., and M. Scarce. 2001. An evaluation of the effectiveness of a sexual
assault education program focusing on psychological barriers to resistance. Journal of
Interpersonal Violence 16:387-407.
Briggs-Gowan, M. J., J. D. Ford, L. Fraleigh, K. McCarthy, and A. S. Carter. 2010. Preva-
lence of exposure to potentially traumatic events in a healthy birth cohort of very young
children in the northeastern United States. Journal of Traumatic Stress 23(6):725-733.
Bruce, S. 2002. The “A Man” campaign: Marketing social norms to men to prevent sexual
assualt. The Report on Social Norms, Working paper, No. 5. Little Falls, NJ: PaperClip
Communications.
Campbell, J. C. 2005. Assessing dangerousness in domestic violence cases: History, challenges,
and opportunities. Criminology & Public Policy 4:653-672.
Chaffin, M., J. F. Silovsky, B. Funderburk, L. A. Valle, E. V. Brestan, T. Balachova, S. Jackson,
J. Lensgraf, and B. L. Bonner. 2004. Parent–child interaction therapy with physically
abusive parents: Efficacy for reducing future abuse reports. Journal of Consulting and
Clinical Psychology 72(3):500-510.
Chaloupka, F. J., M. Grossman, and H. Saffer. 2002. The effects of price on alcohol consump-
tion and alcohol-related problems. Alcohol Research and Health 26(1):22-34.
Champion, H. L., and R. H. Durant. 2001. Exposure to violence and victimization and the use
of violence by adolescents in the United States. Minerva Pediatrics 53:189-197.
Cloitre, M., K. C. Stovall-McClough, K. Nooner, P. Zorbas, S. Cherry, C. L. Jackson, W. Gan,
and E. Petkova. 2010. Treatment for PTSD related to childhood abuse: A randomized
controlled trial. American Journal of Psychiatry 167(8):915-924.
Cocozza, J. J., E. W. Jackson, K. Hennigan, J. P. Morrissey, B. G. Reed, R. D. Fallot, and S.
Banks. 2005. Outcomes for women with co-occurring disorders and trauma: Program-
level effects. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 28(2):109-119.
Cook, J. M., P. P. Schnurr, and E. B. Foa. 2004. Bridging the gap between posttraumatic
stress disorder research and clinical practice. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice,
Training 41:374-387.
OCR for page 109
109
PAPERS ON RESEARCH
Courtois, C. A., J. D. Ford, and M. Cloitre. 2009. Best practices in psychotherapy for adults.
In C. A. Courtois and J. D. Ford, eds., Treating complex traumatic stress disorders: An
evidence-based guide (pp. 82-103). New York: Guilford Press.
Covington, S. 2003. Beyond trauma: A healing journey for women. City Center, MN: Hazelden.
Covington, S. 2007. Women and addiction: A gender-responsive approach. Clinical innovators
series. City Center, MN: Hazelden.
CREST. 2003. The management of post traumatic stress disorder in adults. Belfast, Ireland:
Clinical Resource Efficiency Support Team.
Crooks, C. V. 2011. Cycles of violence. Paper presented at Workshop on Preventing Violence
Against Women and Children, Institute of Medicine, Washington, DC. January 28.
Crooks, C. V., K. L. Scott, D. A. Wolfe, D. Chiodo, and S. Killip. 2007. Understanding the
link between childhood maltreatment and violent delinquency: What do schools have to
add? Child Maltreatment 12(3):269-280.
Dahlberg, L. L., and A. Butchart. 2005. State of the science: Violence prevention efforts in
developing and developed countries. International Journal of Injury Control and Safety
Promotion 12(2):93-104.
Dias, M. A., K. Smith, K. deGuehery, P. Mazur, V. Li, and M. L. Shaffer. 2005. Preventing
abusive head trauma among infants and young children: A hospital-based, parent educa-
tion program. Pediatrics 115:e470-477.
Dodge, K. A., J. D. Coie, G. S. Pettit, and J. M. Price. 1990. Peer status and aggression in boys’
groups: Developmental and contextual analyses. Child Development 61(5):1289-1309.
Dodge, K. A., G. S. Pettit, and J. E. Bates. 1994. Effects of physical maltreatment on the de-
velopment of peer relations. Development and Psychopathology 6:43-55.
Douglas, M. 1998. Restriction of the hours of sale of alcohol in a small community: A benefi-
cial impact. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health 22:714-719.
Du Mont, J., and D. Parnis. 2000. Sexual assault and legal resolution: Querying the medical
collection of forensic evidence. Medicine and Law 19:779-792.
Duailibi, S., W. Ponicki, J. Grube, I. Pinsky, R. Laranjeira, and M. Raw. 2007. The effect of
restricting opening hours on alcohol-related violence. American Journal of Public Health
97:2276-2280.
Dusenbury, L., M. Falco, A. Lake, R. Brannigan, and K. Bosworth. 1997. Nine critical ele-
ments of promising violence prevention programs. Journal of School Health 67:409-414.
Eckenrode, J., B. Ganzel, C. R. Henderson, Jr., E. Smith, D. L. Olds, J. Powers, R. Cole,
H. Kitzman, and K. Sidora. 2000. Preventing child abuse and neglect with a pro-
gram of nurse home visitation: The limiting effects of domestic violence. JAMA
284(11):1385-1391.
Ehrensaft, M. K., P. Cohen, J. Brown, E. Smailes, H. Chen, and J. G. Johnson. 2001. Inter-
generational transmission of partner violence: A 20-year prospective study. Journal of
Consulting and Clinical Psychology 71:741-753.
Eisner, L. R., S. L. Johnson, and C. S. Carver. 2009. Positive affect regulation in anxiety dis-
orders. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 23(5):645-649.
Ellsberg, M., J. Liljestrand, and A. Winkwist. 1997. The Nicaraguan Network of Women
Against Violence: Using research and action for change. Reproductive Health Matters,
5(10):82-92.
Fabiano, P., H. W. Perkins, A. Berkowitz, J. Linkenbach, and C. Stark. 2003. Engaging men
as social justice allies in ending violence against women: Evidence for a social norms
approach. Journal of American College Health 52:105-112.
Fagan, J., and A. Browne. 1994. Violence between spouses and intimates: Physical aggression
between women and men in intimate relationships. In A. J. Reiss, Jr., and J. A. Roth,
eds. Understanding and preventing violence, Volume 3: Social Influences (pp. 115-292).
Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
OCR for page 110
110 PREVENTING VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND CHILDREN
Fallot, R. D., and M. Harris. 2008. Trauma-informed services. In G. Reyes, J. D. Elhai and
J. D. Ford, eds. The Encyclopedia of Psychological Trauma. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley.
Fallot, R. D., and M. Harris. 2009. Creating cultures of trauma-informed care: A self-
assessment and planning protocol. Washington, DC: Community Connections.
Farkas, M., C. Gagne, W. Anthony, and J. Chamberlin. 2005. Implementing recovery oriented
evidence based programs: Identifying the critical dimensions. Community Mental Health
Journal 41(2):141-158.
Farrington, D. P., and M. M. Ttofi. 2009. School-based programs to reduce bullying and
victimization. Campbell Systematic Reviews. Oslo, Norway: Campbell Collaboration.
Finkelhor, D. 2009. The prevention of childhood sexual abuse. The Future of Children
19(2):169-194.
Finkelhor, D., N. Asdigian, and J. Dziuba-Leatherman. 1995. The effectiveness of victimiza-
tion prevention instruction: An evaluation of children’s responses to actual threats and
assaults. Child Abuse and Neglect 19:141-153.
Finkelhor, D., R. K. Ormrod, and H. A. Turner. 2009. Lifetime assessment of poly-victimization
in a national sample of children and youth. Child Abuse and Neglect 33(7):403-411.
Finnish Foundation for Alcohol Studies. 2003. Alcohol in developing societies: A public health
approach. Helsinki and Geneva: Finnish Foundation for Alcohol Studies and World
Health Organization.
Fisher, G. J. 1986. College student attitudes toward forcible date rape: Changes after taking a
human sexuality course. Journal of Sex Education and Therapy 12:42-46.
Foa, E. B., T. Keane, M. J. Friedman, and J. A. Cohen, eds. 2009. Effective treatments for
PTSD, 2nd ed. New York: Guilford.
Fontaine, R. G. 2010. New developments in developmental research on social information pro-
cessing and antisocial behavior. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 38(5):569-573.
Forbes, D., M. Creamer, J. I. Bisson, J. A. Cohen, B. E. Crow, E. B. Foa, M. J. Friedman, T. M.
Keane, H. S. Kudler, and R. J. Ursano. 2010. A guide to guidelines for the treatment of
PTSD and related conditions. Journal of Traumatic Stress 23(5):537-552.
Ford, J. D. 2005. Treatment implications of altered neurobiology, emotion regulation and
information processing following child maltreatment. Psychiatric Annals 35:410-419.
Ford, J. D., and M. Cloitre. 2009. Best practices in psychotherapy for children and adoles-
cents. In C. Courtois and J. D. Ford, eds., Treating complex traumatic stress disorders:
An evidence-based guide (pp. 59-81). New York: Guilford.
Ford, J. D., D. F. Connor, and J. Hawke. 2009. Complex trauma among psychiatrically
impaired children: A cross-sectional, chart-review study. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry
70(8):1155-1163.
Ford, J. D., J. D. Elhai, D. F. Connor, and B. C. Frueh. 2010. Poly-victimization and risk of
posttraumatic, depressive, and substance use disorders and involvement in delinquency
in a national sample of adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health 46(6):545-552.
Ford, J. D., J. K. Hartman, J. Hawke, and J. Chapman. 2008. Traumatic victimization, post-
traumatic stress disorder, suicidal ideation, and substance abuse risk among juvenile
justice-involved youths. Journal of Child and Adolescent Trauma 1:75-92.
Ford, J. D., and J. Hawke. In review. Trauma emotion regulation psychoeducation group
attendance is associated with reduced disciplinary incidents and sanctions in juvenile
detention facilities. Journal of Child and Adolescent Trauma.
Ford, J. D., and E. Russo. 2006. Trauma-focused, present-centered, emotional self-regulation
approach to integrated treatment for posttraumatic stress and addiction: Trauma Adap-
tive Recovery Group Education and Therapy (TARGET). American Journal of Psycho-
therapy 60(4):335-355.
OCR for page 111
111
PAPERS ON RESEARCH
Ford, J. D., K. Steinberg, J. Hawke, J. Levine, and W. Zhang. In press-a. Evaluation of trauma
emotion regulation—Guide for education and therapy (TARGET) with traumatized girls
involved in delinquency. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology.
Ford, J. D., K. Steinberg, and W. Zhang. In press-b. Emotion regulation and social problem-
solving psychotherapies for high-risk mothers with PTSD. Behavior Therapy.
Foshee, V. A., G. F. Linder, K. E. Bauman, S. A. Langwick, X. B. Arriaga, J. L. Health, P. M.
McMahon, and S. Bangdiwala. 1996. The Safe Dates project: Theoretical basis, evalu-
ation design, and selected baseline findings. American Journal of Preventive Medicine
12(5):39-47.
Foshee, V. A., K. E. Bauman, X. B. Arriaga, R. W. Helms, G. G. Koch, and G. F. Linder. 1998.
An evaluation of Safe Dates, an adolescent dating violence prevention program. American
Journal of Public Health 88(1):45-50.
Foshee, V. A., K. E. Bauman, W. F. Greene, G. G. Koch, G. F. Linder, and J. E. MacDougall.
2000. The Safe Dates program: 1-year follow-up results. American Journal of Public
Health 90(10):1619-1622.
Foshee, V. A., K. E. Bauman, S. T. Ennett, G. F. Linder, T. Benefield, and C. Suchindran. 2004.
Assessing the long-term effects of the Safe Dates program and a booster in preventing and
reducing adolescent dating violence victimization and perpetration. American Journal of
Public Health 94(4):619-624.
Foshee, V. A., K. E. Bauman, S. T. Ennett, C. Suchindran, T. Benefield, and G. F. Linder. 2005.
Assessing the effects of the dating violence prevention program “Safe Dates” using ran-
dom coefficient regression modeling. Prevention Science 6:245-258.
Foshee, V. A., K. J. Karriker–Jaffe, H. L. Reyes, S. T. Ennett, C. Suchindran, K. E. Bauman,
and T. Benefield. 2008. What accounts for demographic differences in trajectories of
adolescent dating violence? An examination of intrapersonal and contextual mediators.
Journal of Adolescent Health 42(6):596-604.
Foshee, V. A., M. L. Reyes, and S. Wyckoff. 2009. Approaches to preventing psychological,
physical, and sexual partner abuse. In D. O’Leary and E. Woodin, eds., Psychological
and physical aggression in couples: Causes and interventions (pp. 165-190). Washington,
DC: American Psychological Association.
Fox A. M., S. S. Jackson, N. B. Hansen, N. Gasa, M. Crewe, and K. J. Sikkema. 2007. In their
own voices: A qualitative study of women’s risk for intimate partner violence and HIV
in South Africa. Violence Against Women 13:583-602.
FPH (U.K. Faculty of Public Health). 2008. Alcohol and public health. Faculty of Public
Health position statement: U.K. Faculty of Public Health.
Frisman, L., J. D. Ford, H. Lin, S. Mallon, and R. Chang. 2008. Outcomes of trauma treatment
using the TARGET model. Journal of Groups in Addiction and Recovery 3:285-303.
Garbarino, J. 1999. Lost boys: Why our sons turn violent and how we can save them. New
York: The Free Press.
Garner, J., J. Fagan, and C. Maxwell. 1995. Published findings from the Spouse Assault
Replication Program: A critical review. Journal of Quantitative Criminology 11:3-28.
Gibson, L. E., and H. Leitemberg. 2000. Child sexual abuse prevention programs: Do they
decrease the occurrence of child sexual abuse? Child Abuse & Neglect 24:1115-1125.
Gill, J. M., G. G. Page, P. Sharps, and J. C. Campbell. 2008. Experiences of traumatic events
and associations with PTSD and depression development in urban health care-seeking
women. Journal of Urban Health 85(5):693-706.
Go, V. F., S. C. Johnson, M. E. Bentley, S. Sivaram, A. K. Srikrishnan, D. D. Celentano, and
S. Solomon. 2003. Crossing the threshold: Engendered definitions of socially acceptable
domestic violence in Chennai, India. Culture, Health and Sexuality 5:393-408.
OCR for page 112
112 PREVENTING VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND CHILDREN
Hahn, R., D. Fuqua-Whitley, H. Wethington, J. Lowy, A. Crosby, M. Fullilove, R. Johnson, A.
Liberman, E. Moscicki, L. Price, S. Snyder, F. Tuma, S. Cory, G. Stone, K. Mukhopadhaya,
S. Chattopadhyay, and L. Dahlberg. 2007. Effectiveness of universal school-based pro-
grams to prevent violent and aggressive behavior: A systematic review. American Journal
of Preventive Medicine 33(2 Suppl):S114-S129.
Harris, M. 1998. Trauma recovery and empowerment: A clinician’s guide for working with
women in groups. New York: The New Press.
Harris, M., and R. D. Fallot, eds. 2001. Using trauma theory to design service systems. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Heise, L., and C. García-Moreno. 2002. Violence by intimate partners. In E. G. Krug, ed.,
World report on violence and health (pp. 87-121). Geneva, Switzerland: World Health
Organization.
Herman, J. L. 1992. Trauma and recovery. New York: Basic Books.
Herrenkohl, T. I., C. Sousa, E. A. Tajima, R. C. Herrenkohl, and C. A. Moylan. 2008. Inter-
section of child abuse and children’s exposure to domestic violence. Trauma Violence
Abuse 9(2):84-99.
Hussain, R., and A. Khan. 2008. Women’s perceptions and experiences of sexual violence
in marital relationships and its effect on reproductive health. Health Care for Women
International 29:468-483.
Ilika, A. L. 2005. Women’s perception of partner violence in a rural Igbo community. African
Journal of Reproductive Health 9:77-88.
IOM (Institute of Medicine). 2006. Posttraumatic stress disorder: Diagnosis and assessment.
Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
Jaffe, P. G., and M. Juodis. 2006. Children as victims and witnesses of domestic homicide:
Lessons learned from domestic violence death review committees. Juvenile and Family
Court Journal 57(3):13-28.
Jaffe, P. G., N. K. D. Lemon, and S. E. Poisson. 2003. Child custody and domestic violence:
A call for safety and accountability. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Jennings, A. 1998. On being invisible in the mental health system. In B. L. Levin, A. K. Blanch,
and A. Jennings, eds. Women’s mental health services: A public health perspective (pp.
326-347). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Jewkes, R., M. Nduna, J. Levin, N. Jama, K. Dunkle, A. Puren, and N. Duwury. 2008. Impact
of Stepping Stones on incidence of HIV and HSV-2 and sexual behaviour in rural South
Africa: Cluster randomised controlled trial. British Medical Journal 337:383-387.
Jewkes, R., P. Sen, and C. García-Moreno. 2002. Sexual violence. In E. G. Krug, ed. World report
on violence and health (pp. 149-181). Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
Kabeer, N. 2001. Conflicts over credit: Re-evaluating the empowerment potential of loans to
women in rural Bangladesh. World Development 29(1):63-84.
Katz, J. 2006. The macho paradox: Why some men hurt women and how all men can help.
Napierville, IL: Sourcebooks.
Kessler, E. M., and U. M. Staudinger. 2009. Affective experience in adulthood and old age:
The role of affective arousal and perceived affect regulation. Psychology and Aging
24(2):349-362.
Kim, J. C., G. Ferrari, T. Abramsky, C. H. Watts, J. R. Hargreaves, L. A. Morison, G. Phetla,
J. D. H. Porter, and P. Pronyk. 2009. Assessing the incremental benefits of combining
health and economic interventions: Experience from the IMAGE study in rural South
Africa. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 87:824-832.
Knox K. L., D. A. Litts, G. W. Talcott, J. C. Feig, and E. D. Caine. 2003. Risk of suicide and
related adverse outcomes after exposure to a suicide prevention programme in the US
Air Force: Cohort study. British Medical Journal 327:1376-1381.
OCR for page 113
113
PAPERS ON RESEARCH
Koenig, M. A., A. Saifuddin, H. Mian Bazle, and A. B. M. Khorshed-Alam-Mozumder. 2003.
Women’s status and domestic violence in rural Bangladesh: Individual- and community-
level effects. Demography 40(2):269-288.
Lankester, T. 1992. Setting up community health programmes: A practical manual for use in
developing countries. London: Macmillan Press.
Laranjeira, R., and D. Hinkly. 2002. Evaluation of alcohol outlet density and its relation with
violence. Revista de Saude Publica 36(4):455-461.
Liu, M., and C. Chan. 1999. Enduring violence and staying in marriage: Stories of battered
women in rural China. Violence Against Women 5:1469-1492.
Lösel, F., and A. Beelmann. 2003. Effects of child skills training in preventing antisocial behav-
iour: A systematic review of randomized evaluations. Annals of the American Academy
of Political and Social Science 587:84-109.
Macmillan, H. L., C. N. Wathen, J. Barlow, D. M. Fergusson, J. M. Leventhal, and H. N.
Taussig. 2009. Interventions to prevent child maltreatment and associated impairment.
Lancet 373(9659):250-266.
Markowitz, S. 2000. The price of alcohol, wife abuse, and husband abuse. Southern Economic
Journal 67:279-303.
Meltzer, H., R. Gatward, T. Corbin, R. Goodman, and T. Ford. 2003. Persistence, onset,
risk factors and outcomes of childhood mental disorders. London: Office for National
Statistics, HMSO.
Mikton, C., and A. Butchart. 2009. Child maltreatment prevention: A systematic review of
reviews. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 87(5):353-361.
Mitra, A., and P. Singh. 2007. Human capital attainment and gender empowerment: The
Kerala paradox. Social Science Quarterly 88:1227-1242.
Mongillo, E. A., M. Briggs-Gowan, J. D. Ford, and A. S. Carter. 2009. Impact of traumatic
life events in a community sample of toddlers. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology
37(4):455-468.
Morrison, A., M. Ellsberg, and S. Bott. 2004. Addressing gender-based violence in the Latin
American and Caribbean region: A critical review of interventions. Washington, DC:
World Bank Policy Research.
Morrissey, J. P., E. W. Jackson, A. R. Ellis, H. Amaro, V. B. Brown, and L. M. Najavits. 2005.
Twelve-month outcomes of trauma-informed interventions for women with co-occurring
disorders. Psychiatric Services 56(10):1213-1222.
Mueser, K. T., S. D. Rosenberg, H. Xie, M. K. Jankowski, E. E. Bolton, W. Lu, J. L. Hamblen,
H. J. Rosenberg, G. J. McHugo, and R. Wolfe. 2008. A randomized controlled trial of
cognitive-behavioral treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder in severe mental illness.
Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 76(2):259-271.
Najavits, L. M. 2002. Seeking safety: A treatment manual for PTSD and substance abuse.
New York: Guilford Press.
Najavits, L. M., R. J. Gallop, and R. D. Weiss. 2006. Seeking safety therapy for adolescent
girls with PTSD and substance use disorder: A randomized controlled trial. Jounal of
Behavioral Health Services and Research 33(4):453-463.
National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health. 2007. Antenatal and postnatal men-
tal health. NICE Clinical Guideline No 45. London: National Institute for Clinical
Excellence.
NICE (National Institute for Clinical Excellence.). 2005. Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD):
The management of PTSD in adults and children in primary and secondary care. London,
UK: National Institute for Clinical Excellence.
Oliver, J. E. 1993. Intergenerational transmission of child abuse: Rates, research, and clinical
implications. American Journal of Psychiatry 150(9):1315-1324.
OCR for page 114
114 PREVENTING VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND CHILDREN
Paine, K., G. Hart, M. Jawo, S. Ceesay, M. Jallow, L. Morison, G. Walraven, K. McAdam,
and M. Shaw. 2002. Before we were sleeping, now we are awake: Preliminary evalua-
tion of the Stepping Stones sexual health programme in the Gambia. African Journal of
AIDS Research 1(1):39-40.
Petersen, I., A. Bhana, and M. McKay. 2005. Sexual violence and youth in South Africa:
The need for community based prevention interventions. Child Abuse & Neglect
29:1233-1248.
Powers, M. B., J. M. Halpern, M. P. Ferenschak, S. J. Gillihan, and E. B. Foa. 2010. A meta-
analytic review of prolonged exposure for posttraumatic stress disorder. Clinical Psychol-
ogy Review 30(6):635-641.
Prinz, R. J., M. R. Sanders, C. J. Shapiro, D. J. Whitaker, and J. R. Lutzker. 2009. Population-
based prevention of child maltreatment: The U.S. Triple P system population trial. Pre-
vention Science 10(1):1-12.
Rahman, A. 1999. Women and microcredit in rural Bangladesh: Anthropological study of the
rhetoric and realities of Grameen Bank lending. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Rayburn, N. R., S. L. Wenzel, M. N. Elliott, K. Hambarsoomians, G. N. Marshall, and J.
S. Tucker. 2005. Trauma, depression, coping, and mental health service seeking among
impoverished women. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 73(4):667-677.
Resick, P. A., T. E. Galovski, M. O’Brien Uhlmansiek, C. D. Scher, G. A. Clum, and Y. Young-
Xu. 2008. A randomized clinical trial to dismantle components of cognitive processing
therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder in female victims of interpersonal violence.
Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 76(2):243-258.
Rhyne, E. 2001. Mainstreaming microfinance: How lending to the poor began, grew, and came
of age in Bolivia. Green Haven, CT: Kumarian Press.
Robins, C. S., J. A. Sauvageot, K. J. Cusack, S. Suffoletta-Maierle, and B. C. Frueh. 2005.
Consumers’ perceptions of negative experiences and “sanctuary harm” in psychiatric
settings. Psychiatric Services 56(9):1134-1138.
Schecter, S., and J. Edleson. 1999. Effective intervention in domestic violence and child
maltreatment cases: Guidelines for policy and practice. Reno, NV: National Council of
Juvenile and Family Court Judges.
Schewe, P. A. 2007. Interventions to prevent sexual violence. In L. Doll, ed. Handbook of
injury and violence prevention (pp. 183-201). New York: Springer.
Schopper, D., J.-D. Lormand, and R. Waxweiler. 2006. Developing policies to prevent injuries
and violence: Guidelines for policy-makers and planners. Geneva, Switzerland: World
Health Organization.
Schuler, S. R., S. M. Hashemi, A. P. Riley, and S. Akhter. 1996. Credit programs, patriarchy
and men’s violence against women in rural Bangladesh. Social Science and Medicine
43(12):1729-1742.
Schumm, J. A., M. Briggs-Phillips, and S. E. Hobfoll. 2006. Cumulative interpersonal trau-
mas and social support as risk and resiliency factors in predicting PTSD and depression
among inner-city women. Journal of Traumatic Stress 19(6):825-836.
Scott, K. L., and C. V. Crooks. 2004. Effecting change in maltreating fathers: Critical prin-
ciples for intervention planning. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice 11:95-111.
Seng, J., W. D’Andrea, and J. D. Ford. In review. Psychological trauma history and empiri-
cally derived psychiatric syndromes in a community sample of women in prenatal care.
Psychological Trauma.
Sheehan, D. 2008. Alcohol, health and wider social impact. SE Regional Public Health Group
Information Series No. 1. London: Department of Health.
Skowron, E. A., and D. H. S. Reinemann. 2005. Psychological interventions for child maltreat-
ment: A meta-analysis. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, and Training 42:52-71.
OCR for page 115
115
PAPERS ON RESEARCH
Slovak, K., C. Carlson, and L. Helm. 2007. The influence of family violence on youth at-
titudes. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal 24:77-99.
Smith, J. D., B. H. Schneider, P. K. Smith, and K. Ananiadou. 2004. The effectiveness of
whole-school antibullying programs: A synthesis of evaluation research. School Psychol-
ogy Review 33:548-561.
Smith, P. H., J. W. White, and L. J. Holland. 2003. A longitudinal perspective on dating
violence among adolescent and college-age women. American Journal of Public Health
93(7):1104-1109.
Solórzano, I., H. Abaunza, and C. Molina. 2000. Evaluación de impacto de la campaña contra
las mujeres un desastre que los hombres si podemos evitar [impact evaluation of the cam-
paign violence against women: A disaster we can prevent as men]. Managua: CANTERA.
Sousa, C., T. I. Herrenkohl, C. A. Moylan, E. A. Tajima, J. B. Klika, R. C. Herrenkohl, and M.
J. Russo. 2011. Longitudinal study on the effects of child abuse and children’s exposure
to domestic violence, parent-child attachments, and antisocial behavior in adolescence.
Journal of Interpersonal Violence 26(1):111-136.
Stuart, G. L., S. E. Ramsey, T. M. Moore, C. W. Kahler, L. E. Farrell, P. R. Recupero, and R. A.
Brown. 2003. Reductions in marital violence following treatment for alcohol dependence.
Journal of Interpersonal Violence 18:1113-1131.
Taylor, J. E., and S. T. Harvey. 2010. A meta-analysis of the effects of psychotherapy with
adults sexually abused in childhood. Clinical Psychology Review 30(6):749-767.
Usdin, S., E. Scheepers, S. Goldstein, and G. Japhet. 2005. Achieving social change on gender-
based violence: A report on the impact evaluation of Soul City’s fourth series. Social
Science and Medicine 61(11):2434-2445.
VA (U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs). 2004. Management of posttraumatic stress. Wash-
ington, DC: Department of Veterans Affairs.
van der Kolk, B. A., and M. S. Greenberg. 1987. The psychobiology of the trauma response:
Hyperarousal, constriction, and addition to traumatic reexposure. In B. A. van der Kolk,
ed. Psychological trauma (pp. 63-87). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing.
van Lier, P., F. Vitaro, E. Barker, H. Koot, and R. Tremblay. 2009. Developmental links
between trajectories of physical violence, vandalism, theft, and alcohol-drug use from
childhood to adolescence. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 37(4):481-492.
Welbourn, A. 2009. Stepping Stones—List of surveys and reports to 2006 and some quotes
from Stepping Stones users around the world. Some brief notes prepared for the UNAIDS
pre-think tank meeting on Evaluation Strategies for Prevention Interventions, Geneva.
Available at http://www.steppingstonesfeedback.org/resources/22/Welbourn_Quotes_
UNAIDS_Presentation_2009.pdf (accessed April 29, 2011).
Welsh, P. 1997. Hacia una masculinidad sin violencia en las relaciones de pareja [toward
masculinity without partner violence]. Managua: CANTERA.
Whitaker, D. J., C. K. Baker, and I. Arias. 2007a. Interventions to prevent intimate partner
violence. In L. Doll, ed., Handbook of injury and violence prevention (pp. 203-223).
New York: Springer.
Whitaker, D. J., C. K. Baker, C. Pratt, E. Reed, S. Suri, C. Pavlos, B. J. Nagy, and J. Silverman.
2007b. A network model for providing culturally competent services for intimate partner
violence and sexual violence. Violence Against Women 13(2):190-209.
Whitaker, D. J., S. Morrison, C. Lindquist, S. R. Hawkins, J. A. O’Neil, and A. M. Nesius.
2006. A critical review of interventions for the primary prevention of perpetration of
partner violence. Aggression and Violent Behavior 11(2):151-166.
Whitfield, C. L., R. F. Anda, S. R. Dube, and V. J. Felitti. 2003. Violent childhood experiences
and the risk of intimate partners violence in adults: Assessment in a large health mainte-
nance organization. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 18:166-185.
OCR for page 116
116 PREVENTING VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND CHILDREN
Wolfe, D. A., C. Crooks, P. Jaffe, D. Chiodo, R. Hughes, W. Ellis, L. Stitt, and A. Donner.
2009. A school-based program to prevent adolescent dating violence: A cluster random-
ized trial. Archives of Paediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 163(8):692-699.
Wolfe, D. A., C. Wekerle, K. Scott, A. L. Straatman, C. Grasley, and D. Reitzel-Jaffe. 2003.
Dating violence prevention with at-risk youth: A controlled outcome evaluation. Journal
of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 71(2):279-291.
WHO (World Health Organization) and International Society for Prevention of Child Abuse
and Neglect. 2006. Preventing child maltreatment: A guide to taking action and generat-
ing evidence Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
WHO and LSHTM (London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine). 2010a. The nature,
magnitude and consequences of intimate partner and sexual violence. In Preventing inti-
mate partner and sexual violence against women: Taking action and generating evidence.
Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
WHO and LSHTM. 2010b. Preventing intimate partner and sexual violence against women:
Taking action and generating evidence. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
WHO and LSHTM. 2010c. Risk and protective factors for intimate partner and sexual vio-
lence. In Preventing intimate partner and sexual violence against women: Taking action
and generating evidence. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
Zlotnick, C., J. Johnson, and L. M. Najavits. 2009. Randomized controlled pilot study of
cognitive-behavioral therapy in a sample of incarcerated women with substance use
disorder and PTSD. Behavior Therapy 40(4):325-336.
