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Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 2011. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Third Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13163.
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Index

A

Abuse-of-discretion standard, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, 25, 35-36, 100 n.279, 101 n.282, 104 n.303, 112 n.353, 226 n.36, 308 n.18, 563-564 n.44, 565 n.48, 693, 827 n.73, 846 n.179, 874 n.343, 947 n.83

Academy of Toxicological Sciences (ATS), 677

Accreditation

engineering education, 931

laboratories, 28, 62 n.30, 66, 68-69, 70 n.83, 98, 154, 156, 171 n.98, 538

medical education, 695, 696, 697, 700, 701, 822, 823 n.49, 824, 873

Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET), 931

Accreditation Council for Continuing Medical Education (ACCME), 700

Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education (ACGME), 696, 697

Acute myelogenous leukemia, 20 n.51, 26, 505, 655, 656 n.65, 663 n.81, 668-669, 670 n.97

Additive effects, 615 n.200, 673, 680

Admissibility of expert testimony, generally (see also individual disciplines)

applying Daubert, 22-26, 63 n.39

class certification proceedings, 30-32, 307 n.7, 365, 463, 489

credibility issues, 21-22, 36, 99, 318 n.41, 376 n.75, 741, 781-782, 789-790 n.24, 794, 806, 807, 875 n.347, 879

Daubert hearings, 6, 14, 23 n.61, 31, 35-36, 74 n.105, 76-77, 122

discovery, 32-35

Frye test, 12, 53, 60, 63, 82, 102 n.291, 103 n.300, 110 n.343, 133 n.7, 166, 173 n.102, 186, 189, 195 n.183, 197, 367, 368, 806-807, 866, 867, 949

interpreting Daubert, 19-22

procedural issues, 30-36

qualifications of expert witness, 22-23

relevancy standard, 13

reliability standard, 13

scientific foundation of studies, 23-25

standard of review, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, 25, 100 n.279, 101 n.282, 104 n.303, 112 n.353, 226 n.36, 563-564 n.44, 565 n.48, 693, 827 n.73, 846 n.179, 874 n.343, 947 n.83

sufficiency conflated with, 20-21

Supreme Court cases, 12-19 (see also Daubert; General Electric; Kumho; Weisgram)

synthesizing multiple studies vs.

piecemeal examination, 19-20, 21, 23-24

technical and other specialized knowledge, 16-18

Advertising

costs, 321 n.48, 322, 326

deceptive, 224, 231-233, 363 n.10, 366, 398-399, 400, 403-404, 410, 441

Advisory Committee on Civil Rules, 33

Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, 701, 723, 728 n.174

Agent Orange litigation, 507 n.8, 520 n.38, 565 n.48, 583 n.100, 592 n.130, 609 n.179

Ake v. Oklahoma, 29 n.85, 127

Alcohol, blood levels, 228, 373 n.64, 791, 913

Alleles

binning, 200

defined, 139, 199

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 2011. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Third Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13163.
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drop in, drop out, 151, 152, 153, 160

electropherogram, 144, 145-146, 182-183

genetic typing, 139-140, 152, 159, 182, 196 n.185

haplotype, 178, 181, 182, 204

Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, 165, 166, 204, 207

heterozygosity, 139, 140, 147, 183 n.139, 199, 204

homozygosity, 139, 140, 183 n.139, 199, 204

kinship and, 163, 190

ladders, 146, 147, 199

linkage equilibrium, 166, 205, 207

location description, 200

match, 205

mixtures of DNA, 182-183, 184-185

multilocus genotype, 166, 204

nonhuman DNA, 195, 196, 197, 198

null, 144

population frequencies, 148, 155, 163, 164-165, 166, 191, 195, 196 n.185, 197, 200, 203, 204-205, 207

preferential amplification, 144

probes, 140, 207, 209

randomly mating population, 165, 198, 204, 208

sex-typing test, 146-147

single-locus genotype, 204

size considerations, 153

at STR loci, 141-143, 144, 145-147, 153, 159, 182-183

three-allele locus, 183 n.140

variation, 142-143

at VNTR loci, 142, 199, 200, 202

Alternative hypotheses

beta error calculation in epidemiology, 582

DNA profiling, 205

hypothesis testing, 205, 254 n.106, 255 n.110, 257, 276, 278, 283, 297, 299, 300, 319-321, 353

multiple regression models, 319-321, 353

American Academy of Clinical Toxicologists, 678

American Academy of Environmental Medicine, 677 n.115

American Academy of Family Physicians, 735

American Academy of Forensic Sciences, 125

American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, 823 n.52, 875

American Association for Public Opinion Research, 417

American Association for the Advancement of Science, 8, 39 n.3, 46

American Association on Mental Retardation, 371

American Bar Association, 8, 869

American Board of Bariatric Medicine, 699

American Board of Criminalistics, 156 n.52

American Board of Emergency Medicine, 676-677 n.114

American Board of Forensic Odontology (ABFO), 107

American Board of Forensic Psychology, 825 n.65

American Board of Forensic Toxicology, 69 n.78

American Board of Medical Specialties (ABMS), 676, 677 n.114, 698, 699

American Board of Medical Toxicology, 676 n.114

American Board of Pediatrics, 677 n.114, 697 n.42

American Board of Preventive Medicine, 677 n.114

American Board of Professional Psychology, 874

American Board of Psychiatry and Neurology, 697 n.42, 822, 823 n.52

American Board of Toxicology, 677, 678

American Cancer Association, 735

American Chemical Society, 46

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 2011. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Third Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13163.
×

American College of Medical Toxicology, 678

American College of Physicians, 735

American College of Radiology, 727

American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, 529 n.65

American Honda Motor Co. v. Allen, 31

American Industrial Hygiene Association, 539, 540

American Law Institute, 890 n.30

American Lift Institute (ALI), 924

American Medical Association, 677 n.115, 735

American National Standards Institute (ANSI), 906, 924

American Osteopathic Association (AOA), 697-698, 699, 700

American paddlefish, 194

American Petroleum Institute, 678

American Physical Society, 46

American Psychiatric Association, 828, 830, 831, 869, 879 n.358

American Psychiatric Nurses Association, 826 n.69

American Psychological Association, 367, 824 nn.54, 57, & 59, 875

American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), 906

American Society of Crime Lab Directors/Laboratory Accreditation Board (ASCLD/LAB), 68, 69 nn.76 & 78, 154 n.48, 156 n.52

American Society of Internal Medicine, 735

American Urological Association, 727, 735

Americans with Disabilities Act, 816, 833 n.105

Ames, Aldrich, 805

Amicus curiae briefs, 5, 30, 371, 797-798

Anecdotal evidence, 59 n.17, 85, 217, 218, 220, 310, 677 n.115, 809

Anthrax, 194, 713

Antibodies, 199

Antigens, 199, 202, 203, 735

Antitrust litigation, 22, 31 n.90, 213, 226 n.36, 260, 305, 306, 307 n.7, 313, 320, 321 n.48, 326, 328, 348 n.90, 365, 366 n.25, 373, 429 n.1, 431, 439, 475, 491 n.89, 498, 728

Aplastic anemia, 561, 724, 731

Appraisal approaches, 242-244, 248-249, 278, 444, 445-446, 447, 501

Asbestos, 248 n.93, 489, 519 n.36, 523, 532 n.67, 551 n.3, 573 n.68, 585 n.104, 587, 588 n.114, 606, 607 n.171, 609 n.178, 614, 615, 626, 627, 635, 640, 643-644 n.28, 652, 653, 669, 672, 676, 694, 724, 920

Association of American Medical Colleges, 695, 696 n.34

Association of Firearm and Tool Mark Examiners (AFTE), 93, 94, 95, 97 n.258, 100 n.273

Association of Social Work Boards, 826 n.67

Association of State and Provincial Psychology Boards, 873

Associations (see also Causation)

aggregation of data from multiple sources and, 235

biological plausibility, 20, 573, 600, 604-605, 606, 620, 664-665

causation and, 20, 218, 221, 222, 262, 264, 552-553, 559, 562, 566, 567, 570, 571, 574, 577 n.81, 578 n.85, 584, 591, 592-593, 604-605, 610 n.184, 664-665

confounders, 262-264

correlation coefficients, 213, 227, 228, 260, 261-264, 265, 266, 286, 290, 301, 333

defined, 552 n.7

ecological correlations, 266, 267

exposure–disease, 552-553, 554, 555-556, 557, 559, 561, 566, 567-568, 570, 572, 573, 574-575, 576, 577, 578 n.85, 579, 580, 581, 582, 583, 584, 585, 586 nn.107 & 108, 588 n.115, 589, 590, 591-593, 595, 597-606, 610 n.184, 611-612, 613, 622

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 2011. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Third Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13163.
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income–education, 219, 260-262, 264-266, 312

linear, 261, 262, 264-268, 286, 321, 348, 352

negative, 566 n.51

statistical, between variables, 213, 217-218, 219, 221-222, 230, 233-235, 252 n.103, 253, 254, 260-263, 264, 265 n.129, 266, 285, 286, 291, 295, 298, 312, 321, 352, 356

true or real, 559, 568, 572, 574, 575, 581-582, 590, 591, 592 n.126, 625, 627, 629

Atkins v. Virginia, 369-371, 815 n.5, 833 n.105

Attributable risk, 566, 570-571, 612 n.191, 619

Autoradiograph, 141 n.17, 199

B

Bacon, Francis, 39-40, 42, 43, 45, 50

Ballistics evidence

ammunition, 92, 93, 99, 120-121, 125-126

automated identification systems, 95-96

cartridge identification, 27 n.79, 92, 94-95, 98

case law development, 58, 91, 100-103

clarity of testimony, 120-121

class characteristics, 72 n.93, 92, 97, 100-101

computer imaging of bullets, 99

consecutive matching striae, 94

Daubert and, 101

empirical record, 61, 65, 97-100, 121

error rates, 97, 98

firearms, 65, 72 n.93, 91-92

individual characteristics, 72 n.93, 93-94, 97, 99

inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectrometry, 120 n.415

Integrated Ballistics Information System (IBIS), 95

lands and grooves, 91-92

limits on testimony, 27 n.79, 101-102, 122, 123 n.440

neutron activation analysis, 120 n.415, 123 n.440, 126

pretrial discovery, 125-126

proficiency testing, 97-98

subclass charateristics, 93

techniques, 91-97, 120

toolmarks, 72 n.93, 93 n.241, 96-97, 98, 99, 103 n.300

Bayes, Thomas, 241 n.84

Bayesian approach (Bayes’ theorem; subjectivist approach)

to conditional probabilities of related events, 259 n.122, 274

to decision theory, 242 n.84

defined, 200, 283, 742

to DNA matches, 173, 174, 188, 189, 190-191, 200, 209

to empirical distributions, 259 n.123

in epidemiology, 611 n.188

to error rates, 259 n.122, 282

frequentists compared with, 273-275

inference writ large, 242 n.84

limitations, 174

medical decisionmaking, 259 n.122, 706 n.78, 707-714, 725, 742

“objective,” 259 n.123

to posterior probabilities, 241, 242, 258, 259

to prior probabilities, 259, 283

to probative value, 259 n.122

to statistical inference, 173, 174, 242 n.48, 273-275

Bayh-Dole Act, 48

Bendectin litigation, 13-14, 562 n.38, 565 n.48, 578 n.85, 579 n.86, 604 n.164, 638

Benzalkonium chloride, 507 n.8

Benzene, 20 n.51, 26, 217 n.14, 505-506, 514, 526 n.27, 532, 539, 543, 587 n.112, 606 n.169, 617-618 n.214, 646 nn.34 & 35, 649 n.44, 653, 655, 656 n.65, 657 n.67, 663-664 nn.81 & 82, 668-669, 670 n.97

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 2011. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Third Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13163.
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Bias (see also Confounding factors; individual disciplines)

aggregation, 623

ascertainment, 187

cognitive, 29, 79-80, 169 n.89, 706, 743

conceptual errors, 590

contextual (expectation), 29, 67 n.63, 80

controlling for/minimizing, 68 n.70, 225, 246, 573-575

expectation, 411

information, 585-590, 624

jury pool, 365, 403

misclassification, 588 n.115, 589-590, 622, 624, 625

nonresponse, 225, 226, 249, 290, 332, 362 n.8, 383-385, 407, 408, 416

observer effects, 67-68, 160

order effects, 395-396

publication, 590

recall, 249, 585, 586, 626

selection, 98, 187, 224-225, 226 n.36, 249, 290, 293, 296, 370, 386, 408, 512 n.22, 583-585, 591, 627

systematic, 394, 572 n.67, 573

Biomarkers, 509, 536 n.76, 586 n.110

Bipolar disorder, 832, 833 n.105, 839, 847, 853, 854 n.236, 855, 859, 881 n.366

Birth defects, 13-14, 249, 552 n.4, 562, 563, 570 n.63, 578 n.85, 579 n.86, 585 n.106, 587 n.112, 590, 614, 618, 620, 638, 984

Bite mark evidence

ABFO guidelines, 107, 123

case law development, 105, 110-112

comparison methods, 106-107

computer-generated overlays, 106 n.317

crimes involving, 103-104

Daubert and, 112

DNA exonerations, 62 n.32, 109-110

empirical record, 61, 65, 108-111

proficiency testing, 109

specificity of expert’s opinion, 111, 123, 215

technique, 71, 104-107

uniqueness of dentition, 105-106

Blood bank samples, 164

Blood evidence

ABO typing, 72, 132 n.3, 275

alcohol levels, 228, 373 n.64, 791, 913

animal, 197

DNA analysis, 143, 151, 155, 156, 158, 160 n.60, 164, 169 n.89, 173 n.103, 182, 197

exposure, 508, 509, 518-519, 535-537, 544, 656, 657, 672

preservative for, 202

serology analysis, 58, 62 n.32, 132 n.3

spatter examinations, 71 n.88

toxicology, 508, 509, 518-519, 535-537, 544, 635, 636, 637 n.8, 653, 656, 657, 662, 667, 672

Bootstrap simulation, 284, 469

Brain (see also Neuroimaging; Neuroscience evidence)

brain stem, 755

cellular structure, 750-754

cerebellum, 755, 808

cerebrum, 755, 756, 757

cortex, 756-758, 759-760, 808

deep brain stimulation, 773, 775, 862

frontal lobe, 755, 756, 757, 759, 763, 771, 893

functional aspects, 759-760

implanted microelectrode arrays, 775-776

lesion studies, 774

neurons, 750-754, 755, 757, 758-759, 760, 768, 770, 772, 774, 775-776, 778, 808-809, 854

neurotransmitters, 751, 752, 753, 755, 763, 764, 833, 854

occipital lobe, 756, 759, 760

parietal lobe, 755, 756, 771

structure, 754-759

synapse, 750-751, 752, 763

temporal lobe, 755-756, 774

transcranial magnetic stimulation, 773-774

Breach of contract, 433, 434, 436, 437, 461 n.54, 466 n.68, 797

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 2011. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Third Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13163.
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Breach-of-warranty action, 31

Breast cancer, 259 n.122, 562, 607 n.170, 617 n.211, 704-705, 708, 710, 711-712, 719, 721, 727, 733-734, 736-737, 738-739

Bundy, Ted, 112

Bureau of Economic Analysis, 484

Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), 471, 484

Burke v. Town of Walpole, 110, 123

C

California Public Utilities Commission v. California Energy Resources Conservation & Development Commission, 947-948

Canadian General Social Survey, 408 n.212

Cancer risk, 635, 638 n.12, 642-643, 644-645, 649 n.46, 650, 653, 654, 655, 656, 659, 660 n.74, 665, 668-669, 670, 683

Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM), 459, 469

Capital punishment (see Death penalty)

Carbon monoxide, 513 n.27, 540 n.88, 587 n.111, 635-636, 637 n.8, 651 n.52, 652 n.56, 672, 681

Carbon tetrachloride, 543, 544, 653, 662

Carcinogens/carcinogenicity, 643 n.29, 644, 645, 647 nn.37 & 38, 649 n.44, 650 n.49, 651, 655-656, 658 n.70, 659, 660 n.74, 670 n.97, 673 n.105, 680

Carcinogenicity bioassay, 644, 654-655, 680

Case management (see also Disclosures to opposing parties; Discovery)

amicus curiae briefs, 5, 30, 371, 797-798

bifurcation, 476

closing arguments, restriction on, 124

court-appointed experts, 6-8, 14, 35, 311, 329, 489, 599 nn.141 & 143

cross-examination, 169 n.84

Daubert hearings, 6, 14, 23 n.61, 31, 35-36, 74 n.105, 76-77, 122

in limine motions, 14, 22, 414 n.213

jury instructions, 29, 168 n.84, 170 n.95, 383 n.104, 455, 943

pretrial conferences, 6, 488

pretrial Daubert hearings, 6, 18, 30, 311, 362

pretrial lie detection, 807

protective orders, 487

special masters or expert assistants, 6, 7, 35, 135, 488, 489

structuring expert testimony, 23-24

survey uses, 366-367

videotaped testimony, 7, 880-881

Case reports, 23 n.59, 25 n.69, 108 n.329, 217 n.14, 639, 714, 724

Case-control studies, 556, 557, 558, 559-560, 568, 569, 583-584, 585-586, 587 n.112, 588 n.115, 589-590, 591 n.122, 607, 620, 625

Cats, 196, 197

Causation (see also specific disciplines)

abuse-of-discretion standard and, 24

alternative explanations, 552-553 n.7, 570 n.63, 582, 595, 598, 600, 605, 672-673

anecdotal evidence, 217, 218, 220

association and, 20, 218, 221, 222, 262, 264, 552-553, 559, 562, 566, 567, 570, 571, 574, 577 n.81, 578 n.85, 584, 591, 592-593, 604-605, 610 n.184, 664-665

biodistribution of toxic agents, 667-668

biological plausibility of associations, 20, 573, 600, 604-605, 606, 620, 664-665

but-for analysis and, 429, 431, 432, 433, 436, 438-439, 440-443, 449-450, 455, 460, 461, 470, 471, 472, 473, 475, 476-477, 491, 492, 493-494, 496-497, 498, 501, 597, 598 n.136

cessation of exposure and, 605

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 2011. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Third Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13163.
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conflicting research, 606, 674-675

confounding factors, 218, 220, 221, 222, 591, 592-593, 598, 672-673

consistency of trends, 606

correlation and, 309

Daubert trilogy and, 12

defined, 552 n.7

differential diagnosis, 217 n.14, 512 n.21

direction of, 322-323

dose–response relationship, 603

ecological studies, 561 n.34, 562

epidemiological studies, 23, 217 n.14, 218, 597-606

excretion routes for toxic agents and, 668

exposure evidence, 25-26, 558, 587 n.111, 588, 597-606, 666-667

extrapolation issues, 23, 222, 223, 563-565, 661-662, 664

general, 24, 551 n.2, 552, 565 n.48, 578 n.85, 597-606, 637 n.7, 638, 657 n.87, 659, 660-665

generalizability of studies, 222, 564, 595 n.133, 623

guidelines for assessing, 599-600

latency period for disease and, 668-669

level of exposure and, 669-670

medical evidence, 217 n.14, 438, 670-671

metabolism of toxic agents and, 668

observational studies, 215-216, 218, 220-222

preponderance of the evidence standard, 565 n.48, 610 n.182

proximate cause, 463, 464

randomized controlled experiments, 218, 220, 221, 222

replication of results, 604

specific, 24, 25-26, 551 n.2, 552, 608-618, 637 n.7, 638, 645 n.31, 659 n.72, 665-666, 669-670 n.95

specificity of association, 605-606

statistical studies, 213, 216-223, 249, 260-272, 288

strength of association, 602

structure–activity relationships, 663

subsequent unexpected events and, 438, 480-481, 495, 500

synthesizing multiple studies, 19-20, 21, 23-24, 217 n.14

target organ specificity, 662-663

temporal relationship, 217 n.14, 323 n.52, 558, 560-561, 562-563, 587 n.111, 600-601, 606, 669 n.94, 714 n.100

“weight-of-the-evidence” methodology, 565 n.48

Censuses, undercount litigation, 2-3, 213, 223-224, 247 n.90, 268, 275 n.149, 307, 308

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 418 n.246, 536-537, 561-562 n.36, 672

Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services, 862 n.290

Central Intelligence Agency, 805

Charter on Medical Professionalism, 703

Chloramphenicol, 724, 731

Chlordane, 543, 643 n.28

Chromosomes (see also Genes)

allele variations on, 142

anomalies, 183 n.140

autosomes, 200, 201, 204

cytogenetic analysis, 655

defined, 201

diploid number, 202, 204

haploid number, 204

homologous, 204

inheritance, 137-138, 142, 183 n.139

loci used for profiling, 142-143, 144, 145-146, 147, 148, 151, 153, 155, 159, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 175-176, 182, 183, 188 n.157, 190, 191, 192, 196, 197, 198, 199, 201, 202, 204, 205, 206, 207, 209

monomorphic loci, 139

mutations, 206, 655, 683

recombination, 138

reduction process, 137-138

structure, 136-137, 142, 750

X, 136, 137, 138, 147, 201

Y, 136, 137, 138, 147, 181-182, 184, 201

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 2011. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Third Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13163.
×

Chronic Lyme disease (CLD), 728

Chronic lymphocytic leukemia, 505 n.4

Civil Rights Act, 228, 350

Class-action cases, 7, 238 n.72, 247 n.90, 248 n.93, 429, 462, 463, 483, 486, 489-491, 649 n.47

Class certification proceedings, 30-32, 307 n.7, 365, 463, 489

Classification of Violence Risk (COVR), 848

Clean Air Act, 666

Clinical studies, 510, 555, 556, 575, 590, 607, 621, 640, 648 n.42, 656 n.64, 658, 659, 661

Cocaine, 126, 536 n.76, 760, 789

Cohort studies, 556, 557-559, 560, 567, 568, 573, 583, 584, 585 n.104, 589, 590, 592, 593, 594, 607, 621, 624, 625, 626, 628, 657, 658-659, 716

Coker v. Georgia, 370

Collaborative Testing Services, Inc., 69 n.82, 78, 85, 87, 88, 98

Commission on Osteopathic College Accreditation, 696

Common-law fraud action, 31

Commonwealth v. Patterson, 81-82

Competency

confinement based on, 852

to consent to treatment and research, 844, 845

to enter into contracts or make wills, 816, 817, 820, 867

evaluations, 817-819, 820-821, 823, 844 n.167, 872, 880, 884, 885, 889, 890

to manage one’s affairs, 816, 844, 867

to marry or to vote, 816

of medical patients, 735

neuroscience applications, 796, 799

parenting capacity, 820, 844, 867

to represent oneself, 3, 799, 815, 818

restoration of, 852, 861, 863

to stand trial, 3, 785, 799, 815, 818, 820, 821 n.37, 823, 844, 852, 861, 863, 867, 872, 885 n.377, 889

to waive rights, 815, 817, 844

Computer assisted tomography (CAT scan), 718 n.117, 719, 720, 762-763, 837-838, 893

Confessions, coerced, 59 n.16

Confidence intervals (see specific disciplines)

Conflicts of interest, 8, 21-22, 48-49, 590, 728, 875

Confounding factors (see also specific disciplines)

controlling for, 596-597

identifying, 595

lurking variables, 262-264

preventing or limiting, 595

Confrontation Clause, 26-27, 30, 789

“Consistent with” testimony, 70, 104 n.302, 111, 113, 116, 120, 121, 160 n.60, 184, 604-605, 606, 927

Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC), 650, 909, 911, 920

Convenience samples, 164, 224-225, 248, 285, 287

Costs of expert testimony, 19

Council of American Survey Research Organizations, 382 n.102, 416 n.240

Council on Continuing Medical Education, 700

Coupon settlements, 491

Credibility issues (see also Conflicts of interest)

Daubert and, 21-22

Crime Laboratory Proficiency Testing Program, 97

Criminal Justice Act of 1964, 127

Cross-sectional studies, 319, 345, 352, 556, 560-561, 621-622, 716, 736-737

Cruel and unusual punishment, 3, 369, 815 n.5

Current Population Survey, 260 n.125, 266

Cyanide, 651-652

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 2011. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Third Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13163.
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D

Damages (see Economic damages)

Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals (see also individual disciplines)

admissibilty conflated with sufficiency, 20-21

application issues, 22-26

atomization, 19-20

characteristics of scientific knowledge, 49 n.16 (see also Reliability of scientific testimony)

and civil cases, 63

and class certification proceedings, 30-32

credibility issues, 21-22

definition of science, 39 n.3

and empirical testing, 62-64

evidentiary (Daubert) hearings on admissibility, 6, 14, 18, 30, 31, 35-36, 74 n.105, 76-77, 122, 125-126, 216, 362

exposure assessment, 22, 25-26

and Fed. R. Evid. 702, 12

and forensic identification evidence, 62-64, 101, 112

and Frye test, 12

gatekeeping function of trial judges, 6, 12-13, 16, 17, 102 n.291, 866 n.309, 901, 933, 956

and in limine motions, 14

interpretive issues, 19-22

overview and impact, 12-14

pretrial hearings, 6, 14, 23 n.61, 31, 35-36, 74 n.105, 76-77, 122

qualifications of expert witness, 22-23

and scientific foundation of studies, 23-25

scientist’s view of, 52-54

sufficiency conflated with admissibility, 20-21

Death penalty, 3, 27 n.78, 126, 216, 220, 221, 223, 307, 308, 369 n.45, 370-371, 797, 800 n.51, 851, 877

Decision theory, 242 n.84

DeLuca v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 247 n.92, 551 n.2, 553, 567 n.55, 572 n.67, 575 nn.73 & 75, 577 n.81, 578 n.85, 579-580 n.88, 582 n.91, 599 n.143, 609 n.178, 610 n.184

Department of Commerce v. United States House of Representatives, 2-3

Department of Defense, 46

Department of Energy, 46

Department of Health and Human Services, 46

Department of Justice, 80, 117, 411, 491

Department of Labor, 793

Department of Veterans Affairs, 696 n.33, 892

Diagnosis of mental disorders

accuracy, 839-840

approaches, 834-839

clinical examination, 834-835

functional impairment vs., 819-821

laboratory tests, 838-839, 883

major diagnostic categories, 831-834

malingering detection, 840-841

neuroimaging studies, 837-838

nomenclature and typology (DSM-IV-TR and DSM-V), 828-831

psychological and neuropsychological tests, 836-837

records of previous assessments, 839

structured interviews, 835-836

Dioxins, 522, 536 n.76, 545, 643 n.28, 652, 653, 667 n.92

Disclosures to opposing parties (see also Discovery)

analytical methods and nonsupporting analyses, 216

damages data, 486-488

data dictionaries, 487-488

database information and analytical procedures, 331-332

dispute resolution, 488

drafts and communications, 33

format standardization, 487

unretained testifying experts, 32 n.96, 34

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 2011. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Third Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13163.
×

Discovery (see also Disclosures to opposing parties)

amended rules, 32-34

“assumptions” provision, 34

DNA evidence, 125-126, 191

e-discovery, 34-35

improving the process, 330-331

laboratory reports, 125

mass torts litigation, 366-367

motions to compel, 34-35, 373 n.62

opinion work product, 33, 374

pretrial, 57, 125-126, 216, 310 n.24

procedural issues, 32-35, 125-126

statistical evidence, 310 n.24, 330-331

of summary of expert’s opinion, 125

undue burden or cost, 33, 34

Discrimination (see Racial discrimination; Sex discrimination)

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) (see also Alleles; Chromosomes; Genes; Genome)

base pairs, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 146, 147, 149, 152, 153, 176, 177, 180, 200, 201, 202, 203, 204, 206, 209

chemical structure, 131, 136-139, 202

complementary sequences, 143, 150, 201, 204, 207, 208

damage from toxic chemicals, 645, 654-655, 656, 663, 682

defined, 202

D-loop, 177, 201, 202

environmental insult, 153 n.44, 202-203

individual variation, 135-136, 137

introns and exons, 138 n.16

mitochondrial, 143 n.23, 202, 206, 651

polymorphisms, 139-143, 148, 177, 182, 197, 199, 207, 208, 209

pseudogenes, 138 n.16

repetitive sequences, 141, 142-143 (see also STR under DNA sequencing and testing)

DNA Advisory Board (DAB), 61-62, 154 n.46, 187

DNA databases and database searches

all-pairs matching, 191-192

Arizona offender database, 191-192

Australian offender database, 192

birthday problem, 192 n.170

British National DNA Database, 144-145

CODIS (Combined DNA Index System), 61, 62 n.30, 145, 201

comprehensive population-wide database, 163 n.73

disclosure of trawling to juries, 189-190 n.164

judicial opinions on adjustment, 189

laboratory quality assurance requirements, 154

mitochondrial DNA, 178-180, 190

near-miss (familial) searching, 189-191

New Zealand offender database, 191, 192

population databases for validation of new loci, 148, 155, 163-164, 197-198, 199

probative value of matches, 165 n.76, 186-189, 190

proficiency testing for participants, 69-70, 156

representativeness of populations, 179

sampling error, 178

selection effects, 187

statistical analyses of adjustments, 165 n.76, 179, 186, 187-188

trawling, 174 n.109, 186-191

verification of random-match probabilities, 191-192

DNA Identification Act of 1994, 61, 69, 70 n.83, 154 n.46, 156

DNA identification evidence

admissibility, 131, 132-133, 140, 166, 173 n.102, 181 n.134, 182, 186, 189, 195 n.183, 197

Bayesian approach to matches, 173, 174, 188, 189, 190-191, 200, 209

bite marks, 62 n.32, 109-110, 151

blood, 143, 151, 155, 156, 158, 160 n.60, 164, 169 n.89, 173 n.103, 182, 197

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 2011. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Third Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13163.
×

case law development, 131, 132-133

ceiling principles, 167 n.80, 200, 204-205

chain of custody, 157, 162

coincidence hypothesis, 161, 163-167, 172, 173 n.106

contact, 151

database matches, 165 n.76, 179, 186-189, 190, 191-192

Daubert and, 166, 167, 171 n.98, 173 n.102, 181, 186, 189, 194 n.176

defendant’s fallacy, 168 n.89

defense experts, 127, 162, 168 n.84

empirical testing, 60-62, 66, 148

error rates, 162, 170, 171 nn.96-98

exclusions, 116, 133, 135, 144 n.25, 156, 158 n.56, 159-160, 167-168, 169, 171, 173, 175 n.111, 177-178, 179, 180, 181, 184, 185, 186, 188, 190 n.164, 196 n.185

exonerations, 27, 62, 109-110, 116, 117, 119, 124, 125 n.450, 134, 157 n.55

Frye (general acceptance) test, 133 n.7, 166, 167, 173 n.102, 181, 186, 189, 195 n.183, 197

hair, 113, 116, 143, 149 n.133, 151, 155, 170, 177, 178 n.123, 179, 180, 181 n.134

history, 132-134

hypotheses for matching profiles, 160-161

jury comprehension of, 167-171, 175 n.111, 189-190 n.164

laboratory errors, 160-162

likelihood ratios, 169 n.89, 172-173, 174, 175, 177-178, 185-186, 205, 206

matches/inclusions, 74 n.107, 159-160

mishandling or mislabeling, 156-158, 175

mitochondrial DNA, 113, 116

multilocus profile frequency, 164, 166, 202, 204

NRC reports, 60-61, 125, 127, 133, 134 n.12, 141 n.19, 143, 161, 162, 163 n.72, 164 n.75, 166-167, 168 n.84, 169 n.89, 170 n.95, 174 n.110, 175, 176 n.114, 185, 187-188, 192 n.170

objections to, 135

population frequencies, 134 n.12, 148, 155, 163-165, 166, 178, 182, 191, 195, 196 n.185, 197, 200, 203, 204-205, 207

population structure adjustments, 166-167, 179, 182, 192, 207

posterior probabilities, 172, 173-174

prejudicial testimony, 167-170, 171 n.97, 181 n.136, 185-186, 189, 190 n.164

pretrial discovery, 125-126

prior probabilities, 173, 174

probability sampling, 184

product rule, 165-167, 198, 199, 204-205, 207

qualifications of experts, 134-135, 156 n.52

random match probabilities, 60, 135, 155, 164, 165, 167-171, 172, 173, 175-176, 181 n.34, 182, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191-192, 196, 197, 198 n.194, 205, 208, 251 n.99

random sample/sampling, 164-165, 178

in randomly mating populations, 165-166, 179, 198, 204, 208

“rarity” or “strength” testimony, 175

reappraisal of, 60-62

relatives as sources (kinship hypothesis), 161, 162-163, 170, 172, 173 n.105, 174, 175-176, 184 n.143, 190, 192, 202

reliability, 60, 62 n.32, 73, 227

semen, 143, 151, 155, 159 n.58, 169 n.89

source attribution, 156-157, 161-162, 175-176

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 2011. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Third Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13163.
×

statistical conclusions, 131, 133, 134, 135, 155, 160, 163, 166, 167, 168 n.85, 169 n.91, 171, 172, 174, 178, 179, 181, 182-183, 185, 186-189, 193, 197

transposition fallacy, 168-169, 170 n.92, 173, 209

“uniqueness” testimony, 175-176

unrelated person as source, 163-167

vaginal swabs, 147, 151, 158, 182, 183

verbal expressions of probative value, 174-176, 182

wrongful convictions on, 62 n.32, 141 n.18

DNA laboratories

accreditation, 62, 154, 156, 171 n.98

certification, 154 n.48, 156

documentation requirements, 154-155

errors in matches, 160-162, 171

performance standards, 153-159

population genetics research, 192

profìciency testing, 60-62, 69-70, 148, 154, 155-156, 160-161, 162, 171, 196, 207

quality assurance and quality control, 61-62, 143-144, 153-156

retention of samples, 157

sample handling, 156-159

validation of procedures, 155

DNA sequencing and testing (see also Nonhuman DNA testing)

allele-specific oligonucleotide (ASO) probes, 140, 207, 209

amplification, 142, 143-144, 148, 151, 152 n.41, 153, 158, 182, 183, 196, 199, 205, 208

amplified fragment length polymorphism, 199

artifacts, 153, 156-157, 185

autoradiography, 141 n.17, 199

capillary electrophoresis, 144-147, 200, 202

contaminated samples, 143-144, 153, 155, 156-157, 158, 160-161, 170, 181 n.134

degraded samples, 147, 149, 151, 152-153, 155, 157 n.55, 158, 160, 177, 201

denaturation, 143, 201

electropherograms, 144, 145, 146, 147, 182-183, 184, 199, 202, 208

emerging (next-generation) technologies, 140, 148-150

extraction, 132, 143-144, 148, 151, 153 n.44, 177, 183

false-negative rates, 115-116, 162

false-positive rates, 161-162, 170-171

gel electrophoresis, 141, 200, 203, 209

heteroplasmy and, 177, 179, 180, 181, 204

high-throughput sequencing, 149-150

“lab-on-a-chip” devices, 148-149, 200-201

limitations, 141

low copy number (LCN) or low template (LT), 151-152

measurement error, 141, 205

microarrays, 150

mitochondrial DNA, 71, 113, 116, 140, 150, 176-181, 201, 204

mixtures of DNA, 155, 158, 172-173, 182-186

multiplexing, 142, 144, 145-146, 206

phylogenetic analysis, 193, 194, 195

polymerase chain reaction (PCR), 133, 140, 142, 143-144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 151, 152 n.41, 153, 158, 177, 182, 196, 199, 202, 205, 206, 207, 209

population genetics, 133, 135, 148, 164, 181, 182, 191, 192, 198, 207

primers, 143, 144, 153, 182, 196, 204, 206, 207

quality of sample and, 152-153

quantity of DNA in sample and, 151-152

random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) analysis, 196

regions for forensic sequencing, 139

relative fluorescent units, 145, 146, 208

RFLP testing, 132, 140-141, 208

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 2011. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Third Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13163.
×

sample collection and preservation, 151-153

sequence-specific oligonucleotide (SSO) probes, 140, 209

sex-typing test, 146-147

size of sample, 141, 151-152

SNP chips, 140, 201

SNPs (single nucleotide polymorphisms), 139, 140, 142, 148, 149 n.33, 150, 181, 182-183 n.138, 197, 201, 206, 208, 209

Southern blotting, 141 n.17, 209

special issues, 150, 176-192

STR (short tandem repeat or microsatellite) profiling, 132, 133, 134, 141-142, 143, 144-147, 148, 149, 151-152, 153, 159, 160, 164, 170, 175, 176 n.115, 181-182, 183, 184 n.143, 189, 190, 191, 192, 196, 197, 198, 200, 201, 205, 209, 210

validation of methods and procedures, 133, 134, 148, 150, 153, 154, 155, 185, 193, 195

VNTR (variable number of tandem repeats) testing, 140-143, 147, 166, 199, 200, 202, 205, 209-210

Y chromosomes (Y-STRs and Y-SNPs), 132, 160 n.60, 181-182, 184 n.143, 190

Dogs

bite marks, 104

DNA profiling, 193, 197, 198 n.193

extrapolation of studies to humans, 535 n.75, 662 n.78

scent evidence, 62 n.32

Dose, dosage

benchmark, 642, 670 n.96, 680

exposure, 507, 508, 509, 513 n.26, 518-520, 525-528, 529, 531 n.67, 533-534, 535, 536, 538, 539, 541, 544, 545, 546, 547

extrapolation, 4-5, 603 n.160, 636, 641, 645, 648, 651

lethal dose 50 (LD50), 641, 682

limits, 512 n.22, 521 n.43, 528-529, 536

low-dose risk curve, 673 n.107

maximum tolerated dose (MTD), 644-645, 682

target site/organ, 507, 519, 535, 536, 547, 636, 646

toxicology, 525, 636-637, 638, 641, 642, 644-645, 646, 647, 648, 651, 657 n.67, 658-659, 660, 661, 664, 665, 667 n.91, 668, 670 n.96, 673 n.107, 674, 677 n.115, 680, 681, 682, 684

Dose-response curve, 646, 651, 673 n.107, 681

Dose-response relationships, 4-5, 563, 565, 585, 600, 603, 613, 616 n.204, 622, 635, 636, 639, 641, 642-643, 645, 646, 648, 649, 651, 658, 663 n.82, 669, 670, 676, 680, 681

Drugs, illegal, 59

Due process, 44 n.10, 59 n.16, 104 n.306, 119, 127, 134 n.10, 157 n.55, 170 n.92, 171 n.97, 186 n.151, 226 n.35, 792, 815 n.3

Duke University Private Adjudication Center, 8

E

Ecological fallacy, 623

Ecological studies, 556-557, 561-563, 623

Economic damages

actual earnings of plaintiff after harmful event, 450-451, 493

antitrust, 22, 260, 305, 320, 328, 348 n.90, 365, 366 n.25, 373, 429 n.1, 431, 439, 475, 491 n.89, 498

apportionment, 477, 479-480, 617 n.209

appraisal approaches, 444, 445-446, 447, 501

assets and liabilities (balance sheet) approach, 443, 446

avoided costs, 429, 449-450, 456, 466-467, 501, 502

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 2011. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Third Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13163.
×

avoided losses, 449, 464-465, 466-467, 478

but-for analysis, 311, 319, 429, 431, 432, 433, 436, 438-439, 440-443, 449-450, 455, 460, 461, 470, 471, 472, 473, 475, 476-477, 491, 492, 493-494, 496-497, 498, 501

capitalization factor, 444, 459-460, 469, 501

causation, 22, 438, 463-464, 480-481, 495, 500, 942-943

class actions, 7, 238 n.72, 247 n.90, 248 n.93, 429, 462, 463, 483, 486, 489-491

class certification and, 30-31, 32 n.95, 463, 489

compensatory, 238 n.71, 239-240, 388, 433, 434 n.10, 437, 455

compound interest, 457, 458, 501

constant dollars, 451, 452, 453, 454, 495, 501

court-appointed experts and special masters, 7, 488, 489

data used to measure damages, 482-486

Daubert and, 22, 30-31, 32 n.95, 431-432, 461, 462

defined benefit plan, 472-473

defined contribution plan, 472, 473

disaggregation, 429, 438, 475-477, 479

disclosure standards, 429, 481, 486-488

discount rates, 452-454, 459, 471, 493, 495

discounted lost cash flows, 429, 430, 443, 444, 448-460, 469, 471, 500

double-counting, 442, 443 n.29

earnings losses, 429, 431, 443, 453-454, 455 n.44, 458, 460, 465, 472, 490, 491-497, 501

earnings projections, 430, 438, 439-440, 454 n.40, 470-471, 492, 496-499

electronic data, 482, 486, 487, 488

employment cases, 434 n.11, 457, 478

engineering testimony, 942-943

escalation, 451, 452, 453, 454, 495, 501

examples of calculations, 491-500, 893-894

exclusionary conduct, 441-442, 476

expectation damages, 433, 434, 435, 436, 437, 442-443, 449, 467, 497, 501

expected value approach, 437, 459, 462, 463, 468-469

fairness of settlement, 490-491

fixed cost, 446, 450, 499, 502

foreseeability rule, 463, 464

fringe benefits, 455, 470, 471-473, 492-494

future dollars, 451, 501

general approach to quantification, 432-443

harmful act/event analyzed, 432, 439, 440, 442

hypothetical acts of defendant, 439-440

hypothetical property, 447-448

individual class members, 490

inflation, 429, 444, 451-454, 469, 495, 499, 501, 502

intellectual property damages, 307, 311, 429 n.1, 439, 440, 441, 498-499, 501, 502, 932-933, 938, 945-946

interest for losses, 429, 430, 436 n.19, 441 n.26, 444, 452-453, 454, 457-459, 460, 490, 495, 500, 501, 502

life expectancy, 471, 472, 473, 474, 492, 493, 495-496

lifetime income calculations, 470-471, 474, 493, 495-496

limitations on recoverable damages, 461-467

liquidated damages, 429, 461, 467, 476

marginal costs, 446, 499

market approach based on prices and values, 429, 431, 440, 443, 444-448, 459-460, 469, 481, 498, 501

market effect of adverse information, 448

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 2011. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Third Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13163.
×

market friction adjustments, 446-447

mean vs. median awards, 238

measures of losses, legally prescribed, 433-439

medical expenses, 472, 474, 505 n.3

medical insurance benefits, 471-472

medical malpractice, 474

missing data, 319, 485-486

mitigation of losses, 450-451, 461, 464-466, 470, 481, 496, 497, 498, 499-500, 502

multiple challenged acts, 429, 438, 475-477, 479

nominal (ordinary) interest rate, 453, 495, 502

offsets, 443, 448, 451, 453-454, 465, 471, 474, 475

pain and suffering, 429 n.2, 434, 475

paper data, 482, 487, 488

partial losses, 445-446, 477-478

patent infringement cases, 311, 319, 440 n.24, 441

personal income losses, 470-475, 491-497

prejudgment interest, 430, 441 n.26, 444, 454 n.42, 457-458, 459, 502

present value, 443, 444, 448-449, 452, 455, 469, 472, 473, 474, 475, 495, 500, 502

price erosion, 440, 441, 502

profit losses, 429, 439, 440 n.24, 441, 443, 453-456, 459, 461 n.64, 464, 466, 468, 469, 478, 491, 497-500

profìtability of business, 326, 442-443, 444, 449, 460, 461 n.64, 462, 468-470

proximate cause (remoteness of damages), 463-464

punitive, 239-240, 433, 436, 437

qualifications of experts, 431-432

quality of life, 428 n.2, 475

real interest rate, 444, 453, 495, 502

reasonable certainty standard, 434 n.11, 461-463, 468

regression analysis, 305-306, 308 n.12, 311, 319, 326, 348, 431, 446, 450, 481, 499, 502

reliance damages, 433, 434, 435, 436 n.18, 437, 442-443, 449, 497, 502

restitution, 433, 435, 497, 502

retirement issues and benefits, 465, 470, 471, 472-473, 492, 493, 495-496

sampling data, 482-483, 485, 486

securities litigation, 429 n.1, 431, 448

services lost, 474

speculative, 454 nn.40 & 43, 461-463, 468

startup businesses, 447, 449, 456, 465-466, 468-470

statutory damages, 433, 457, 500

stock options, 429, 456

subsequent unexpected events, 438, 451, 480-481, 495, 500

supervening events, 480-481

survey and market research data, 389, 431, 469-470, 482, 483, 484, 486

taxes, 429, 447, 454-456, 458, 459, 460, 470, 500

unjust enrichment, 433

validity of data, 449, 469-470, 483-485

variable costs, 450, 502

wrongful death, 238 n.71, 470, 471, 473-474, 475 n.77

wrongful termination, 470, 471, 475, 491

zero damages, 438-439, 460, 461, 463, 468, 476, 477, 479

Economic loss rule, 435, 436, 437 n.22

Education Commission for Foreign Medical Graduates, 696

EEOC v. Sears, Roebuck & Co., 257 n.115, 308, 313 n.36, 365 n.20

Eighth Amendment cases, 3, 369-370, 795, 815 n.5, 816 n.12, 833 n.105

Eisen v. Carlisle & Jacquelin, 31-32

Electric Power Research Institute, 678

Electroencephalography (EEG), 761, 766, 772-773, 791-792, 796, 803, 838-839

Electropherogram, 144, 145-146, 182-183

Eleventh Amendment, 816 n.12

Emphysema, 592, 593, 595, 606, 618

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 2011. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Third Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13163.
×

Empirical testing (see also specific disciplines) Daubert and, 62-64

Engineering evidence

accelerated testing, 905-906, 944

acceptable risk, 908, 909-910, 915-920

accreditation, 931-932

administrative hearings, 947-948, 953

admissibility, 899, 932-933, 943, 944 n.72, 952 n.93, 955, 958 n.106

air cooler flaws, 922

Air France 4590 disaster, 928-929

animated presentations, 956-958

approximations, 903, 913, 919, 936

assumptions, 903, 912-913, 935, 936, 950

automotive lift design, 924-925

best practice, 950-951

certification, 932

Challenger space shuttle disaster, 926-928

computer simulation and digital displays, 901, 936-937, 956-958

Concorde design flaws, 928-929

cross-disciplinary domains, 900-902

dam collapse, 925-926

Daubert and, 899, 932-933, 945, 946, 949, 958 n.106

“defect” testimony, 907, 908, 934, 937, 939-944, 947 n.84, 951 n.92, 952, 953

design issues, 920-929, 939-940, 948

design process, 904-929

disciplines and fields of practice, 900

disputed issues commonly occurring, 948-956

education and training, 929-930, 931

end use testing, 905-906, 923, 924, 925, 944

engineering calculations, 936-937, 938, 957

engineering interns, 931

engineers in training, 931

environmental disputes, 906, 916, 947, 954-955

examples of flawed design processes, 920-929

experience, 901, 902, 903, 904, 906, 922, 928-929, 930

experiment-based evidence, 933, 934-936, 938, 944

Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards (FMVSS), 917-918

finite element modeling (FEM), 937, 957

formulation of products and materials, 907, 922, 923, 929

Fundamentals of Engineering (FE) exam, 931

gatekeeping role of judges, 901, 933, 956

inspections, 925, 933-934

intellectual property disputes, 932-933, 938, 945-946

internal documents, 938-939

intrauterine device (IUD) flaws, 920-921

issues for litigation, 939-948

Kansas City Hyatt Regency Hotel disaster, 389, 923-924

licensure, 931-932, 933, 949

literature analysis, 938

manufacturing issues, 906, 907, 918, 920-921, 923, 925, 927, 928-929, 934, 937, 939, 940, 941, 943 n.70, 947 n.84, 952

modeling, mathematical and computational, 901, 936-938, 957

observational evidence, 933-936, 952, 955-956

obsolescence, 907

opinion testimony, 901, 933-939, 940 n.62, 941-942, 943, 944, 952, 956-957, 958

other similar incidents (OSIs) concept, 952-956

patent cases, 935, 945-946

personal injury cases, 942, 947

presentation of evidence, 901, 936-937, 956-958

problem identification, 902-903

product defects, 907, 908, 934, 937, 939-944, 947 n.84, 951 n.92, 952, 953

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 2011. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Third Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13163.
×

product liability litigation, 901, 938, 939-943, 947

professional engineers (PEs), 931, 932

property damage, 943, 947

qualifications of experts, 831, 901, 932-939, 949

radiant heating hose flaws, 922-923

reasoning processes, 902-904

registration, 931, 932, 949

regulatory context, 919, 947-948, 951-952, 953

reliability of evidence, 900, 906, 933, 935, 940 n.62, 945, 946, 947, 958 n.106

retrospective product modification, 907

risk assessment, 909, 910-914

risk calculations, 911-912, 918

“safe” products, 908-909

safety considerations, 908-910

severity of injury, 910, 911-912

solution paradigms, 902-903

standard of care, 949-950

standards and codes, 924-925, 947-948, 951-952

state of the art, 950

Tacoma Narrows Bridge collapse, 924

testing-related evidence, 934-936

toxic waste site design, 921-922

trade secret disputes, 946

uncertainty, 903

validation, 904, 906, 907, 922-925, 927-928, 929, 936, 937-938, 944 n.72, 958

vehicle-miles-traveled (VMT), 912, 913-914, 916, 919

warning issues, 904, 938, 939, 941-942, 943-944 n.70

Environmental Defense Fund, 678

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 506, 530 n.66, 532, 577-578, 640, 648, 649 n.46, 650, 656 n.64, 663, 665 n.88, 673 n.108, 679, 920

Ephedra litigation, 23-24 n.61, 25 n.67, 577 n.81, 579 n.85, 617 n.212, 664 n.84, 669 n.94, 676 n.113

Epidemiology

adjustments for noncomparable study groups, 571-572

admissibility of evidence, 551 n.2, 553, 555 n.14, 562 n.38, 565 n.48, 579 n.85, 581 n.89, 583 n.100, 601 n.153, 606 n.169, 609 n.181, 610, 618 nn.213 & 214

agent, defined, 551 n.3, 619

alpha, 576, 577, 578 n.84, 579-581, 582, 619

alternative explanations, 552-553 n.7, 582, 595, 598, 600, 605

animal studies of toxicity, 563-565, 603 n.160, 625

association (exposure–disease), 552-553, 554, 555-556, 557, 559, 561, 566, 567-568, 570, 572, 573, 574-575, 576, 577, 578 n.85, 579, 580, 581, 582, 583, 584, 585, 586 nn.107 & 108, 588 n.115, 589, 590, 591-593, 595, 597-606, 610 n.184, 611-612, 613, 622

attributable risk, 566, 570-571, 612 n.191, 619

Bayesian approach, 611 n.188

beta, 576 n.80, 581, 582

biases, 24, 553 n.9, 554, 567-568, 572, 573-574, 575 n.74, 583-591, 592 n.127, 595 n.133, 598, 602, 605, 610 n.184, 612-613, 615, 620, 622, 624, 625, 626, 627

biological markers, 586, 620

biological plausibility of association, 573, 600, 604-605, 606, 620

case-control studies, 556, 557, 558, 559-560, 568, 569, 583-584, 585-586, 587 n.112, 588 n.115, 589-590, 591 n.122, 597-606, 607, 620, 625

causation, 23, 24, 217 n.14, 218, 551-552, 553, 554, 558, 559, 560-563, 564 n.48, 566, 570, 574, 577 n.81, 579 n.85, 584, 585-586, 587 n.111, 588, 591, 592-593, 597-618

clinical studies, 555, 556, 575, 590, 607, 621

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 2011. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Third Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13163.
×

cohort study, 556, 557-559, 560, 567, 568, 573, 583, 584, 585 n.104, 589, 590, 592, 593, 594, 607, 621, 624, 625, 626, 628, 657, 658-659, 716

conceptualization problems, 589-590

confidence intervals, 573, 578 n.85, 579-580, 581, 582 n.94, 585 n.106, 608, 621, 628

confounding factors, 24, 554, 563, 567-568, 572, 574, 575 n.74, 584 n.103, 585, 591-597, 598, 602, 605, 612-613, 621, 622, 628, 657 n.67

cross-sectional studies, 556, 560-561, 621-622

Daubert and, 551 n.2, 574 n.72, 575 n.74, 576 n.77, 578-579 n.85, 581 n.89, 610-611 n.185, 617 n.212

design of studies, 556-563, 589-590

differential diagnosis/etiology, 217 n.14, 512 n.21, 589-590, 591, 610 n.183, 613 n.193, 617-618

dose–response relationship, 563, 565, 585, 600, 603, 613, 616 n.204, 622

ecological fallacy, 623

ecological studies, 556-557, 561-563, 623

error sources, 556 n.19, 572-597, 612-613, 619, 620, 621, 623, 624, 626, 627, 628, 629

experimentaI studies, 555-556

and exposure science, 505, 506, 508, 509, 512, 518, 519, 533, 535, 536, 537, 538, 540, 547

extrapolation, 535 n.75, 563, 565, 603 n.160, 613

false negatives (beta errors or Type II errors), 577 n.81, 581-582, 620, 629

false positives (alpha errors or Type I errors), 575-581, 589, 619, 627, 628, 629

false results (erroneous association), 572-597

general causation, 24, 551 n.2, 552, 565 n.48, 578 n.85, 597-606

generalizability of studies, 564, 595 n.133, 623

hospital-based studies, 584

human (in vitro) studies, 555-556, 564, 623

incidence of disease, 551, 557, 558, 560, 561 n.34, 562, 566, 567, 568 n.58, 569 n.61, 570, 571, 577 n.83, 582, 592, 594, 595, 598, 603, 605, 608 612, 613, 615, 616, 619, 621, 622, 623, 624, 625, 628

information bias, 585-590, 624

interpretation of study results, 566-572

meta-analysis, 15, 19-20, 23, 579, 581 n.89, 606-608, 624

misclassification bias, 588 n.115, 589-590, 622, 624, 625

missing data, 595-596

multivariate analysis, 596, 597, 625

null hypothesis, 574, 575, 576 n.78, 577 nn.81 & 82, 579, 581-582, 619, 620, 625, 626, 628, 629

observational studies, 555-563, 566, 581, 590, 592, 593, 607, 608, 624, 625, 627

odds ratio, 566, 568-569, 573, 584, 589, 625

power of hypothesis tests, 580 n.88, 582-583, 607

prevalence, 560, 567 n.54, 602 n.157, 622, 625, 626

publication bias, 590

p-values, 575 n.74, 576, 577 n.81, 578-580, 626, 628

random assignment, 555, 556 n.15, 592, 607, 623, 626

random error, 556 n.19, 572 n.67, 573, 574-582, 585 n.106, 589, 612-613, 621, 623, 624, 626, 627, 628

random sample/sampling, 572 n.67

randomized controlled studies, 398, 555, 556, 581 n.89, 592, 607, 621

randomness, generally, 555, 626

relative risk (RR), 566-568, 569, 570 n.62, 572, 573, 574, 575-576, 577 n.82, 578 n.85, 579, 580, 581, 582, 592, 594, 602, 611, 612, 614-615, 616, 619, 621, 626, 627

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 2011. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Third Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13163.
×

replication of results, 604

selection bias, 583-585, 591, 627

specific causation, 24, 551 n.2, 552, 606-618

specificity of association, 605-606

standardized mortality (or morbidity) ratio (SMR), 572, 607 n.171, 624, 628

statistical significance, 24, 573, 575-581, 582, 585 n.106, 607 n.171, 619, 620, 631, 626, 628

stratification, 593, 596, 628

strength of association, 557, 566, 600, 602, 611 n.186, 626

suffìciency of evidence, 552-553 nn.7 & 9, 565 n.48, 579 n.85, 600 n.146, 604 n.164, 605 n.167, 610, 611, 612, 616-617

temporal relationships, 601-602, 606

time-line (secular trend) studies, 562-563, 627

toxic agents, 555-556, 563-565

toxicology studies compared, 563-565, 603 n.160, 628, 636, 639, 644 n.29, 645-646 n.33, 647, 650-651, 655, 656, 657-660, 664-665, 674, 681

true association, 559, 568, 572, 574, 575, 581-582, 590, 591, 592 n.126, 625, 627, 629

two-tailed tests, 577 n.83

types of studies, 555-565

Equal Protection Clause, 2, 816 n.11

Error, defined, 51-52

Error rates (see also specific disciplines)

and reliability of methodology, 13, 29, 49 n.16, 64, 65, 69 n.80, 78, 79, 86, 87, 88-89, 97, 99, 102 n.290, 103 n.300, 122, 162, 171 nn.96-98, 214, 217, 259 n.122, 628, 724-725, 787, 806, 890, 903

zero, 29, 79, 99, 122, 171 n.97

European Committee for Standardization (CEN), 906, 936, 956-957

European Union Regulation on Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH), 648, 649

Evidence, defined, 51

Evolution, theory of, 50

Ex parte contact, 329-330

ExperimentaI studies, 555-556

Experts/expertise (see also individual disciplines)

consulting vs. testifying, 33

court-appointed, 6-8, 14, 35, 311, 329-330, 489, 599 nn.141 & 143

defense due process rights to, 29, 127

ethical responsibilities, 125

examiners and witnesses, 30, 86, 369, 672-673, 693 n.26, 823 n.51, 827 n.73, 890

national register of, 8

resources for identifying, 8

secondary experts, 375-376

of survey interviewers, 409

unretained, 32, 373 n.62

Exposure science (see also Epidemiology; Toxicology; specific substances)

absorption, 518, 523, 524, 526, 532, 534, 535, 543, 544, 545, 547

acute exposure, 545, 657 n.66, 671

admissibility of evidence, 25-26, 506 n.5, 512 n.22

analytical chemistry (direct measurement), 528-530, 535, 540

analytical detection limits, 530

assessment of exposure, 510, 511, 512, 513 n.26, 519, 529, 531 n.66, 533-534, 539, 543-544, 656-657

biomonitoring, 505 n.3, 535-537, 559, 587, 649 n.47, 657, 667, 680

blood evidence, 508, 509, 518-519, 535-537, 544, 656, 657, 672

blood lead levels (BPb), 536-537, 662, 667, 672

body burdens, 534-535, 537, 538, 545

causation analysis, 22, 25-26, 505, 509, 511-513, 518, 519 n.35, 525 n.53, 528 n.63, 534, 535, 538, 539, 543-544, 597-606

certification programs, 540

children and infants, 518, 521 n.40, 524 n.49, 527, 531 n.67, 536-537, 544, 552 n.4

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 2011. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Third Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13163.
×

concentration, 506 n.5, 519 n.35, 525, 527-529, 530, 531, 532, 533, 534, 535, 536, 540 n.88, 541-542, 543, 544, 546

consumer products, 505, 506, 507, 509-511, 515, 516, 519-520, 524, 526, 527, 528, 533, 537, 545, 546

contexts for, 509-512

Daubert and, 25-26

distribution, 511, 518, 532, 534, 535, 546

dose, 507, 508, 509, 513 n.26, 518-520, 525-528, 529, 531 n.67, 533-534, 535, 536, 538, 539, 541, 544, 545, 546, 547

duration of exposure, 518, 519, 525, 526

environmental contaminants, 25, 508, 509, 510-511, 515-516, 520-522, 536, 537

environmental degradation, 521-522, 524, 531, 532

environmental media, 507, 508, 509, 510, 518, 521-522, 524, 527-528, 530, 533, 541, 546

environmental models, 530-533

environmental sampling, 528, 529, 530, 533, 538, 541

epidemiology and, 505, 506, 508, 509, 512, 518, 519, 533, 535, 536, 537, 538, 540, 547

excretion, 518, 523, 527, 532, 534-535

fate and transport, 507, 521, 532

gastrointestinal (GI) tract/ingestion, 518, 523-524, 525, 526, 531 n.67, 534, 546

general causation, 26

goal of, 318-319

hazardous waste sites, 528, 531, 536 n.78, 543-544, 546

indirect pathways, 512 n.26, 517, 518, 520, 527-528, 533, 546

industrial chemistry/chemicals, 507, 510, 511, 514-516, 521

inorganic chemicals, 513-514, 515, 520, 522

laboratory certification, 529-530

lungs/respiratory tract/inhalation, 507, 509, 516, 517, 518, 519 n.36, 520, 522-523, 524, 526, 534, 544, 545, 546, 547

metabolism/metabolites, 518, 527 n.62, 534-535

modeling, 508, 521, 528, 530-533, 538, 544, 546

occupational exposures, 26, 217 n.14, 505-506 n.5, 511, 516, 517, 526, 529, 536, 539, 540, 652 n.54, 663 n.81

organic chemicals, 508-509, 513-514, 515, 520-521, 522, 528 n.63, 537

overview, 506-507

particulate matter (PM), 511 n.17, 512 n.22, 515, 523-524, 528 n.63, 532, 533 n.72

pathways of exposure, 512 n.26, 517, 518, 519-523, 524, 527-528, 531, 532, 533, 536, 538, 543, 544, 546

persistance, 521-522, 353-536, 537

pharmacokinetics, 535, 540

presentation of data, 541-542

processes of human exposure, 516-525

product contaminants, 505, 506, 507, 509-511, 515, 516, 519-520, 524, 526, 527, 528, 533, 537, 545, 546

qualifications of experts, 508, 539-540

quality of assessment, 537-539

quantification of exposure, 525-534

reconstruction of exposure, 512, 513 n.26, 529, 531 n.66, 539, 657 n.57

regulatory context, 505, 506, 509-511, 517 n.31, 528-529, 534

risk assessment, 505, 506, 507, 510-511, 525, 526, 528, 533, 534, 535, 536, 537, 538 n.84, 547

routes of exposure, 507, 509, 518, 519, 520, 522-524, 526, 533, 536, 537 n.80, 538, 547, 588, 650 n.48, 682

scope of, 507-508

skin (dermal exposure), 507, 509, 516, 517, 518, 520, 523, 524, 526, 534, 536 n.76, 543, 544, 546, 547, 650, 660, 682

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 2011. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Third Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13163.
×

sources of exposure, generally, 516-517

specific causation, 26

standards for dose limits, 512 n.22, 521 n.43, 528-529, 536

target site (systemic) dose, 507, 519, 535, 536, 547

toxicology and, 505, 506, 508, 509, 518, 159, 533, 535, 537, 538, 540, 547

units of concentration, 525, 541-542

volatile chemicals, 514, 520, 521, 531, 650 n.48, 657 n.66, 668

Extrapolation

animals to humans, 4-5, 15, 23, 223 n.26, 535 n.75, 563, 565, 636, 641, 645, 646-647, 648, 658, 661-662, 669-670, 692 n.21

in class actions, 238 n.72

of damages from past earnings, 438

defined, 682

dose–response relationships, 4-5, 603 n.160, 636, 641, 645, 648, 651

exclusion of evidence, 23, 692 n.21

representativeness of populations for, 613, 727

in risk assessment, 547, 603 n.160, 651, 661-662

from samples to populations, 226, 238 n.72, 244, 299, 909

from short exposures to multiyear estimates, 648

statistical models, 222, 223, 226, 238, 244, 645 n.31

from tissue or cell cultures to humans, 564, 646-647, 652, 664

Exxon Shipping Co. v. Baker, 239

Eyewitness testimony, 13 n.10, 59, 62, 72 n.95, 328-329, 365 n.22, 384, 958

F

Federal Bureau of Investigation

anthrax investigation, 194

Automated Fingerprint Identification System, 77

ballistics analysis, 120 n.415

CODIS, 61, 62 n.30, 145, 201

crime laboratory, 58

DNA analysis, 61-62, 69-70, 116, 145, 154, 156, 157, 178, 179 n.128, 180, 187, 194

fingerprint analysis, 67 n.66, 74, 75, 77, 78, 79-80, 81, 83 n.175

hair analysis, 112 n.357

toolmark identification, 203 n.300

Uniform Crime Reports, 231

Federal Communications Commission, 378

Federal Employees Liability Act, 947

Federal Highway Administration, 916

Federal Insanity Defense Reform Act, 868

Federal Judicial Center, 8-9, 63 n.39

Federal Rules of Civil Procedure

Rule 23, 30-31, 32

Rule 26, 32, 33, 34, 35, 374, 414, 417-418 n.246, 486-487, 696 n.33

Rule 53, 35

Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure

Rule 16, 125

Rule 23(a), 794 n.41

Federal Rules of Evidence

Rule 104(a), 12

Rule 401, 27 n.79, 101 n.281, 123, 785, 952 n.93

Rule 403, 29, 121, 167, 174, 181, 214, 610 n.185, 788-789, 806, 952 n.93

Rule 404, 171 n.96, 189-190 n.164, 789

Rule 406, 790

Rule 702, 12-13, 16, 17, 18, 22-23, 34-35, 63, 82 n.169, 90 n.221, 101, 102 n.291, 121 n.426, 122, 167, 174, 181, 214, 551 n.2, 579 n.85, 696 n.33, 776, 785-788, 806, 827 n.73, 846 n.179, 871 n.333, 939

Rule 703, 214, 361, 363-364, 610 n.184

Rule 704, 868, 944 n.72

Rule 706, 24 n.66, 135, 329-330

Rule 803, 363-364 n.12

Federal Trade Commission, 399 n.178

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 2011. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Third Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13163.
×

Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology, 46

Federation of State Medical Boards, 698

Fiber analysis, 57, 61, 62 n.32, 71 n.88, 112, 119 n.409

Fifth Amendment, 790-792

Fingerprint evidence

admissibility, 27 n.78, 73, 81-83

analysis, comparison, evaluation, and verification (ACE-V), 75, 76, 79, 81, 82-83

artifacts, 74 n.105, 75

Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS), 65, 77

“black box” approach, 81

case law development, 58, 71, 73, 81-83

confirmation bias, 67 n.66, 79-80

Daubert and, 74 n.105, 82, 122

DNA exonerations, 62 n.32

DNA profiling compared, 60 n.23, 61, 73, 74 n.107

empirical record, 59 n.17, 61 n.25, 76-81, 109 n.331

error rates, 78, 79, 122

expectation (context) bias, 80

FBI examiners, 28 n.82, 67 n.66, 74, 75, 77, 78, 79-80, 81, 83 n.175

Frye test, 82-83

Galton details, 73, 75 n.113

history, 72-73

individuation, 57 n.1, 72, 73, 82, 84, 117 n.393

latent prints, 74, 75-77, 78 n.143, 79, 80 n.156, 81, 82 n.169, 109 n.331

“match” opinions, 73-74, 75-76, 81 n.167, 82 n.169, 84, 175

Mayfield case, 28 n.82, 67, 75 n.116, 79-81

minimum threshold approach, 80

observer bias, 67

“one-discrepancy” rule, 75 n.111

population frequency data, 73

proficiency testing, 27 n.78, 67-68, 76-77, 78-79, 78 n.143

simultaneous impressions, 83

technique, 71, 73-76, 575 n.74

validity, 76-77

Firearms identification (see Ballistics evidence)

First Amendment, 792

Food additives, 5, 216, 510, 515, 517, 525 n.56, 919

Food and Drug Administration, 25, 217 n.14, 461-462, 525, 581 n.89, 640, 644 n.29, 647-648, 650, 670 n.97, 678, 696 n.33, 720, 728, 730, 731, 774, 775, 854, 856, 858, 862, 907, 921, 941 n.65

Food Safety Risk Analysis Clearinghouse, 910

Forensic dentistry, 57, 101-102, 105 (see also Bite mark evidence)

Forensic identification expertise, 55-127 (see also Bite mark evidence; DNA; Fingerprint evidence; Handwriting evidence; Microscopic hair evidence; other specific disciplines)

accreditation of crime laboratories, 28, 66, 68-69, 98, 154 n.48

admissibility of, 26-30, 57, 59-60, 61, 62-64, 65, 71, 72, 74 n.105, 76-77, 82, 85-86, 89-90, 101, 102, 103, 110-111, 112, 117, 118-119, 121 n.426, 122, 123, 124, 127

certification of examiners, 28, 66, 68-69, 79, 80 n.157, 89

clarity of testimony, 70, 120-121

class characteristics, 57, 72, 84, 92, 93, 94, 96, 97, 101, 114

closing arguments, 124

confirmation bias, 67 n.66, 80

Confrontation Clause and, 26-27, 30

contextual (expectation) bias, 29, 67 n.63, 80

court-appointed experts, 29-30

cross-examination, 30

Daubert and, 26-30, 57, 60, 62-64, 72, 74 n.105, 76-77, 82, 85-86, 89, 90 n.220, 101, 112, 118-119, 122, 124

defense experts, 80 n.157, 111 n.351, 124, 125 nn.450 & 454, 127

development of techniques, 58-60

DNA exonerations, 27, 62, 109-110, 116, 117, 119, 125 n.450, 134

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 2011. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Third Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13163.
×

drug analysis, 59

empirical testing, 60-64, 66 n.62

ethical responsibilities of experts, 125

false-positive errors, 77, 78, 100, 109, 115

Fed. R. Evid. 401 and, 101 n.281, 123

Fed. R. Evid. 702 and, 12-13, 16, 17, 18, 22-23, 34-35, 63, 82 n.169, 90 n.221, 101, 102 n.291, 121 n.426, 122

Frye and, 60, 63, 82, 102 n.291, 103 n.300, 110 n.343

individual characteristics, 57, 72, 73, 84, 92, 93-94, 96, 97, 99, 113

individuation opinions, 57, 59 n.12, 60, 66, 71 n.91, 72, 74, 82, 84, 89, 90, 94, 106, 113, 114

interpretation of evidence, 27, 29

Kumho Tire and, 62-63, 89 n.214

laboratories, 28-29, 58-59, 66

laboratory report format, 28-29, 70

limitations on testimony, 121-124, 126-127

match probability, 72

NRC Forensic Science Report, 27, 30, 60 n.23, 64-70, 71, 74 n.106, 75-76, 77-78, 79, 82 n.171, 84, 85, 97, 100, 105 n.314, 108, 113-114, 115-116, 119-120, 121, 122, 126

objectionable testimony, 29

observer effects, 67-68

prejudicial, 29

pretrial discovery, 125-126

procedural issues, 124-127

proficiency of experts, 28, 61, 62 n.30, 68, 69-70, 76, 78-79, 85, 87-89, 97-98, 116

reappraisal of, 60-64

recurrent problems, 120-124

reliability, 71-72

research recommendations, 66

terminology, 70, 71-72

testifying beyond the report, 126-127

validity, 27-28, 71-72

wood evidence, 58

Forensic Science Service (UK), 144

Forensic Sciences Foundation, 69 n.82

Formaldehyde, 522 n.47, 528 n.64, 653, 656 n.65, 658 n.70, 673 n.107, 674 n.110

Fourteenth Amendment, 792

Fourth Amendment, 796

Framingham Study, 708

Freud, Sigmund, 858

Frye (general acceptance) test, 12, 53, 60, 63, 82, 102 n.291, 103 n.300, 110 n.343, 133 n.7, 166, 173 n.102, 186, 189, 195 n.183, 197, 367, 368, 806-807, 866, 867, 949

Functional impairments

assessment, 842-846

clinical examination, 843-844

diagnosis of mental disorders vs., 819-821

from mental disorders and, 841-846, 851-852, 860-861

predictive assessments, 851-852

structured assessment techniques, 844-846

treatment of, 860-861

Functional MRI (fMRI), 765, 766, 768-772, 773, 775, 776-777, 778, 779, 780, 781, 782-783, 786, 787-788, 791, 796, 797-798, 800, 803-807, 809, 810-811, 838

Furman v. Georgia, 370

G

Gatekeeping role of judges, 6, 12-13, 16, 17, 102 n.291, 866 n.309, 901, 933, 956 (see also Case management)

Gender discrimination (see Sex discrimination)

General Electric v. Joiner, 14-16, 17, 18, 19-20, 24 n.65, 53, 82-83, 364 n.17, 563-564 n.44, 565 n.48, 579 n.85, 638 n.9, 661 n.77, 692-693, 932 n.56

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 2011. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Third Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13163.
×

Genes (see also Alleles; Chromosomes; DNA)

amelogenin, 146, 147, 183

coding and noncoding sequences, 138, 139, 177, 201

defined, 138, 142

DQA, 202

Genome (see also Chromosomes; DNA)

Alu sequences, 199

defined, 203

environmental impacts, 663

Human Genome Project, 144, 149

mitochondrial, 150, 176, 177-178, 202

nuclear, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 144, 148, 149-150, 176, 177, 204

structure, 137, 138, 204, 209

Genome-wide association studies, 581 n.90

Glass analysis, 57, 69 n.81, 116 n.383

Global Utilization of Streptokinase and tPA for Occluded Coronary Arteries Trial, 732

Gregg v. Georgia, 307 n.10, 370

H

Habeas corpus proceedings, 118, 119, 126, 170 n.92, 795, 815 n.5

Hair (see Microscopic hair evidence)

Handwriting evidence

case law development, 58, 63 n.41, 83, 89-90, 101 n.284

class characteristics, 84

Daubert and, 63 n.41, 85-86, 89, 90 n.220

empirical record, 59 n.17, 85-89

error rates, 86, 87, 88, 89

experts compared to laypersons, 86-87

Fed. R. Evid. 901(b)(3), 89

individual characteristics, 84

individuation opinions, 84

Kumho Tire and, 89 n.214

limits on testimony, 27 n.79, 89-90, 101 n.284, 121 n.426, 123 n.440

observer effects, 67

proficiency studies, 85-89

technique, 83-84

Haplotypes, 178, 181, 182, 204

Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, 165, 166, 204, 207

Harvard Center for Risk Analysis, 910

Harvard Medical Practice Study, 700-701

HCR-20, 848

Healthcare Facilities Accreditation Program (HFAP), 700

Healthcare Research and Quality Act of 1999, 701

Hearsay, 214, 225 n.32, 227 n.37, 363-364, 610 n.184, 956

Hemangiosarcoma, 672

Henricksen v. ConocoPhilips Co., 26

Heterozygosity, 139, 140, 147, 183 n.139, 199, 204

Hinkley, John, 800

HIV, 194, 195 n.181, 385, 402, 635 n.1, 713, 720, 730, 838

Homozygosity, 139, 140, 183 n.139, 199, 204

Hooke’s law, 269, 271, 281

Hughes, Howard, will dispute, 83

Hunt v. Cromartie, 2

I

Impeachment by bias, 21

Infectious Disease Society of America (IDSA), 728

Informed consent (see Medical informed consent)

Innocence Project, 27 n.77

Insanity defense, 29 n.85, 222, 749, 763, 785, 786, 799, 800, 815 n.1, 817, 819-820, 865-866, 867, 868, 869

Institute of Healthcare Improvement, 701

Institute of Medicine, 20, 46, 49, 701, 702, 723, 728

Integrated Ballistics Information System (IBIS), 95

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 2011. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Third Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13163.
×

Intellectual property litigation, 307, 311, 429 n.1, 439, 440, 441, 498-499, 501, 502, 932-933, 938, 945-946 (see also Patents)

“Intelligent Design” litigation, 50

International Academy of Forensic Toxicology, 678

International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), 20, 564 n.46, 646, 656 nn.64 & 65, 660 n.75, 665, 678

International Association of Identification, 80 n.187

International Organization for Standardization, 68

International Society of Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology, 678

Intrauterine device (IUD) litigation, 574 n.70, 920-921

J

Joint Commission, 701

Jones & Laughlin Steel Corp. v. Pfeifer, 454

Jury

change-of-venue surveys, 376-377, 403

comprehension of evidence, 5, 29, 91 n.226, 118 n.400, 124, 126, 134, 167, 168, 169, 171, 173, 175 n.111, 189-190 n.164, 329, 463, 475, 693 n.26, 788, 868, 901, 937, 939, 947, 951, 956

damage awards, 238-239, 240 n.82, 475

death penalty cases, 370

decisions as indicators of national opinion, 370

discrimination in composition, 7, 234, 249-250, 253 nn.104 & 105, 275-278, 365

impartiality, 223 n.27, 224, 365, 370, 376-377, 403

instructions to, 29, 168 n.84, 383 n.104, 455, 943

law enforcement officers excluded from, 252 n.102

questionnaires, 226 n.36

right to a trial by, 5, 21, 226 n.35, 794-795

selection, 225, 226 n.36, 249, 253 n.104

Jury Selection and Service Act, 226 n.36, 252 n.102

Justice for All Act, 62 n.30, 154 n.48

K

Knoll v. State, 112

Kochert v. Greater Lafayette Health Serv. Inc., 22

KSR International Co. v. Teleflex, Inc., 945-946

Kuhn, Thomas, 41-43, 44-45, 49, 50

Kumho Tire Co. v. Carmichael, 16-18, 35, 53, 62, 63, 89 n.214, 214 n.4, 308, 431, 575 n.74, 692-693, 866, 891, 899, 932 n.56, 933, 951

L

Laboratories (see also DNA laboratories; Laboratory reports)

accreditation, 28, 62 n.30, 66, 68-69, 70 n.83, 98, 154, 156, 171 n.98, 538

growth in number of, 58-59

practices, 28-29

quality assurance and quality control, 68, 529-530

regulation, 61, 66

Laboratory Proficiency Testing Program, 69, 97, 116

Laboratory reports

format standardization, 70

jury comprehension, 126

pretrial discovery, 125-126

testifying beyond the report, 126-127

Lanham Act, 363 n.10, 366, 382, 400, 422

Law, language of science compared, 51-52

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 2011. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Third Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13163.
×

Law Enforcement Assistance Administration (LEAA), 69, 97 n.262, 116

Lead exposure, 510 n.15, 521 n.41, 522, 524 n.49, 531 n.67, 536-537, 640, 653, 654, 662, 667, 870 n.332

Leapfrog Group, 701

Lethal injection, 3

Lie detection (see also Polygraph evidence)

fMRI, 801-807

nonlitigation applications, 807

Life expectancy, 365, 471, 472, 473, 474, 492, 493, 495-496, 702, 719, 727, 733

Likelihood ratios, 169 n.89, 172-173, 174, 175, 177-178, 185-186, 205, 206, 710-711

Lindbergh kidnapping trial, 58, 83, 89

Linear

associations, 261, 262, 264-268, 286, 321, 348, 352, 603 n.160

combinations, 271 n.139, 280, 287, 289, 290, 298

low-dose risk curve, 673 n.107

no-threshold model, 642-643 n.28

regression, 260 n.124, 264, 298, 316, 317 n.36, 336-339, 347, 353, 354

Linkage equilibrium, 166, 205, 207

Lockett v. Ohio, 795

Lockheed-Martin, 77-78

Lung cancer, 14, 15 n.26, 218, 219, 221, 552, 558-559, 570 n.63, 578 n.85, 585 n.104, 593, 597, 600, 602, 605, 606, 613, 615, 620, 635, 718-719, 724, 733

M

Madrid terrorist train bombing, 28 n.82, 67, 75 n.116, 79-81

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 720, 761, 763, 766-772, 773, 777-778, 781, 797, 800 n.52, 837-838

Magnetoencephalography (MEG), 761, 772-773

Major depressive disorder, 828 n.76, 829, 830, 832, 838, 839, 863 n.297, 879 n.357

Mammography, 259 n.122, 708, 710, 711-712, 726-727, 738-739

Management of expert evidence (see Case management)

Manganese, 505 n.3, 515, 522 n.47, 528 n.64, 529 n.65, 653, 670 n.95

Mapes Casino, Inc. v. Maryland Casualty Co., 257

Mass torts litigation, 366-367

Maximum Contaminant Levels (MCLs), 528-529

Mayfield, Brandon, 28 n.82, 67, 75 n.116, 79-81

Mayo Lung Project, 718

McNeilab, Inc. v. American Home Products Corp., 392 n.146, 415

Medical education and training

accreditation, 695, 696, 697, 700, 701, 822, 823 n.49, 824, 873

continuing medical education, 700

licensure and credentialing, 695, 696 n.33, 697, 698-699

medical school, 695-696, 821, 822 n.44, 873

postgraduate training, 697-698, 824

Medical history

consistency with toxicology expert’s opinion, 670-671

differential diagnosis, 672-673

disclosure of contradictory data, 674-675

interaction of chemicals, 673

laboratory tests, 672

susceptibility to environmental agents, 674

symptoms of toxic exposure, 671-672

Medical informed consent

principles and standards, 734-737

risk communication, 737-739

shared decisionmaking, 739-740

Medical malpractice litigation, 474, 689, 692, 694 n.27, 695, 698, 816-817, 852, 877, 878, 951

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 2011. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Third Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13163.
×

Medical practice

delivery of care, 700-701, 721-722

education and training for, 695-700

outcome goals, 702-703

patient–physician encounters, 703-704

quality of care, 702-704, 721-722

Medical Practice Acts, 698

Medical testimony

absolute risk, 738

Bayes’ rule, 259 n.122, 706 n.78, 707-714, 725, 742

causal reasoning, 23, 714-717, 742

clinical practice guidelines, 726-728

clinical reasoning process, 689, 705-707, 741

conditional probability, 710, 712, 714, 737, 742

cross-sectional studies, 716, 736-737

Daubert and, 690, 692-693, 696 n.33

diagnostic reasoning, 689, 693, 704-717, 719, 741

diagnostic testing, 704, 717, 719-720, 724, 742

diagnostic verification, 706, 715, 719, 742, 743, 744

differential etiology, 690-691, 741, 742-743

etiology, defined, 691, 743

evidence-based medicine, 722-723, 726, 733, 738

false-negative test, 708, 711, 724

false-positive test, 708, 710-711, 713, 714, 717-718, 720, 724, 725, 735

General Electric Co. v. Joiner, 692-693

hierarchy of evidence, 723-725

hypothesis generation, 705, 715, 742, 743

hypothesis modification, 706, 742, 743

hypothesis refinement, 706, 742, 743

hypothesis testing, 724-725

hypothetico-deductive approaches, 705, 707, 743

judgment and uncertainty in, 693-694, 721-734

Kumho Tire Co. v. Carmichael, 692-693

likelihood ratios, 711

malpractice litigation, 474, 689, 692, 694 n.27, 695, 698, 816-817, 852, 877, 878, 951

medical decisionmaking, 704-740

medical reasoning, 693-695

meta-analysis, 722-723, 724, 725

natural frequency statements, 712, 737

negative predictive value, 710, 711, 744

null hypothesis, 724, 725

odds ratio, 738

pathophysiological reasoning, 715

personal injury cases, 689, 690 n.8

positive predictive value, 710, 711, 712, 744, 781

posterior probabilities, 710, 742

posttest probability, 742, 744

predictive value, 710, 711, 712, 744, 781

pretest probability, 710-711, 742, 744

prior probability, 708, 710-711

probabilistic reasoning, 707-714, 715

product liability cases, 22, 689, 693, 703, 731 n.189

prognostic testing, 721

prosecutor’s fallacy, 712

p-value, 724

qualifications of experts, 698, 700, 729

randomized controlled studies, 716, 718, 722-723, 724, 725, 729, 730-731, 732, 736

“reasonable medical certainty/probability,” 123, 691-692, 693, 694 n.27, 716

relative risk, 737, 738

screening tests, 708, 712-713, 714, 717-719, 726-727, 735, 736-737, 738-739, 743, 744

sensitivity of tests, 706 n.78, 708, 709, 710-711, 712, 713, 714, 719-720, 737, 742, 744

single event probability, 737

specificity of tests, 706 n.78, 708, 709, 710-711, 712, 713, 714, 719-720, 737, 742, 744

terminology, 689-692

testing, 717-721

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 2011. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Third Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13163.
×

treatment-related, 728-734

true-negative test, 708, 710, 711, 724

true-positive test, 708, 711, 712-713, 717, 724

variations in care, 721-722

Medications for mental disorders (see also specific medications)

categories of, 855-856

efficacy and effectiveness, 858

polypharmacy, 856-857

side effects, 857

targets of treatment, 853-855

Melendez-Diaz v. Massachusetts, 30, 62 n.33, 64 n.48, 71 n.88, 126, 789

Mental health assessment (see also Competency; Diagnosis of mental disorders)

adequacy of circumstances for, 880-881

collateral informants, interviews with, 835, 841, 843, 844, 847-848, 872, 876, 882-883, 894

conduct of, 877-885

contemporaneous, 817-818, 865, 881

cooperativeness of evaluee, 834, 849, 879-880, 881, 890

disclosure of limitations, 890-891

functional impairments, 817, 838, 842-846, 851-852, 864, 865, 882, 884, 885-886, 889-890

in-person examination, 851, 877-879, 884

malingering considerations, 839, 840-841, 843, 881-882, 884-885, 894

predictive assessment, 818-819, 846-852, 858, 863-864, 865, 881-882, 885-886, 887, 890

process of expert in reaching conclusions, 889-891

records review, 817-818, 834-835, 839, 841, 843-844, 847-848, 878, 879, 881-882, 888, 890, 893

retrospective, 817, 818 n.18, 865, 881

structured instruments, 835, 836, 840 n.144, 841, 844, 845-846, 848, 849, 850, 851-852, 885-889, 893

Mental health evidence (see also Mental health assessment; Competency; Diagnosis of mental disorders; Treatment of mental disorders)

admissibility of, 815-821, 827, 846 n.179, 866, 867, 869 n.328, 886, 894

board certification of experts, 822-823, 825, 826 n.68, 827, 874, 893

case example, 892-894

criminal responsibility, 815, 819 n.30, 844, 868, 869

damages assessments, 816 n.7, 819, 851, 863, 892, 893-894

Daubert and, 866, 886, 891 n.396

diagnostic vs. functional issues, 889-890

disability, 816 nn.11 & 12, 818, 819-820, 831 n.87, 837, 851, 882, 894

disclosures, 890-891

emotional harm or distress, 432 n.22, 496, 810, 816, 818, 819, 820-821, 823, 851, 852, 863, 866

empirical support, 846, 847, 865, 866, 867, 868, 880-881, 891

experience of experts, 818, 822, 823, 824, 825, 826, 827, 841, 846, 848, 854, 871-873, 881, 889, 890

Frye and, 866, 867

functional impairments, 3, 819-821, 832, 840, 841-842, 883 n.373

Kumho Tire and, 866, 891

legal cases involving, 815-821

licensure of experts, 824, 825, 826, 827 n.73, 873-874

limitations of, 818, 836, 849-851, 859, 865-869

negligence actions, 816 n.7, 818, 827 n.73, 877 n.351, 892, 893

overview, 815-869

prior professional relationship, 875-877, 893-894

psychiatric nurses, 826, 870-871

psychiatric social workers, 826, 870-871

psychiatrists, 821-823, 827, 834, 841, 847, 849, 853, 865, 870, 872-873, 874, 875, 876-877 n.349, 878, 879 n.358, 893

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 2011. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Third Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13163.
×

psychodynamic theory, 859, 865-867, 891

psychology/psychologists, 822, 823 n.51, 824-825, 826-827, 847, 849, 865, 869, 870-871, 872, 873-874, 875, 876 n.349, 878, 888, 893-894

psychopharmacology (see Medications for mental disorders)

psychotherapists/psychotherapy, 822, 825, 826-827, 858-859, 870, 873-874, 876 n.349, 882, 891

qualifications of experts, 821-829, 869-877

relative risk, 851 n.214

social workers, 826

structured instrument reliability and validity, 885-889

theoretical basis, 865, 885, 891

training of expert witnesses, 870-871

ultimate issue testimony, 867-869

violence risk (future dangerousness), 3, 819, 846-851, 878 n.354, 893

Mental retardation, 369-371, 815 n.5, 819, 829, 833, 836, 874 n.343 (see also Competency)

Mercury, 515, 536 n.76, 642 n.27, 646, 653

Mesothelioma, 585 n.104, 588 n.114, 606, 635, 672

Meta-analysis, 217 n.14, 254 n.107, 289, 579, 581 n.89, 606-608, 624, 657 n.67, 722-723, 724, 725

Meyers v. Arcudi, 367 n.32, 368

Microscopic hair evidence (see also Fiber analysis)

admissibility, 118-119, 178 n.123, 181 n.134

bias, 67

case law development, 112, 117-119

class characteristics, 114

Daubert and, 118-119

DNA analysis, 116, 143, 149 n.133, 151, 155, 170, 177, 178 n.123, 179, 180, 181 n.134

DNA exonerations, 62 n.32, 116, 117, 124

empirical record, 61, 113-117

individual characteristics, 113, 114-115

neutron activation analysis, 114, 123 n.437

proficiency testing, 69 n.81, 116

random-match probability, 118 n.401

technique, 112-113

Military Rules of Evidence, 794

Military Service Act, 249

Millsap v. McDonnell-Douglas, 490

Mini-Mental Status Examination (MMSE), 837

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), 836, 841, 886

Monte Carlo simulations, 284, 469

“More likely than not” standard, 27 n.79, 102, 123, 463, 577 n.81, 612, 613 n.194, 617

Morton Thiokol, 927

Multiple regression

admissibility, 308-309, 314 n.33, 319 n.43, 324 n.54, 330-332

antitrust litigation, 305, 306, 307 n.7, 313, 320, 321 n.48, 326, 328, 348 n.90

basics of, 333-351

bias, 312, 314, 315, 322 n.50, 325, 327, 352

causality, 309, 310, 311, 312, 314, 321 n.48, 322-324, 327, 353

census undercountng litigation, 307, 308

class certifications, 306-307

computer output interpretation, 346-348

confidence intervals, 321, 332 n.69, 342-343, 352

correlation, 309, 310, 311, 314, 315, 322, 324-325, 333-334, 342 n.79, 352, 354, 355, 356

court-appointed neutral experts, 329-330

covariates, 311-312, 322, 336-337, 350, 351, 352

cross-sectional analysis, 319, 345, 352

database information and analytical procedures, 331-332

Daubert and, 308-309

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 2011. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Third Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13163.
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death penalty deterrence analysis, 307, 308

dependent variable, 305, 308, 311-313, 314, 315, 316, 317, 321, 322-324, 325 n.55, 326, 327, 332, 334, 335, 336, 337, 338, 339, 340, 345, 347, 348, 352, 353, 354, 355, 356

design of research, 308-309, 310, 311-317

discovery process, 330-331

discrimination cases, 305, 306, 309-310, 312-314, 315-317, 318-320, 323-324, 336-347, 350-351

dispute resolution over statistical studies, 331-332

economic damages, 305-306, 308 n.12, 311, 319, 328, 348, 431, 446, 450, 481, 499, 502

errors in modeling, 325-326

error terms, 325, 326, 336, 337, 339, 342, 344, 347, 348 n.91, 352, 355

explanatory (independent) variable(s), 305, 308, 310, 311-312, 313-316, 317 n.36, 322-325, 326, 327, 334, 335, 336, 337, 338, 339-340, 341, 342, 345, 346 n.88, 348, 349, 350-352, 353, 354, 355, 356

fitted values, 270, 295, 298, 337, 338, 339, 353

forecasting, 348-349

formulation of research question, 311

functional form of model, 316-317

goodness of fit, 338, 340, 344-345, 347, 355

heteroscedasticity, 296, 326 nn.56 & 57, 353

hypothesis tests, 319-321, 342-343, 348, 353, 354, 356

hypothetical example, 350-351

independence, 325, 326, 353

influential data points, 327, 345, 346, 353

interaction variables, 316-317, 339 n.79, 351, 353

intercepts, 335, 338, 345, 347, 348, 353, 354

interpreting results, 318-328, 339-340

job aptitude test–performance correlation, 333-336

justifying choice of model, 317

least squares method, 326-327, 335, 336, 337, 339, 340, 341, 342, 345-346, 347, 354, 355

linear associations, 321, 348, 352

linear regression model, 260 n.124, 264, 298, 316-317, 336-339, 347, 353, 354

mean, 332, 341, 342, 343, 350, 351, 354, 356

mean squared error (MSE), 344, 347, 354

measurement error, 327-328

misleading data, 349

model specification (research design), 311-317, 337

multicollinearity, 324-325, 354

nonlinearities, 339

nonprobability sampling, 332 n.68

normal curve, 342

normal distribution, 343 n.82, 354

null hypothesis, 319-321, 342-343, 348, 353, 354, 356

observational studies, 312, 318, 332, 340, 342, 347

one-tailed tests, 321, 354

outlier, 327 n.58, 345, 346, 354, 355

overview, 305-311

parameters, 312, 314 n.32, 315, 316-317, 320, 324, 325, 326, 327, 332, 336, 337, 338, 340-341, 342, 343, 344, 347, 348 n.91, 352, 353, 354, 355, 356

patent infringement cases, 306, 307 n.12, 309, 311, 319, 321

percentages, 318 n.40, 320, 341, 345, 355

perfect collinearity, 324

practical significance of results 318-321, 355

precision of results, 340-346

presentation of statistical evidence, 330-332

probability sample/sampling, 332, 355

probative value, 315 n.33

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 2011. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Third Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13163.
×

p-values, 320-321, 324 n.54, 347, 350-351, 354, 356

qualifications of experts, 328-329

quasi-experiments, 312, 355

random (sampling) error, 314 n.30, 336, 337, 339, 342 n.79, 355

random variables, 355, 356

ranges, 312 n.26, 333, 343, 345, 353

rate regulation cases, 307

recording data, 327, 330-331

regression line, 337-339

regression residuals, 336, 339, 344, 347, 354, 355, 356

reliability, 340, 341

robustness of results, 310-311, 322-328, 346, 355

R-squared statistic, 314 n.31, 345, 347, 348, 350, 351, 353, 355

scatterplots, 333, 335, 337, 355

sensitivity to individual data points, 326-327, 345-346

serial correlation, 326 nn.56 & 57, 355

significance levels, 320-321, 324 n.54, 347, 350-351, 354, 356

size of sample, 316, 318-319

spurious correlations, 309, 310 n.24, 311, 322, 356

standard deviation (SD), 341, 343 n.83, 344, 348, 354, 356

standard errors (SE), 316 n.35, 326, 340-344, 347, 348, 349, 350, 354, 356

statistical significance, 318-319, 320-321, 324 n.54, 347, 350-351, 354, 356

surveys, 307 n.8, 332

t-statistics, 320, 340-344, 347, 356

t-test, 320, 356

theory development, 311-317

time-series analysis, 317 n.37, 319, 323 n.52, 326, 345, 356

trends, 345

two-tailed tests, 321, 356, 577 n.83

voting rights cases, 307

Myelofibrosis, 217 n.14

N

National Academy of Engineering, 46

National Academy of Sciences, 46, 47, 649

National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 927

National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS), 529, 666

National Cancer Institute, 564 n.48

National Conference of Lawyers and Scientists, 8

National Electronic Injury Surveillance System, 909

National Fire Protection Association, 933-934

National Forensic DNA Review Panel, 156 n.53

National Geographic Society, 408 n.212

National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), 536-537

National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 910-911, 920

National Human Genome Research Institute, 149

National Institute for Environmental Health Sciences, 20

National Institute of Forensic Sciences (proposed), 66

National Institute of Justice, 156 n.53

National Institute of Standards and Technology, 81

National Institutes of Health (NIH), 45, 646, 678, 733

National Quality Forum, 701

National Research Council, 20, 46

Ballistic imaging report, 99

DNA reports, 60-61, 125, 127, 133, 134 n.12, 141 n.19, 143, 161, 162, 163 n.72, 164 n.75, 166-167, 168 n.84, 169 n.89, 170 n.95, 174 n.110, 175, 176 n.114, 185, 187-188, 192 n.170

Forensic Science Report, 27, 30, 60 n.23, 64-70, 71, 74 n.106, 75, 76, 77-78, 79, 82 n.171, 84, 85, 97, 100, 105 n.314, 108, 113-114, 115-116, 119-120, 121, 122, 126

Page 1000 Cite
Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 2011. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Third Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13163.
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National Rifle Association, 411

National Science Foundation, 45

National Toxicology Program (NTP), 655, 656 n.64

Natural experiments, 290, 312, 355

Natural Resources Defense Council, 678

Negligence, 893

Neuroimaging

accuracy and robustness of results, 781-782

computer assisted tomography (CAT), 762-763, 837-838, 893

countermeasures, 776, 783-784, 801, 805, 810

diffusion tensor imaging, 768

electroencephalography (EEG), 761, 766, 772-773, 791-792, 796, 803, 838-839

false negatives, 780, 782-783, 788

false positives, 780-781, 782-783, 788

functional MRI (fMRI), 765, 766, 768-772, 773, 775, 776-777, 778, 779, 780, 781, 782-783, 786, 787-788, 791, 796, 797-798, 800, 803-807, 809, 810-811, 838

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 761, 763, 766-772, 773, 777-778, 781, 797, 800 n.52, 837-838

magnetoencephalography (MEG), 761, 772-773

positron emission tomography (PET), 761, 763-765, 766, 773, 776, 785, 800 n.52, 838

single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), 761, 765-766, 838

Neuroscience evidence (see also Brain)

admissibility issues, 784-796

blood oxygen level dependent (BOLD) response, 768, 770, 771, 782, 783, 787-788, 804

character evidence, 789-790

Confrontation Clause and, 789

criminal responsibility (culpability) determinations, 749, 772, 798, 799-801

Daubert and, 785-786, 806

Due Process Clause and, 792

Eighth Amendment and, 795

Employee Polygraph Protection Act, 792-794

examples of uses in litigation, 796-811

experimental design issues, 777-779

Fed. R. Evid. 403 and, 788-789, 806

Fed. R. Evid. 406 and, 790

Fed. R. Evid. 702 and, 776, 785-788, 806

Fifth Amendment and, 790-792

First Amendment and, 792

Fourteenth Amendment and, 792

Fourth Amendment and, 796

Frye, 806-807

group averages applied to individuals, 780-781

“habits of mind,” 788-789

insanity defense, 749, 763, 785, 786, 799, 800

interpreting study results, 776-784

lie detection, 772, 773, 776-777, 778-779, 784, 787, 789 n.24, 790-791, 792-795, 797, 799, 801-807

mitigation in capital cases, 785, 795, 798, 799, 800

pain detection and management, 749, 753, 775, 778, 780-781, 799, 807-811

predisposition evidence, 789-790, 801

privacy rights, 792, 793-794, 796

privilege against self-incrimination, 790-792

relevance, 749, 773, 776, 777-778, 779, 785, 786, 788, 789-790, 792, 796, 797, 798, 799, 800, 801, 810

replication of finding, 776, 777, 804, 810

representativeness of studies, 779

Seventh Amendment and, 794-795, 805

Sixth Amendment and, 794-796

statistical issues, 770, 776, 777, 780, 782-783, 787, 801, 803, 804, 805, 809, 810

techniques, 760-776 (see also Neuroimaging)

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Neutron activation analysis, 120 n.415, 123 n.440, 126

New Scotland Yard, 73, 78 n.143

Newton, Isaac, 42, 43

Non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma, 552 n.4, 740-741

Nonhuman DNA testing

affinal model, 198 n.194, 199

cats, 196, 197

dogs, 193, 197, 198 n.193

HIV, 194, 195 n.181

individual organisms, 195-198

microbial bioterrorism agents, 149, 194

mitochondrial, 193, 194, 195 n.180

phylogenetic analysis, 193, 194-195

sequencing/profiling methods, 196, 197-198

species and subspecies, 193-195

Nurses’ Health Study, 717

O

Objections to expert testimony, 29 (see also Daubert)

Obscenity cases, 224, 365

Observational studies

causation, 215-216, 218, 220-222

epidemiology, 555-563, 566, 581, 590, 592, 593, 607, 608, 624, 625, 627

natural experiments, 312

Observer effects, 67-68

Occupational exposures, 26, 217 n.14, 505-506 n.5, 511, 516, 517, 526, 529, 536, 539, 540, 663 n.81

Occupational Safety and Health

Administration (OSHA), 528 n.64, 529 n.65, 649 n.44, 650, 658 n.70, 666 n.88, 670 n.97, 672, 673 n.107, 920

Odds ratio, 235, 289, 291, 566, 568-569, 573, 584, 589, 625, 738

Oklahoma City bombing, 949-950

Otero v. Warnick, 109-110

P

Paradigm, defined, 41-42

Parlodel litigation, 25 n.69, 562 n.38, 564 n.47, 591 n.122

Partial-birth abortion cases, 7

Patents

assessment of claims in, 935, 946

conflicts of interest, 48-49

drugs, 854

expert testimony, 933, 945-946

infringement cases, 3-4, 6, 193, 306, 307 n.12, 309, 311, 319, 321, 440 n.24, 441, 945-946

Paternity cases, 132, 158 n.56, 164, 172, 174, 206

Peer review, 13, 44-45, 48, 49 n.16, 50, 53, 64, 66, 102 n.290, 103 n.300, 108, 328, 375, 508 n.11, 608, 617-618 n.212, 677, 678, 679, 776-777, 786, 787, 803, 806, 866 nn.306 & 309, 886, 901, 931, 935, 938, 958 n.106

People v. Collins, 712

People v. Jennings, 58, 73, 81-82

People v. Linscott, 117 n.387, 124

People v. Marx, 110

People v. Pizarro, 147, 183, 184

Perfluoroctanoic acid, 505 n.3

Permissible Exposure Limits (PELs), 529

Personal injury cases, 435, 455, 470, 475, 665, 689, 690 n.8, 816, 901, 938, 942, 947

Pesticides, 4, 510, 516, 517, 520, 522, 527 n.60, 528-529, 530 n.66, 537, 543, 546, 586, 643 n.28, 648 n.42, 650 n.48, 652, 662 n.78, 671-672 n.102

Pfizer, Inc. v. Astra Pharmaceutical Products, Inc., 387

Pharmacokinetics, 535, 540

Pheochromocytoma, 706

Philip Morris, Inc. v. Loew’s Theatres, Inc., 231

Physician-assisted suicide, 3

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Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), 14, 15, 522, 545, 565 n.48, 581 n.89, 586 n.109, 640, 652, 661 n.77, 665 n.88, 668

Polygraph evidence (see also Lie detection)

accuracy level, 369, 805

admissibility of, 60, 790, 794, 795-796

as character evidence, 789 n.24

countermeasures, 783-784

Frye test, 60

history, 802

for mitigation in sentencing, 795

pretrial uses, 807

Sixth Amendment and, 794

statutory protections, 792-793, 807

surveys of general acceptance, 365 n.22, 367-368, 369

validity, 228

Popper, Karl, 40-41, 43, 44, 49, 50, 53, 64

Population

frequency data, 74, 85, 113, 119, 148, 155, 163, 164-165, 166, 178-179, 191, 195, 196 n.185, 197, 200, 203, 204-205, 207, 275

randomly mating, 165, 198, 204, 208

statistics, 217, 221 n.23, 223-225, 226-227, 241-250, 275-277, 278-279, 292, 295, 296, 298, 299, 300, 301

Positron emission tomography (PET), 718 n.117, 761, 763-765, 766, 773, 776, 785, 800 n.52, 838

Post hoc ergo propter hoc fallacy, 217 n.14, 669 n.94

Preponderance of the evidence standard, 32 n.95, 252 n.103, 271 n.138, 314 n.33, 319 n.43, 565 n.48, 577, 610 n.182, 611 n.187, 659 n.72, 665, 692, 714

Presidential Recordings and Materials Preservation Act of 1974, 242

Price fixing, 31 n.91, 306 n.6, 321 n.48, 322 n.50, 349 n.90, 491

Probabilty

conditional, 205, 209, 259 n.122, 273-274, 284, 710, 712, 742

expressing testimony as, 123

forensic evidence match, 72, 118 n.401

medical probabilistic reasoning, 707-714

posterior, 172, 173-174, 241-242, 258-259, 274, 275, 283, 710, 742

prior, 173, 174, 241-242, 258, 259, 274, 275, 282, 283, 710, 711, 744

random-match, 60, 118 n.401, 135, 155, 164, 165, 167-171, 172, 173, 175-176, 181 n.34, 182, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191-192, 196, 197, 198 n.194, 205, 208, 251 n.99

sampling, 184, 226, 230, 238 n.71, 241, 246, 248, 283, 293, 295, 299, 332, 355, 361, 362 n.8, 380, 381, 382, 385, 398 n.175, 408, 416, 419, 420, 421

theory, 173, 214, 258 (see also Bayesian approach)

Product liability

causation, 24, 947

conflicts of interest, 21

damages, 22, 942-943

design disputes, 939-940

engineering testimony, 939-943, 947

exposure to contaminants, 505, 506, 507, 509-511, 515, 516, 519-520, 524, 526, 527, 528, 533, 537, 545, 546

manufacturing issues, 941

medical testimony, 22, 689, 693, 703, 731 n.189

personal injury, 22, 942

proof of defect, 943-944

sale and marketing concerns, 942-943

warning issues, 941-942

Proficiency testing (see also individual disciplines)

blind, 61, 68, 69, 70 n.83, 80, 81, 98, 156, 160-161, 162, 171 n.98, 196, 207

and error rate, 69 n.80, 161-162, 171-172

external, 156

internal, 155-156

obstacles to, 28

mandatory, 69-70

programs, 69 n.82, 78, 85, 87, 88, 98

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quality of tests, 78-79, 86-87, 98

reporting results in court, 171

types, 69

Proof (see Causation; Standard of Proof)

Prosecutor’s fallacy, 712

Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) test, 735-736

Publication of research, 13, 45 n.11, 50, 64, 155, 328, 375, 384 n.108, 431, 590, 617 n.211, 678, 776-777, 786, 787, 806, 827 n.23, 870 n.332, 886, 901

p-value (see individual disciplines)

Q

Qualifications of experts (see also Proficiency testing; individual disciplines)

advisory panel memberships, 678-679

certification, 68-69, 677-678, 874

conflicts of interest, 8, 21-22, 875

consideration of contrary conclusions, 22-23

Daubert and, 22-23, 431-432

discretion of judges in evaluating, 135

education and training, 328, 375, 431, 675-677, 870-871

experience, 431, 818, 822, 823, 824, 825, 826, 827, 841, 846, 848, 854, 871-873, 881, 889, 890

Federal Rule of Evidence 22, 702

knowledge requirement, 22-23

licensure, 873-874

prior relationships, 875-877

professional autonomy, 215-216

professional memberships, 328, 677-678

publications, 328, 375, 678

research grants, 678

university appointments, 679

Questioned document examinations, 83-84, 85, 87 n.198, 88, 89 n.215, 90, 121-122 (see also Handwriting evidence)

R

R. v. Beamish, 196-197

Racial discrimination, 2, 7, 233, 267-268 n.133, 287, 306, 313, 314 n.33, 319, 324 n.53, 365 n.19

Radioactive iodine, 654, 662, 663, 666-667

Randomized Aldactone Evaluation Study, 729-730

Randomly mating population, 165, 198, 204, 208

Rape cases, 104, 131, 132, 159 n.58, 183, 370, 689 n.6 (see also Sexual assault cases)

Rate regulation cases, 307

“Reasonable medical certainty” testimony, 123

“Reasonable scientific certainty” testimony, 122-124

Redistricting litigation, 2, 267-268 n.133, 307 n.9

Regulatory contexts

engineering evidence, 919, 947-948, 951-952, 953

exposure science and, 505, 506, 509-511, 517 n.31, 528-529, 534

presumptive validity of government testimony, 638 n,11

toxicology, 635, 636, 637, 638 n.10, 639, 640, 642, 644-645, 646, 647, 648 n.40, 649, 650-651, 654, 656 n.54, 657 n.67, 660, 665-666, 669 n.95, 670 n.96, 678

Reliability of scientific testimony (see also specific disciplines)

between-observer variability, 228

correlation coefficients, 213, 227, 228, 260, 261-264, 265, 266, 286, 290, 301, 333

DNA identification, 60, 62 n.32, 73, 227

error rates and, 13, 29, 49 n.16, 53, 64, 65, 69 n.80, 78, 79, 86, 87, 88-89, 97, 99, 102 n.290, 103 n.300, 122, 162, 171 nn.96-98, 214, 217, 259 n.122, 628, 724-725, 787, 806, 890, 903

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falsifiability or testability, 13, 16, 40-41, 43-44, 48, 49, 53, 63, 64, 866 n.309

general acceptance of methodology, 12, 13, 52 n.20, 53, 59-60, 63, 82, 102 n.291, 103 n.300, 110 n.343, 133 n.7, 166, 173 n.102, 186, 189, 195 n.183, 197, 367, 368, 617 n.211, 806-807, 866, 867, 949

peer review of research and, 13, 44-45, 48, 49 n.16, 50, 53, 64, 66, 102 n.290, 103 n.300, 108, 328, 375, 508 n.11, 608, 617 n.211, 677, 678, 679, 776-777, 786, 787, 803, 806, 866 nn.306 & 309, 886, 901, 931, 935, 938, 958 n.106

publication of research and, 13, 45 n.11, 50, 64, 155, 328, 375, 384 n.108, 431, 590, 617 n.211, 678, 776-777, 786, 787, 806, 827 n.23, 870 n.332, 886, 901

validity distinguished from, 13 n.11, 71-72

within-observer variability, 227-228

Reproducibility of research, 48

Rex v. Castleton, 73

Rhodes v. E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Co., 31, 32, 505 n.3, 649 n.47

“Right-to-die” cases, 3, 5

Risk

absolute, 738

acceptable, 908, 909-910, 915-920

assessment, 505, 506, 507, 510-511, 525, 526, 528, 533, 534, 535, 536, 537, 538 n.84, 547, 603 n.160, 637, 642-643, 648-651, 657 n.67, 661-662, 663, 673 n.108, 678 n.116, 679, 683, 909, 910-914

attributable, 566, 570-571, 612 n.191, 619

calculations, 911-912, 918

cancer, 635, 638 n.12, 642-643, 644-645, 649 n.46, 650, 653, 654, 655, 656, 659, 660 n.74, 665, 668-669, 670, 683

characterization, 637, 638 n.12, 645 n.31, 659, 683

communication, 737-739

extrapolation, 547, 603 n.160, 651, 661-662

low-dose risk curve, 673 n.107

medical, 737, 738

relative (RR), 234 n.62, 247 n.91, 295, 566-568, 569, 570 n.62, 572, 573, 574, 575-576, 577 n.82, 578 n.85, 579, 580, 581, 582, 591, 594, 601, 611, 612, 614-615, 616, 619, 621, 626, 627, 659, 737, 738, 851 n.214

violence (future dangerousness), 3, 819, 846-851, 878 n.354, 893

Risk World Web site, 910

R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Co. v. Loew’s Theatres, Inc., 231

Rochin v. California, 792

Rock v. Arkansas, 795

Rofecoxib (Vioxx), 731-732

Rorschach ink-blot test, 836, 886

Royal College of Physicians, 705

Rupe v. Wood, 795

S

Sacco and Vanzetti trial, 58, 91

Schizophrenia, 800, 832, 839, 842, 847, 853, 858, 859, 860, 863, 864, 872, 877 n.351, 893

Science and scientists

Daubert’s definition, 39 n.3

evidence defined, 51

“good science,” 64 n.45

historical background, 38-39, 42

honesty and integrity, 43, 45, 50

importance in litigation, 3-4

indicators of good science, 13, 49 n.16

institutions, 45-46

language of, 51-52

law compared with, 51-52

legal training and education, 9

myths and facts about, 47-50

objectives, 52

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peer review and, 44-45, 48, 49 n.16, 50, 53

as profession or career, 45-47

pseudoscience, 49, 52

reward system and authority structure, 46-47

theories, 39-45, 50, 51

view of Daubert, 52-54

Science, State, Justice, Commerce, and Related Agencies Appropriations Act, 64

Scientific method

criteria for judging, 53 (see also Reliability of scientific testimony)

Francis Bacon and, 39-40, 42, 43, 50

Kuhn’s paradigm shifts, 41-43

Popper’s falsification theory, 40-41

synthesis of multiple studies, 20, 23

Scientific revolutions, 41-43

Scientific Working Group for Firearms and Toolmarks, 93 n.236, 154 n.46, 156, 157 n.54, 159

Scientific Working Group on DNA Analysis Methods (SWGDAM), 62 n.29

Scotland Yard, 73

Securities and Exchange Commission, 484

Securities litigation, 429 n.1, 431, 448

Semen evidence, 58, 62 n.32, 143, 151, 155, 159 n.58, 169 n.89

Seventh Amendment rights, 5, 21, 794-795, 805

Sex discrimination, 233, 234-235, 257 n.115, 270-271, 272, 279-282, 305-306, 313, 315-317, 318 n.42, 319-320, 323-324, 336-347, 350-351, 365-366

Sex offenders, 819, 849, 859-860

Sex-typing test, 146-147

Sexual assault cases, 104, 147, 158, 182, 184, 689 n.86, 800, 871 n.332

Shoe print evidence, 57, 62 n.32

Silicone gel breast implant litigation, 6, 7, 247 n.91, 589 n.117, 638

Single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), 761, 765-766, 838

Sixth Amendment, 794-796

Society for Neuroscience, 750 n.2

Society for Psychophysiological Research, 367

Society of Breast Imaging, 727

Society of Occupational and Environmental Health, 678

Society of Toxicology (SOT), 678

Soil contaminants, 507, 510 n.15, 517, 524 n.49, 531, 532, 536 n.78, 537, 667, 669 n.95

Soil evidence, 57, 62 n.32, 669 n.95

St. Valentine’s Day Massacre, 91

Standard of proof

“more likely than not,” 27 n.79, 32 n.95, 102, 123, 463, 577 n.81, 611, 612, 616

preponderance of the evidence, 32 n.95, 252 n.103, 271 n.138, 314 n.33, 319 n.43, 565 n.48, 610 n.182, 611 n.187, 659 n.72, 665, 692, 714

reasonable certainty, 123, 434 n.11, 461-463, 468, 691-692, 693, 694 n.27, 716

Standard of review, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, 25, 100 n.279, 101 n.282, 104 n.303, 112 n.353, 226 n.36, 563-564 n.44, 565 n.48, 693, 827 n.73, 846 n.179, 874 n.343, 947 n.83

Standard Table of Mortality, 365

Stanley v. Georgia, 792

State of Arizona v. Bogan, 195-196

State of Arizona v. Garrison, 107 n.319, 215

State of Arizona v. Krone, 109, 110 n.341

State of Connecticut v. Pappas, 178, 179, 180 n.133, 181 nn.135 & 136

State of Louisiana v. Schmidt, 194, 195

State of Washington v. Leuluaialii, 197

Statistics, 211-302 (see also Multiple regression)

absolute value, 275, 282, 283

admissibility and weight of studies, 214

aggregation from multiple sources, 235, 254 n.107

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alternative hypotheses, 205, 254 n.106, 255 n.110, 257, 276, 278, 283, 297, 299, 300, 319-321, 353, 582

anecdotal evidence, 217, 218, 220, 310

applied statistics, 214, 229, 328

appraisal approaches, 242-244, 248-249, 278

artifacts from multiple testing, 256

associations between variables, 213, 217-218, 219, 221-222, 230, 233-235, 252 n.103, 253, 254, 260-263, 264, 265 n.129, 266, 285, 286, 291, 295, 298, 312, 321, 352, 356

averages, 219, 226 n.35, 238 n.70, 241, 242-243, 244-245, 246, 248 n.95, 264, 265 n.129, 266, 269, 278-279, 284, 287, 289, 294, 298, 300

base of a percentage, 233

Bayesian approach (subjectivist), 173, 174, 242 n.48, 273-275

benchmarks, 230-231

bias, 220, 224-225, 226, 227, 240, 241, 246, 249, 256, 266 n.130, 283, 285, 290, 293, 296, 312, 314, 315, 322 n.50, 325, 327, 352

categories for comparison, 231-232

causality inferred from, 213, 216-223, 249, 260-272, 288

census undercount litigation, 2-3, 213, 223-224, 247 n.90, 268, 275 n.149, 307, 308

center-of-distribution measure, 238-239

central limit theorem, 276, 278, 279, 284, 285

changes in data collection, 232

coding reliability, 227-228

collection of data, 216-230, 231

comparisons, 233

conditional probability, 205, 209, 273-274, 284, 710, 712, 742

confidence intervals, 165 n.76, 213, 230, 240 n.83, 241, 243-246, 247, 248, 249, 252-253, 255, 259 n.121, 284-285, 289, 321, 332 n.69, 342-343, 352

confounding variables, 219, 220, 221, 222, 240, 257 n.115, 262-264, 265, 266, 285, 286, 288, 289, 298-299

convenience sample, 224-225, 248, 285, 287

correlation coefficients, 213, 227, 228, 260, 261-264, 265, 266, 286, 290, 301, 333

Daubert and, 214, 217 n.14, 227 n.37

dependent variables (outcome variable, response variable), 219, 264, 268, 270, 274, 285, 286, 287, 288, 290, 294, 295

design of research, 213, 214, 216-230, 231, 240, 243, 246, 279, 301, 308-309, 310, 311-317

disclosure of methods and nonsupporting analyses, 216

discovery process, 216, 217 n.14, 310 n.24, 330-332

discrimination cases, 213, 228, 233-234, 250, 253 n.105, 257 nn.115 & 116, 260, 270-271, 272, 275, 276, 279-282

distributions, 236-239, 248 n.95, 251, 259 n.123, 275, 276, 278, 279, 283-284, 286, 287, 288, 290-291, 292, 293, 294, 296, 297, 298, 300, 301

DNA profiling, 74 n.105, 134 n.12

ecological regression, 266, 267

enhancing statistical testimony, 215-216

epidemiological study analysis, 574-582

estimation/estimators, 213, 226 n.35, 228, 229, 230, 232 n.56, 241, 242-249, 252-253, 256-257, 258 n.117, 259 n.123, 260, 264, 265, 267, 269-270, 271, 273 n.146, 278, 279, 280, 281-282, 283, 284, 285, 287, 289, 292, 295, 296, 298, 299-300, 301

expertise/experts, 214, 215-216, 222, 248 nn.93 & 94, 251, 271, 272

external validity, 222, 301

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false negatives, 115-116, 162, 232, 254 n.106, 259 n.122, 301, 577 n.81, 581-582, 620, 708, 711, 724, 780, 782-783, 788

false positives, 161-162, 170-171, 232, 251 n.100, 254 n.106, 575-581, 589, 619, 627, 708, 710-711, 713, 714, 717-718, 720, 724, 725, 735, 780-781, 782-783, 788

frequentist approach (objectivist), 187, 189, 190, 241-242, 247, 252, 254 n.106, 258, 259, 273, 275, 287, 611 n.188

gender discrimination, 233, 234-235, 257 n.115, 270-271, 272, 279-282

generalization of results, 222-223, 301

graphs, 213, 230, 236-237, 240 n.82, 260-261, 272 n.144, 276, 294, 296

histograms, 236-237, 276-279, 283, 284, 288

hypothesis (significance) tests, 40, 163, 213, 241, 249-253, 254, 255, 297, 319-320, 352, 353, 354, 356, 574-582, 626, 724, 725

income–education association, 219, 260-262, 264-266, 312

independence, 227, 228, 269, 275, 288, 325, 326, 353, 714

independent variables, 219, 221, 268, 285, 287, 288, 289, 290, 294, 295, 297, 305 n.2, 308, 353

individual measurements, 227-228

inferences drawn from data, 213, 217, 220, 221, 222, 227, 240-259, 264, 266, 270, 283

integrity of data, 229

intercept, 265-266, 267, 269-270 n.135, 280, 335, 338, 345, 347, 348, 353, 354

internal validity, 222, 228, 229, 288

interquartile range, 239

least squares method, 269-270, 271, 280, 289, 295

linear associations, 261, 262, 264-268, 286, 321, 348, 352

linear combinations, 271 n.139, 280, 287, 289, 290, 298

linear regression, 260 n.124, 264, 298, 316, 317 n.36, 336-339, 347, 353, 354

mean, 213, 230, 238, 239, 240, 247 n.92, 269, 278, 279, 284, 286, 289, 290, 291, 293, 296, 297, 298, 332, 341, 342, 343, 350, 351, 354, 356

median, 213, 230, 238, 239, 240 n.82, 289, 292, 492

misleading data, 220, 230, 231, 247 n.92, 265, 349

missing data, 223-224, 229, 332

mode, 238, 289

models and model development, 241, 253-257, 268-272, 279-281

multiple hypothesis tests, 256-257

Nixon papers valuation, 242-246, 247, 248-249, 278-279

nonresponse bias, 225, 226, 249, 290, 332

normal curve, 239 n.81, 244, 246, 255, 276, 277-278, 279, 284, 287, 298, 303, 342

normal distribution, 239 n.81, 284, 290, 292, 294, 298, 343 n.82, 354

null hypothesis, 241, 249-251, 252, 253-254, 257, 271 n.138, 275, 276, 278, 282, 283, 287, 288, 290, 291, 292, 296, 297, 299-301, 319-321, 342-343, 348, 353, 354, 356, 574, 576, 577 nn.81 & 83, 579, 581-582, 619, 620, 625, 626, 628, 629, 724, 725

observational studies, 213, 217-218, 219, 220-222, 241, 248, 269, 285, 288, 290, 291, 312, 318, 332, 340, 342, 347

odds ratio, 235, 289, 291, 566, 568-569, 573, 584, 589, 625, 738

one-tailed tests, 255-256, 291, 297, 321, 354, 577 n.83

outliers, 238, 239 n.76, 240, 262, 263, 291, 327 n.58, 345, 346, 354, 355

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parameters, 241, 247, 248, 254 n.106, 255, 269-270, 271, 275, 280, 281-282, 283, 284, 287, 291, 292, 293, 295, 298, 299, 300, 312, 314 n.32, 315, 316-317, 320, 324, 325, 326, 327, 332, 336, 337, 338, 340-341, 342, 343, 344, 347, 348 n.91, 352, 353, 354, 355, 356

percentages, 88-89, 213, 224 n.31, 230-232, 233-234, 247, 248 n.93, 249 n.96, 257, 267-268, 284, 293, 318 n.40, 320, 341, 345, 355, 381, 382-383, 499, 626, 781, 787

percentiles, 2, 239, 288, 289, 292, 293, 525

population, 217, 221 n.23, 223-225, 226-227, 241-250, 275-277, 278-279, 292, 295, 296, 298, 299, 300, 301

posterior probabilities, 172, 173-174, 241-242, 258-259, 274, 275, 283, 710, 742

power of statistical tests, 174, 181 n.136, 253-254, 255, 276-277, 283, 292, 296, 579 n.88, 581-582, 607, 626, 644, 645, 724, 730, 805 n.65, 848

practical significance of results, 252, 292, 318-321, 355

presentation and analysis of data, 230-240

prior probability, 173, 174, 241-242, 258, 259, 274, 275, 282, 283, 710, 711, 744

probability sampling, 184, 226, 230, 238 n.71, 241, 246, 248, 283, 293, 295, 299, 332, 355, 361, 362 n.8, 380, 381, 382, 385, 398 n.175, 408, 416, 419, 420, 421

probability theory, 173, 214, 258 (see also Bayesian approach)

product rule, 165-167, 198, 199, 204-205, 207, 273-274

professional autonomy, 215-216

public school funding litigation, 2

p-values, 213, 230, 240 n.83, 241, 249-256, 257, 258, 271 n.138, 281, 287, 288, 289, 290, 291-292, 296-297, 299, 300, 320-321, 324 n.54, 347, 350-351, 354, 356, 575 n.74, 576, 577 n.81, 578-579, 626, 628, 724

qualifications of statistical experts, 215-216, 275

quotas, 225, 361 n.4

random (sampling) error, 240, 241, 243, 244, 246, 248, 249 n.96, 252, 256, 257, 258, 269, 271, 280, 282, 287, 293, 295, 296, 314 n.30, 336, 337, 339, 342 n.79, 355, 388, 556 n.19, 572 n.67, 573, 574-582, 585 n.106, 589, 612-613, 621, 623, 624, 626, 627, 628

random sample/sampling, 164-165 nn.75 & 76, 178, 225-226 & nn.32-35, 230, 241, 242, 247, 248, 249, 250, 275, 276, 277, 278, 283, 284, 288, 290, 296, 297, 299, 332, 363 n.12, 380-382, 383, 385-386, 412, 420, 421

random-start systematic sample, 299

random variables, 288, 289, 293-294, 295, 355, 356

randomized controlled studies, 218, 220, 221, 222, 230, 241, 248, 285, 294, 301, 398, 555, 556, 580 n.89, 592, 607, 621, 648 n.42, 658, 716, 718, 722-723, 724, 725, 729, 730-731, 732, 736

randomness, generally, 222, 230, 240 n.83, 285, 290, 555, 626

ranges, 237, 239, 245, 247, 250, 253, 276, 284, 288, 292, 293, 294, 298, 299, 300, 312 n.26, 333, 343, 345, 353

rates, 218, 220, 221, 226, 230-233, 234, 235, 236, 243, 250, 253 n.105, 258 n.119, 259 n.122, 266, 267, 268, 275, 279, 284, 288, 290, 291, 294, 298

recording data, 217, 229, 327, 330

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redistricting litigation, 2, 267-268 n.133, 307 n.9

regression lines, 213, 260, 264-268, 294

regression models/analysis, 213, 221 n.21, 248 n.94, 256, 257 n.115, 260-272, 279-282, 284, 285, 286, 288, 289, 293, 294-295, 298 (see also Multiple regression)

relative risk (RR), 234 n.62, 247 n.91, 295, 566-568, 569, 570 n.62, 572, 573, 574, 575-576, 577 n.82, 578 n.85, 579, 580, 581, 582, 591, 594, 601, 611, 612, 614-615, 616, 619, 621, 627, 659, 737, 738, 851 n.214

reliability of measurements, 217, 223, 227-229, 247 n.91, 248 n.94, 269, 270, 291, 295, 301, 340, 341

rival hypotheses, 163, 174, 257

sample size, 243, 246-247, 252-253, 254-255, 318-319

scatter diagrams, 213, 240 n.82, 260-262, 263, 264, 265, 267, 296, 333, 335, 337, 355

selection bias, 224-225, 226 n.36, 249, 290, 293, 296

selection ratio, 234, 235, 275

significance levels, 213, 230, 240 n.83, 241, 249-256, 257, 258, 271 n.138, 281-282, 287, 288, 289, 290, 291-292, 296-297, 299, 300, 320-321, 324 n.54, 347, 350-351, 354, 356, 575 n.74, 576, 577 n.81, 578-579, 626, 628, 724

significance testing, 40, 163, 213, 220 n.19, 241, 249-253, 254, 255-256, 291, 297, 300, 319-320, 321, 352, 353, 354, 356, 574-582, 626, 724, 725

slopes and intercepts, 265-266, 267, 269-270 n.135, 280, 335, 338, 345, 347, 348, 353, 354

Spock jury example, 249-250, 275-278

standard deviation (SD), 126, 213, 230, 239, 240, 242, 243, 247 n.92, 248, 251-252 nn.101 & 103, 278, 179 n.153, 286, 293, 298, 301, 341, 343 n.83, 344, 348, 354, 356

standard error (SE), 213, 230, 240 n.83, 241, 243-246, 248, 249, 251, 255, 258, 276, 278, 279, 281-282, 284-285, 289, 290, 293, 294, 298, 300, 316 n.35, 326, 340-344, 347, 348, 349, 350, 354, 356

stratification, 221 n.23, 226, 288, 290, 299, 308

subfields, 214

surveys, 213, 214 nn.4 & 5, 223-227, 229 n.45, 257 n.115, 290, 307 n.8, 332

technical difficulties, 247-249

theoretical statistics, 214, 241-242, 247, 250, 255-256, 258, 270, 273-275, 277-278, 279, 284, 290 (see also Bayesian approach)

time-series analysis, 231, 317 n.37, 319, 323 n.52, 326, 345, 356

trademark infringement, 363 n.10, 366, 373, 376, 378, 379, 382 n.101, 387, 396 n.165, 397-398, 399-400, 401, 410, 413-414, 421

transposition fallacy, 250-251 n.100, 258 n.119, 259 n.122

trends, 233, 236, 264-265, 345

t-statistics, 281-282, 297, 299-300, 320, 340-344, 347, 356

two-expert cases, 215, 329

two-tailed tests, 255-256, 297, 300, 321, 356, 577 n.83

Type I (alpha) error, 251 n.100, 283

Type II (beta) error, 254 n.106, 283, 301

units measured, 226-227

units of analysis, 217, 223-225, 266-268

validity of measurement process, 222-223, 228-229, 241, 288, 301

variability measures, 239-240

voting rights cases, 213, 266-268, 307

Statutes of limitations, 134

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Stearns, Richard, 6

Structured instruments and tests

administration, 888

mental status assessment, 885-889

population appropriateness, 886-887

reliability and validity, 885-886

scoring, 888-889

training considerations, 887-888

Summary judgment, 3, 14, 16, 18, 24 n.64, 309 n.20, 315 n.33, 384 n.110, 547, 644 n.29, 669 n.95, 673 n.105, 817 n.12

Survey research

acquiescence, 394, 400

admissibility under Daubert, 214, 226 n.36, 361, 363-369, 410

Atkins v. Virginia, 369-371

attorney independence, 374

audio computer-assisted self-interviewing (ACASI), 402

bias, 225, 226, 249, 290, 332, 362, 364 n.16, 373, 374, 379, 381 n.96, 383-386, 394, 395 n.160, 396, 407, 408, 410, 411-412, 416, 417

causal inferences, 398

causal propositions, 392, 397-401, 421

census undercounts, 307 n.8

change of venue, 365, 376-377 n.76, 388, 403, 413 n.228

children and other special populations, 377

clarity of questions, 362, 387-388, 389, 402-403, 406, 410

closed-ended questions, 392-394, 395, 399, 419

cluster sampling, 380, 419

community standards assessment, 224, 369-371

computer-assisted interview (CAI), 402, 412, 419

computer-assisted personal interviewing (CAPI), 403, 405, 410, 419

computer-assisted telephone interviewing (CATl), 402, 405, 410, 419

confidence interval, 380, 381, 383, 419

confìdentiality, 405, 417, 418

consumer impressions, 361, 366, 373, 377 n.79, 378, 386-387, 393, 397, 399-400, 410, 413 n.228

consumer preferences, 231-232, 365, 377, 382, 385-386, 396 n.166, 416, 470

control groups, 394, 397-401, 421

control questions, 368, 369, 394, 401

convenience sampling, 224-225, 285, 382, 383 n.104, 385, 398 n.175, 419, 420

coverage or noncoverage error, 362 n.8, 378, 407, 419, 420

on expert acceptance of, 63 n.39, 367-369

data entry, 229, 363, 405, 412-413

Daubert and, 214 n.5

design of survey, 362, 363, 367, 373-376, 381 n.97, 384, 386, 389, 394, 396, 399, 400 n.185, 406, 409, 414 n.231, 415, 416, 420

disclosure of methodology and results, 362, 373 n.62, 389 n.132, 405, 410, 413-415, 416-417

“don’t know” or “no opinion” options, 362 n.7, 389-391, 421

economic damages determinations, 389, 431, 469-470, 482, 483, 484, 486

error and bias minimization, 362 n.7, 382, 406-407, 411-412

ethical obligations of survey research organization, 417

expertise in design, conduct, and analysis, 364 n.16, 372, 375, 385-386, 398, 399, 409

expertise in testimony, 362 n.8, 367, 372, 375-376, 381 n.96, 382, 383, 385, 408, 414, 416

extrapolation of data from, 226

filters to prevent guessing by respondents, 389-391, 420, 421

on general acceptance of scientific expertise, 365, 367-369

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identifying the appropriate population, 367, 376-377, 379, 383-384

individual testimony compared to, 372

in-person (face-to-face) interviews, 363, 382, 383 n.106, 385 n.112, 392, 396, 401, 402-403, 404, 405, 419

instrument design and structure, 387-409

internet surveys, 382 n.102, 401, 403, 405, 406-408

interviewer errors and bias, 402, 406-407, 411

interviewer training and qualifications, 376, 386, 388 n.129, 389, 394, 395, 402-403, 409-410, 411

mall intercept surveys, 386, 398 n.175

mail surveys, 383 n.106, 384, 396, 401, 402 n.193, 403, 405-406

marketing, 364 n.13, 373 n.63, 382

measurement error, 362 n.8, 401, 420, 422

missing data, 229, 376, 385

mixed-mode design, 409

monitoring administration, 411-412

nonprobability sampling, 361, 382, 383 n.104, 420

nonresponse bias, 225, 226, 249, 290, 332, 362 n.8, 383-385, 407, 408, 416

objectivity in administration, 410-411

objectivity of, 362, 374, 387, 393

open-ended questions, 391-394, 406, 413, 420

order of questions, 395-396, 402, 403, 406-407, 408-409 n.217, 411, 420

pilot tests, 388, 389, 416-417

population definition and sampling, 223-225, 361, 362 n.8, 380, 381, 382, 383 n.104, 385, 398 n.175, 408, 416, 419, 420, 421

pretests, 388-389, 414 n.231, 430

primacy effect, 396, 420

probability sampling, 226, 361, 362 n.8, 380, 381, 382, 385, 398 n.175, 408, 416, 419, 420, 421

probes to clarify ambiguous responses, 389, 394-395, 402-403, 406, 410, 421

professional standards for survey researchers, 371, 389 n.131, 417

public opinion, 369, 370-371, 403 n.195

purpose of survey, 373

qualifications of experts, 375-376, 381 n.96

questions, 368, 369, 373, 391-394, 395, 397-401, 419, 421

random assignment, 398 n.175

random error, 314 n.30, 336, 337, 339, 342 n.79, 355, 388

random sample/sampling, 332, 363 n.12, 380-382, 383, 385-386, 412, 420, 421

random selection, 398 n.175, 408

random-digit dialing, 404, 408

randomized controlled studies, 398

recency effect, 396, 420, 421

relevance of survey, 362, 363, 367, 368, 370, 373, 374, 375, 376, 377-378, 379, 380-383, 386, 407, 413

report content, 362, 364 n.13, 371, 372, 373, 376 n.75, 377, 386, 401 n.186, 405, 413 n.228, 415-417

representativeness of respondents, 226, 362, 367, 370, 379, 380-383, 384, 405, 406, 407, 409, 417

response grouping, 413, 416

response rates, 226, 362, 367-368, 383, 384-385, 390, 405-406, 407, 408, 409, 416

sample surveys, 223, 361-363, 365 n.18, 381, 382

sampling error, 362 n.8, 380-381, 382, 398, 416, 419, 421

sampling frame (or universe), 224, 225, 226, 267, 283, 292, 293, 296, 297, 377-379, 404 n.198, 406, 415, 419, 420, 421

screening respondents, 386-387, 401 n.188, 404, 415, 420, 421

selection bias, 226 n.36, 385-386, 408

self-selected pseudosurveys, 407-408

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skip pattern, 402, 403, 406, 410, 421

sponsorship disclosure, 372, 374, 410-411

stratified sampling, 225, 299, 380, 381-382, 421

surveyor-respondent privilege, 417

systematic sampling, 380 n.93

target population, 362, 367, 371, 376, 377-378, 379, 382, 383, 384, 385, 386, 406, 407, 409, 415, 419, 420, 421

telephone surveys, 363, 371, 384, 396, 401, 402, 403-405, 407, 408, 410, 411, 412, 419

validation of interviews, 412

weight, evidentiary, 362-363, 368, 377-378, 379 n.89, 396 n.166, 399, 408, 413-414, 415

weights/weighting, statistical, 382, 384, 408, 416

T

Tarrance Group, 371

Technical Working Group on DNA Identification Methods (TWGDAM), 61-62 n.29, 154 n.46

Thalidomide, 562-563, 653

Thematic Apperception Test, 886

Theory, law vs. science, 51

Threshold Limit Values (TLVs), 529

Tissue plasminogen accelerator, 732-733

Toolmark evidence

ballistics, 72 n.93, 93 n.241, 96-97, 98, 99, 103 n.300

case law development, 102-103

class characteristics, 96

empirical testing, 61, 65

error rates, 98

exclusion, 27 n.79

identification testimony, 96-97

individual characteristics, 96

proficiency testing, 98

random markings, 94, 99

Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA), 648 nn.41 & 42, 663, 666

Toxic tort cases, 19, 21, 25-26, 31 n.91, 213, 223, 238, 505, 512, 551 n.2, 635, 636, 637, 638, 639, 645, 649, 663, 665, 667 n.91, 669

Toxicology

absorption, 636, 640, 646-647, 661, 662-663, 666-667, 680, 682

acute toxicity, 641, 668, 671, 680

acute toxicity testing, 641

additive effects, 673, 680

agents of concern, 652, 653-654

animal research, 510, 563-565, 603 n.160, 625, 636, 637, 639, 640-647, 648, 654, 655, 656, 658, 659, 660, 661-662, 663, 664, 669-670, 673, 674, 675 n.111, 677, 680, 682

antagonism, 673, 680

benchmark dose, 642, 670 n.96, 680

bioassay, 644, 648, 664 n.83, 680

bioavailability of compounds, 545, 667

biodistribution of toxic agents, 636, 640, 646-647, 661, 662, 667-668, 681

biological monitoring, 639, 649 n.47, 657, 667, 680

biological plausiblility of associations, 644 n.29, 661, 664-665, 680

blood analysis, 508, 509, 518-519, 535-537, 544, 635, 636, 637 n.8, 653, 656, 657, 662, 667, 672

cancer risk, 635, 638 n.12, 642-643, 644-645, 649 n.46, 650, 653, 654, 655, 656, 659, 660 n.74, 665, 668-669, 670, 683

carcinogenicity bioassay, 644, 654-655, 680

carcinogens/carcinogenicity, 643 n.29, 644, 645, 647 nn.37 & 38, 649 n.44, 650 n.49, 651, 655-656, 658 n.70, 659, 660 n.74, 670 n.97, 673 n.105, 680

chemical toxicology, 635, 636, 637-638, 639-640, 644, 645, 646, 647, 649, 654, 663, 673, 677, 681

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chronic toxicity, 644, 652, 653, 672, 680

chronic toxicity tests, 644-645

clinical ecologists, 677 n.115, 680-681

clinical studies, 510, 640, 648 n.42, 656 n.64, 658, 659, 661

compounds, 640, 644, 648 n.42, 661-664, 667-669, 672, 674, 681

confounding factors, 657 n.67, 665, 672-673, 681

contact, 534

Daubert and, 638 n.9, 643 n.28, 664 n.84, 669 n.94

dermatotoxicology, 640, 641 n.24, 650 n.48, 653

design of studies, 639-646

differential diagnosis, 512 n.21, 672, 676 n.113, 681

direct-acting toxic agents, 636 n.2, 668, 681

DNA damage, 645, 654-655, 656, 663, 682

dose, dosage, 525, 636-637, 638, 641, 642, 644-645, 646, 647, 648, 651, 657 n.67, 658-659, 660, 661, 664, 665, 667 n.91, 668, 670 n.96, 673 n.107, 674, 677 n.115, 680, 681, 682, 684

dose-response curve, 646, 651, 673 n.107, 681

dose-response relationships, 635, 639, 641, 642-643, 646, 649, 651, 658, 663 n.82, 669, 670, 676, 680, 681

end points, 641, 642, 652, 653-654, 666

epidemiology and, 563-565, 603 n.160, 628, 636, 639, 644 n.29, 645-646 n.33, 647, 650-651, 655, 656, 657-660, 664-665, 674, 681

epigenetics, 643 n.28, 681

etiology, 670-671, 676 n.113, 682

excretion of toxicants, 636, 640, 646, 647, 661, 662, 668, 682

exposure assessment, 510, 533-534, 543-544, 637, 638 n.13, 642, 649, 650, 651, 656-657, 658, 665, 671, 672, 674

exposure evidence, 636, 637-638, 640, 641-642 n.26, 643 n.28, 644 n.28, 645 n.31, 647 n.37, 658, 659, 660-670

and exposure science, 505, 506, 508, 509, 518, 519, 533, 535, 537, 538, 540, 547

extrapolation from animals and cell research to humans, 636, 641, 645, 646-647, 648, 651, 652, 658, 661-662, 664, 669-670

extrapolation from short exposures to multiyear estimates, 648

general causation, 637 n.7, 638, 657 n.87, 659, 660-665

good laboratory practice (GLP), 647-648, 682

hazard identification, 637 n.7, 649, 650 n.47, 651, 656 n.64, 682

hydrogeologists, hydrologists, 682

immunotoxicology, 640, 653, 677 n.115, 678 n.116, 680-681, 682

in vitro research, 639, 640, 645-646, 647, 648 n.42, 654, 658, 659, 664, 674, 682, 683

in vivo research, 639, 640-645, 646, 647, 654, 664, 682, 683

indirect-acting chemicals, 668, 682

inhalation toxicology, 640, 650 n.48, 651, 656 n.65, 657 n.66, 662, 667, 668, 670 n.97, 674, 678 n.116, 680, 682

Joiner and, 638 n.9, 661 n.77

laboratory tests, 671 n.102, 672

latency period for disease, 512, 660 n.74, 668-669

legal contexts for, 635, 637-638

lethal dose 50 (LD50), 641, 682

level of exposure and, 638 n.12, 641-642, 658 n.70, 660 n.74, 665, 667 n.91, 669-670, 673 n.107, 682, 683

lifetime bioassay, 648, 680

maximum contaminant level (MCL), 670 n.97

maximum tolerated dose (MTD), 644-645, 682

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medical history and, 645 n.31, 670-675, 676 n.113

metabolism, 535-536, 668, 674

molecular toxicology, 640, 645, 654-655, 656, 663, 678 n.116, 682

multiple chemical hypersensitivity, 677 n.115, 680-682

mutagens and mutagenesis, 642, 643 n.28, 645, 654-655, 670, 683

neurotoxicology, 640, 647 n.38, 663-664 n.82, 670 n.95, 678 n.116, 683

no observable effect level (NOEL), 641-642, 669-670

no threshold model, 642-643, 669-670

one-hit theory, 642, 643, 651, 683

pharmacokinetics, 646, 648, 674, 675, 683

potentiation, 673, 683

premarket testing of drugs, 648

qualifications of experts, 646 n.33, 660-661, 675-679

randomized controlled studies, 648 n.42, 658

regulatory context, 635, 636, 637, 638 nn.10 & 12, 639, 640, 642, 644-645, 646, 647, 648 n.40, 649, 650-651, 654, 656 n.54, 657 n.67, 660, 665-666, 669 n.95, 670 n.96, 678

reproductive toxicology, 640, 653, 662, 666

risk assessment, 637, 642-643, 648-651, 657 n.67, 661-662, 663, 673 n.108, 678 n.116, 679, 683

risk characterization, 637, 638 n.12, 645 n.31, 659, 683

safety assessment, 640, 647-649, 683

scientific foundation of studies, 23

specific causation, 23, 637 n.7, 638, 645 n.31, 659 n.72, 665-666, 669-670 n.95

statistical evaluation, 640, 642, 644, 645, 658-659, 670 n.96, 676

structure–activity relationships (SAR), 647 n.37, 648 n.42, 663, 683

susceptibility/sensitivity differences, 527 n.61, 636, 641 n.25, 646 n.35, 650 n.48, 661 n.77, 662-663, 666, 674

symptoms of exposure, 637 n.5, 641-642 n.26, 657 n.66, 662, 667 n.91, 669 n.94, 671-672

synergistic effect, 673, 683

systemic, 534-535

target organ dose, 636, 646

target organ specificity, 651-656, 662-663

temporal relationships, 636, 641 n.26, 664, 665, 668-669

teratogen and teratogenicity, 645 n.33, 684

threshold, 641-642, 643, 647 n.37, 650 n.49, 651, 657 n.66, 669-670, 683, 684

tort litigation, 635, 636-637, 638, 639, 645, 649, 663, 665, 667 n.91, 669

toxic agent defined, 684

Trademark infringement, 224, 308 n.12, 363 n.10, 366, 373, 376, 378, 379, 382 n.101, 387, 396 n.165, 397-398, 399-400, 401, 410, 413-414, 421

Transposition fallacy, 168, 169 n.91, 170 n.92, 173, 209, 250-251 n.100, 258 n.119, 259 n.122

Treatment of mental disorders (see also Medications for mental disorders)

cognitive behavioral and related therapies, 859-860

electroconvulsive and other brain stimulation therapies, 861-862

family and couples therapies, 860

functional impairments, 860-861

group therapies, 860

prediction of response to, 863-864

psychoanalysis, 858-859

psychodynamic psychotherapy, 859, 860, 865-866

psychosurgery, 863

supportive therapy, 860

talking therapies, 860

Trigon Ins. Co. v. United States, 33

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Troedel v. Wainwright, 126

Trop v. Dulles, 369

Tsar Nicholas family identification, 152, 177

U

Uniform Commercial Code, 466

United States v. Cordoba, 368

United States v. Cyphers, 123

United States v. Diaz, 101

United States v. Glynn, 27 n.79, 101-102, 124 n.444

United States v. Green, 27 n.79, 101, 122 n.427

United States v. Llera Plaza, 28, 73, 74, 79, 82 n.169

United States v. Mitchell, 74 n.105, 76-77, 82 n.170, 122

United States v. Monteiro, 98 n.265, 101, 122 n.434

United States v. Nacchio, 35

United States v. Orians, 368

United States v. Scheffer, 365 n.22, 368 n.35, 794, 795-796

United States v. Semrau, 803, 805-806

United States v. Starzecpyzel, 63 n.42, 84 n.183, 86 n.190, 89, 122 n.435

United States v. Williams, 63 n.42, 102

United States v. Yazback, 193-194

U.S. Census Bureau, 260, 365 n.18, 383, 484

U.S. Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory, 58 n.10

U.S. Geological Survey, 951, 958

U.S. Preventive Services Task Force, 726-727, 735, 738, 739

V

Vaginal

adenocarcinoma, 560, 609 n.178

DNA swabs, 147, 151, 158, 182, 183

Validity/validation

comparative measurements, 228

correlation coefficients, 228

criteria for determining, 484

damages data, 483-485

developmental, 155

DNA methods and procedures, 133, 134, 148, 150, 153, 154, 155, 185, 193, 195

external, 222, 301

forensic evidence, 27-28

internal, 155-156, 228-229

quantitative methods, 485

reliability distinguished from, 71-72

test-retest correlations, 228-229

Vanasen v. Tradewinds, 922

Victor Shirley, Inc. v. Creative Pipe, Inc., 35

Videotaped testimony, 7, 880-881

Vinyl chloride (monochloroethylene), 522, 605-606 n.169, 653, 672

Violence Risk Assessment Guide (VRAG), 848

Voice stress analyzer, 792

Voiceprint evidence, 3, 62 n.32, 71 n.88, 73, 579 n.85

Volatile chemicals, 514, 520, 521, 531, 650 n.48, 657 n.66, 668

Voting Rights Act, 266-267 nn.131 & 133, 307 n.9

Voting rights cases, 213, 266-268, 307

W

Walker v. Soo Line Railroad Co., 947

Warning issues, 233, 941-942

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-III), 836

Weight-of-the-evidence approach, 15, 16, 20

Weisgram v. Marley, 18-19, 22, 63

Wilhoite v. Olin Corp., 366-367, 392 n.144

Wilson v. Corestaff Services, L.P., 803, 806-807

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Women’s Health Initiative (WHI), 716-717

World Health Organization (WHO), 655, 678

World Trade Organization, 650

Wrongful death, 238 n.71, 470, 471, 473-474, 475 n.77

Wrongful termination, 470, 471, 475, 491

Z

Zuni Public Schools District No. 89 v. Department of Education, 2

Zyprexa litigation, 24

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Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Third Edition Get This Book
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The Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence, Third Edition, assists judges in managing cases involving complex scientific and technical evidence by describing the basic tenets of key scientific fields from which legal evidence is typically derived and by providing examples of cases in which that evidence has been used.

First published in 1994 by the Federal Judicial Center, the Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence has been relied upon in the legal and academic communities and is often cited by various courts and others. Judges faced with disputes over the admissibility of scientific and technical evidence refer to the manual to help them better understand and evaluate the relevance, reliability and usefulness of the evidence being proffered. The manual is not intended to tell judges what is good science and what is not. Instead, it serves to help judges identify issues on which experts are likely to differ and to guide the inquiry of the court in seeking an informed resolution of the conflict.

The core of the manual consists of a series of chapters (reference guides) on various scientific topics, each authored by an expert in that field. The topics have been chosen by an oversight committee because of their complexity and frequency in litigation. Each chapter is intended to provide a general overview of the topic in lay terms, identifying issues that will be useful to judges and others in the legal profession. They are written for a non-technical audience and are not intended as exhaustive presentations of the topic. Rather, the chapters seek to provide judges with the basic information in an area of science, to allow them to have an informed conversation with the experts and attorneys.

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