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7
Dimension 3
DISCIPLINARY CORE IDEAS—EARTH AND
SPACE SCIENCES
E
arth and space sciences (ESS) investigate processes that operate on Earth and
also address its place in the solar system and the galaxy. Thus ESS involve phe-
nomena that range in scale from the unimaginably large to the invisibly small.
Earth and space sciences have much in common with the other branches
of science, but they also include a unique set of scientific pursuits. Inquiries
into the physical sciences (e.g., forces, energy, gravity, magnetism) were pursued
in part as a means of understanding the size, age, structure, composition, and
behavior of Earth, the sun, and the moon; physics and chemistry later developed
as separate disciplines. The life sciences likewise are partially rooted in earth
science, as Earth remains the only example of a biologically active planet, and
the fossils found in the geological record of rocks are of interest to both life sci-
entists and earth scientists. As a result, the majority of research in ESS is inter-
disciplinary in nature and falls under the categories of astrophysics, geophysics,
geochemistry, and geobiology. However, the underlying traditional discipline of
geology, involving the identification, analysis, and mapping of rocks, remains a
cornerstone of ESS.
Earth consists of a set of systems—atmosphere, hydrosphere, geosphere,
and biosphere—that are intricately interconnected. These systems have differing
sources of energy, and matter cycles within and among them in multiple ways
and on various time scales. Small changes in one part of one system can have
large and sudden consequences in parts of other systems, or they can have no
effect at all. Understanding the different processes that cause Earth to change
over time (in a sense, how it “works”) therefore requires knowledge of the
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multiple systems’ interconnections and feedbacks. In addition, Earth is part of
a broader system—the solar system—which is itself a small part of one of the
many galaxies in the universe.
Because organizing ESS content is complex, given its broad scope and inter-
disciplinary nature, past efforts to promote earth sciences literacy have presented
this content in a wide variety of ways. In this chapter, we begin at the largest
spatial scales of the universe and move toward increasingly smaller scales and a
more anthropocentric focus. Thus, the first core idea, ESS1: Earth’s Place in the
Universe, describes the universe as a whole and addresses its grand scale in both
space and time. This idea includes the overall structure, composition, and history
of the universe, the forces and processes by which the solar system operates, and
Earth’s planetary history.
The second core idea, ESS2: Earth’s Systems, encompasses the processes
that drive Earth’s conditions and its continual evolution (i.e., change over time). It
addresses the planet’s large-scale structure and composition, describes its individ-
ual systems, and explains how they are interrelated. It also focuses on the mecha-
nisms driving Earth’s internal motions and on the vital role that water plays in all
of the planet’s systems and surface processes.
The third core idea, ESS3: Earth and Human Activity, addresses society’s
interactions with the planet. Connecting the ESS to the intimate scale of human
life, this idea explains how Earth’s processes affect people through natural resourc-
es and natural hazards, and it describes as well some of the ways in which human-
ity in turn affects Earth’s processes. See Box 7-1 for a summary of the core and
component ideas.
The committee’s efforts have been strongly influenced by several recent
efforts in the ESS community that have codified the essential sets of information
in several fields. These projects include the Earth Science Literacy Principles: The
Big Ideas and Supporting Concepts of Earth Science [1], Ocean Literacy: The
Essential Principles of Ocean Science K-12 [2], Atmospheric Science Literacy:
❚ Vast amounts of new data, especially from satellites, together with
modern computational models, are revealing the complexity of the
interacting systems that control Earth’s ever-changing surface. And many of
the conclusions drawn from this science, along with some of the evidence
❚
from which they are drawn, are accessible to today’s students.
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BOX 7-1
CORE AND COMPONENT IDEAS IN EARTH AND SPACE SCIENCES
Core Idea ESS1: Earth’s Place in the Universe
ESS1.A: The Universe and Its Stars
ESS1.B: Earth and the Solar System
ESS1.C: The History of Planet Earth
Core Idea ESS2: Earth’s Systems
ESS2.A: Earth Materials and Systems
ESS2.B: Plate Tectonics and Large-Scale System Interactions
ESS2.C: The Roles of Water in Earth’s Surface Processes
ESS2.D: Weather and Climate
ESS2.E: Biogeology
Core Idea ESS3: Earth and Human Activity
ESS3.A: Natural Resources
ESS3.B: Natural Hazards
ESS3.C: Human Impacts on Earth Systems
ESS3.D: Global Climate Change
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Essential Principles and Fundamental Concepts of Atmospheric Science [3], and
Climate Literacy: The Essential Principles of Climate Sciences [4]. The selection
of much of the framework’s content was informed by these documents, thereby
ensuring that the ESS core ideas we present are not only current and accurate but
also relevant; they express content that the science research communities them-
selves recognize as being most important.
The framework includes a broader range of ideas in ESS than previous
efforts related to science education standards, largely because of pertinent recent
developments in ESS and the increasing societal importance of Earth-related
issues. Astronomy and space exploration have prompted new ideas about how
the universe works and of humans’ place in it. Advances in imaging the interior
of Earth have revised conceptions of how the planet formed and continues to
evolve. Vast amounts of new data, especially from satellites, together with mod-
ern computational models, are revealing the complexity of the interacting systems
that control Earth’s ever-changing surface. And many of the conclusions drawn
from this science, along with some of the evidence from which they are drawn, are
accessible to today’s students. Consequently, the story of Earth and the evolution
of its systems, as it can be understood at the K-12 level, is much richer than what
has been taught at this level in the past. Thus some of the framework’s essential
elements differ considerably from previous standards for K-12 science and engi-
neering education.
The most important justification for the framework’s increased emphasis
on ESS is the rapidly increasing relevance of earth science to so many aspects of
human society. It may seem as if natural hazards, such as earthquakes and hur-
ricanes, have been more active in recent years, but this is primarily because the
growing population of cities has heightened their impacts. The rapidly rising
number of humans on the planet—doubling in number roughly every 40 years—
combined with increased global industrialization, has also stressed limited plan-
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etary resources of water, arable land, plants and animals, minerals, and hydrocar-
bons. Only in the relatively recent past have people begun to recognize the dra-
matic role humans play as an essentially geological force on the surface of Earth,
affecting large-scale conditions and processes.
Core Idea ESS1 Earth’s Place in the Universe
What is the universe, and what is Earth’s place in it?
The planet Earth is a tiny part of a vast universe that has developed over a huge
expanse of time. The history of the universe, and of the structures and objects
within it, can be deciphered using observations of their present condition togeth-
er with knowledge of physics and chemistry. Similarly, the patterns of motion
of the objects in the solar system can be described and predicted on the basis of
observations and an understanding of gravity. Comprehension of these patterns
can be used to explain many Earth phenomena, such as day and night, seasons,
tides, and phases of the moon. Observations of other solar system objects and
of Earth itself can be used to determine Earth’s age and the history of large-scale
changes in its surface.
ESS1.A: THE UNIVERSE AND ITS STARS
What is the universe, and what goes on in stars?
The sun is but one of a vast number of stars in the Milky Way galaxy, which is
one of a vast number of galaxies in the universe.
The universe began with a period of extreme and rapid expansion known
as the Big Bang, which occurred about 13.7 billion years ago. This theory is sup-
ported by the fact that it provides explanation of observations of distant galaxies
receding from our own, of the measured composition of stars and nonstellar gases,
and of the maps and spectra of the primordial radiation (cosmic microwave back-
ground) that still fills the universe.
Nearly all observable matter in the universe is hydrogen or helium, which
formed in the first minutes after the Big Bang. Elements other than these remnants
of the Big Bang continue to form within the cores of stars. Nuclear fusion within
stars produces all atomic nuclei lighter than and including iron, and the process
releases the energy seen as starlight. Heavier elements are produced when certain
massive stars achieve a supernova stage and explode.
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Stars’ radiation of visible light and
other forms of energy can be measured
and studied to develop explanations
about the formation, age, and composi-
tion of the universe. Stars go through a
sequence of developmental stages—they
are formed; evolve in size, mass, and
brightness; and eventually burn out.
Material from earlier stars that exploded
as supernovas is recycled to form younger
stars and their planetary systems. The
sun is a medium-sized star about halfway
through its predicted life span of about
10 billion years.
Grade Band Endpoints for ESS1.A
By the end of grade 2. Patterns of the motion of the sun, moon, and stars in the
sky can be observed, described, and predicted. At night one can see the light com-
ing from many stars with the naked eye, but telescopes make it possible to see
many more and to observe them and the moon and planets in greater detail.
By the end of grade 5. The sun is a star that appears larger and brighter than
other stars because it is closer. Stars range greatly in their size and distance
from Earth.
By the end of grade 8. Patterns of the apparent motion of the sun, the moon, and
stars in the sky can be observed, described, predicted, and explained with models.
The universe began with a period of extreme and rapid expansion known as the
Big Bang. Earth and its solar system are part of the Milky Way galaxy, which is
one of many galaxies in the universe.
By the end of grade 12. The star called the sun is changing and will burn out over
a life span of approximately 10 billion years. The sun is just one of more than 200
billion stars in the Milky Way galaxy, and the Milky Way is just one of hundreds
of billions of galaxies in the universe. The study of stars’ light spectra and bright-
ness is used to identify compositional elements of stars, their movements, and their
distances from Earth.
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ESS1.B: EARTH AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM
What are the predictable patterns caused by Earth’s movement in the solar
system?
The solar system consists of the sun and a collection of objects of varying sizes
and conditions—including planets and their moons—that are held in orbit around
the sun by its gravitational pull on them. This system appears to have formed
from a disk of dust and gas, drawn together by gravity.
Earth and the moon, sun, and planets have predictable patterns of move-
ment. These patterns, which are explainable by gravitational forces and conser-
vation laws, in turn explain many large-scale phenomena observed on Earth.
Planetary motions around the sun can be predicted using Kepler’s three empirical
laws, which can be explained based on Newton’s theory of gravity. These orbits
may also change somewhat due to the gravitational effects from, or collisions
with, other bodies. Gradual changes in the shape of Earth’s orbit around the sun
(over hundreds of thousands of years), together with the tilt of the planet’s spin
axis (or axis of rotation), have altered the intensity and distribution of sunlight
falling on Earth. These phenomena cause cycles of climate change, including the
relatively recent cycles of ice ages.
Gravity holds Earth in orbit around the sun, and it holds the moon in orbit
around Earth. The pulls of gravity from the sun and the moon cause the patterns
of ocean tides. The moon’s and sun’s positions relative to Earth cause lunar and
solar eclipses to occur. The moon’s monthly orbit around Earth, the relative posi-
tions of the sun, the moon, and the observer and the fact that it shines by reflected
sunlight explain the observed phases of the moon.
Even though Earth’s orbit is very nearly circular, the intensity of sunlight
falling on a given location on the planet’s surface changes as it orbits around the
sun. Earth’s spin axis is tilted relative to the plane of its orbit, and the seasons are
❚ Earth and the moon, sun, and planets have predictable patterns of
movement. These patterns, which are explainable by gravitational forces
and conservation laws, in turn explain many large-scale phenomena
❚
observed on Earth.
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a result of that tilt. The intensity of sunlight striking Earth’s surface is greatest at
the equator. Seasonal variations in that intensity are greatest at the poles.
Grade Band Endpoints for ESS1.B
By the end of grade 2. Seasonal patterns of sunrise and sunset can be observed,
described, and predicted.
By the end of grade 5. The orbits of Earth around the sun and of the moon
around Earth, together with the rotation of Earth about an axis between its North
and South poles, cause observable patterns. These include day and night; daily
and seasonal changes in the length and direction of shadows; phases of the moon;
and different positions of the sun, moon, and stars at different times of the day,
month, and year.
Some objects in the solar system can be seen with the naked eye. Planets in
the night sky change positions and are not always visible from Earth as they orbit
the sun. Stars appear in patterns called constellations, which can be used for navi-
gation and appear to move together across the sky because of Earth’s rotation.
By the end of grade 8. The solar system consists of the sun and a collection of
objects, including planets, their moons, and asteroids that are held in orbit around
the sun by its gravitational pull on them. This model of the solar system can
explain tides, eclipses of the sun and the moon, and the motion of the planets in
the sky relative to the stars. Earth’s spin axis is fixed in direction over the short
term but tilted relative to its orbit around the sun. The seasons are a result of that
tilt and are caused by the differential intensity of sunlight on different areas of
Earth across the year.
By the end of grade 12. Kepler’s laws describe common features of the motions of
orbiting objects, including their elliptical paths around the sun. Orbits may change
due to the gravitational effects from, or collisions with, other objects in the solar
system. Cyclical changes in the shape of Earth’s orbit around the sun, together
with changes in the orientation of the planet’s axis of rotation, both occurring
over tens to hundreds of thousands of years, have altered the intensity and distri-
bution of sunlight falling on Earth. These phenomena cause cycles of ice ages and
other gradual climate changes.
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ESS1.C: THE HISTORY OF PLANET EARTH
How do people reconstruct and date events in Earth’s planetary history?
Earth scientists use the structure, sequence, and properties of rocks, sediments,
and fossils, as well as the locations of current and past ocean basins, lakes, and
rivers, to reconstruct events in Earth’s planetary history. For example, rock layers
show the sequence of geological events, and the presence and amount of radioactive
elements in rocks make it possible to determine their ages.
Analyses of rock formations and the fossil record are used to establish rela-
tive ages. In an undisturbed column of rock, the youngest rocks are at the top,
and the oldest are at the bottom. Rock layers have sometimes been rearranged by
tectonic forces; rearrangements
can be seen or inferred, such as
from inverted sequences of fos-
sil types. Core samples obtained
from drilling reveal that the
continents’ rocks (some as old
as 4 billion years or more) are
much older than rocks on the
ocean floor (less than 200 mil-
lion years), where tectonic pro-
cesses continually generate new
rocks and destroy old ones. The
rock record reveals that events
on Earth can be catastrophic,
occurring over hours to years, or gradual, occurring over thousands to millions of
years. Records of fossils and other rocks also show past periods of massive extinc-
tions and extensive volcanic activity. Although active geological processes, such as
plate tectonics (link to ESS2.B) and erosion, have destroyed or altered most of the
very early rock record on Earth, some other objects in the solar system, such as
asteroids and meteorites, have changed little over billions of years. Studying these
objects can help scientists deduce the solar system’s age and history, including the
formation of planet Earth. Study of other planets and their moons, many of which
exhibit such features as volcanism and meteor impacts similar to those found on
Earth, also help illuminate aspects of Earth’s history and changes.
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The geological time scale organizes Earth’s history into the increasingly long
time intervals of eras, periods, and epochs. Major historical events include the for-
mation of mountain chains and ocean basins, volcanic activity, the evolution and
extinction of living organisms, periods of massive glaciation, and development of
watersheds and rivers. Because many individual plant and animal species existed
during known time periods (e.g., dinosaurs), the location of certain types of fossils
in the rock record can reveal the age of the rocks and help geologists decipher the
history of landforms.
Grade Band Endpoints for ESS1.C
By the end of grade 2. Some events on Earth occur in cycles, like day and night,
and others have a beginning and an end, like a volcanic eruption. Some events, like
an earthquake, happen very quickly; others, such as the formation of the Grand
Canyon, occur very slowly, over a time period much longer than one can observe.
By the end of grade 5. Earth has changed over time. Understanding how land-
forms develop, are weathered (broken down into smaller pieces), and erode (get
transported elsewhere) can help infer the history of the current landscape. Local,
regional, and global patterns of rock formations reveal changes over time due to
Earth forces, such as earthquakes. The presence and location of certain fossil types
indicate the order in which rock layers were formed. Patterns of tree rings and ice
cores from glaciers can help reconstruct Earth’s recent climate history.
By the end of grade 8. The geological time scale interpreted from rock strata
provides a way to organize Earth’s history. Major historical events include the
formation of mountain chains and ocean basins, the evolution and extinction
of particular living organisms, volcanic eruptions, periods of massive glaciation,
and development of watersheds and rivers through glaciation and water erosion.
Analyses of rock strata and the fossil record provide only relative dates, not an
absolute scale.
By the end of grade 12. Radioactive decay lifetimes and isotopic content in
rocks provide a way of dating rock formations and thereby fixing the scale of
geological time. Continental rocks, which can be older than 4 billion years, are
generally much older than rocks on the ocean floor, which are less than 200
million years old. Tectonic processes continually generate new ocean seafloor at
ridges and destroy old seafloor at trenches. Although active geological processes,
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such as plate tectonics (link to ESS2.B) and erosion, have destroyed or altered
most of the very early rock record on Earth, other objects in the solar system,
such as lunar rocks, asteroids, and meteorites, have changed little over billions
of years. Studying these objects can provide information about Earth’s formation
and early history.
Core Idea ESS2 Earth’s Systems
How and why is Earth constantly changing?
Earth’s surface is a complex and dynamic set of interconnected systems—princi-
pally the geosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere—that interact over a
wide range of temporal and spatial scales. All of Earth’s processes are the result of
energy flowing and matter cycling within and among these systems. For example,
the motion of tectonic plates is part of the cycles of convection in Earth’s mantle,
driven by outflowing heat and the downward pull of gravity, which result in the
formation and changes of many features of Earth’s land and undersea surface.
Weather and climate are shaped by complex interactions involving sunlight, the
ocean, the atmosphere, clouds, ice, land, and life forms. Earth’s biosphere has
changed the makeup of the geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere over geologi-
cal time; conversely, geological events and conditions have influenced the evolu-
tion of life on the planet. Water is essential to the dynamics of most earth systems,
and it plays a significant role in shaping Earth’s landscape.
ESS2.A: EARTH MATERIALS AND SYSTEMS
How do Earth’s major systems interact?
Earth is a complex system of interacting subsystems: the geosphere, hydrosphere,
atmosphere, and biosphere. The geosphere includes a hot and mostly metallic
inner core; a mantle of hot, soft, solid rock; and a crust of rock, soil, and sedi-
ments. The atmosphere is the envelope of gas surrounding the planet. The hydro-
sphere is the ice, water vapor, and liquid water in the atmosphere, ocean, lakes,
streams, soils, and groundwater. The presence of living organisms of any type
defines the biosphere; life can be found in many parts of the geosphere, hydro-
sphere, and atmosphere. Humans are of course part of the biosphere, and human
activities have important impacts on all of Earth’s systems.
All Earth processes are the result of energy flowing and matter cycling
within and among Earth’s systems. This energy originates from the sun and from
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through the reservoirs represented by the ocean, land, life, and atmosphere. The
abundance of carbon in the atmosphere is reduced through the ocean floor accu-
mulation of marine sediments and the accumulation of plant biomass; atmospheric
carbon is increased through such processes as deforestation and the burning of
fossil fuels.
As Earth changes, life on Earth adapts and evolves to those changes, so just
as life influences other Earth systems, other Earth systems influence life. Life and
the planet’s nonliving systems can be said to co-evolve.
Grade Band Endpoints for ESS2.E
By the end of grade 2. Plants and animals (including humans) depend on the land,
water, and air to live and grow. They in turn can change their environment (e.g.,
the shape of land, the flow of water).
By the end of grade 5. Living things affect the physical characteristics of their
regions (e.g., plants’ roots hold soil in place, beaver shelters and human-built
dams alter the flow of water, plants’ respiration affects the air). Many types of
rocks and minerals are formed from the remains of organisms or are altered by
their activities.
By the end of grade 8. Evolution is shaped by Earth’s varying geological condi-
tions. Sudden changes in conditions (e.g., meteor impacts, major volcanic erup-
tions) have caused mass extinctions, but these changes, as well as more gradual
ones, have ultimately allowed other life forms to flourish. The evolution and pro-
liferation of living things over geological time have in turn changed the rates of
weathering and erosion of land surfaces, altered the composition of Earth’s soils
and atmosphere, and affected the distribution of water in the hydrosphere.
By the end of grade 12. The many dynamic and delicate feedbacks between the
biosphere and other Earth systems cause a continual co-evolution of Earth’s sur-
face and the life that exists on it.
Core Idea ESS3 Earth and Human Activity
How do Earth’s surface processes and human activities affect each other?
Earth’s surface processes affect and are affected by human activities. Humans
depend on all of the planet’s systems for a variety of resources, some of which
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are renewable or replaceable and some of which are not. Natural hazards and
other geological events can significantly alter human populations and activities.
Human activities, in turn, can contribute to the frequency and intensity of some
natural hazards. Indeed, humans have become one of the most significant agents
of change in Earth’s surface systems. In particular, it has been shown that climate
change—which could have large consequences for all of Earth’s surface systems,
including the biosphere—is driven not only by natural effects but also by human
activities. Sustaining the biosphere will require detailed knowledge and modeling
of the factors that affect climate, coupled with the responsible management of
natural resources.
ESS3.A: NATURAL RESOURCES
How do humans depend on Earth’s resources?
Humans depend on Earth’s land, ocean, atmosphere, and biosphere for many
different resources, including air, water, soil, minerals, metals, energy, plants,
and animals. Some of these resources are renewable over human lifetimes, and
some are nonrenewable (mineral resources and fossil fuels) or irreplaceable if lost
(extinct species).
Materials important to modern technological societies are not uniformly
distributed across the planet (e.g., oil in the Middle East, gold in California). Most
elements exist in Earth’s crust at concentrations too low to be extracted, but in
some locations—where geological processes have concentrated them—extraction
is economically viable. Historically, humans have populated regions that are cli-
matically, hydrologically, and geologically advantageous for fresh water availabil-
ity, food production via agriculture, commerce, and other aspects of civilization.
Resource availability affects geopolitical relationships and can limit development.
As the global human population increases and people’s demands for better living
conditions increase, resources considered readily available in the past, such as land
for agriculture or drinkable water, are becoming scarcer and more valued.
All forms of resource extraction and land use have associated economic,
social, environmental, and geopolitical costs and risks, as well as benefits. New
technologies and regulations can change the balance of these factors—for exam-
ple, scientific modeling of the long-term environmental impacts of resource use
can help identify potential problems and suggest desirable changes in the patterns
of use. Much energy production today comes from nonrenewable sources, such as
coal and oil. However, advances in related science and technology are reducing the
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cost of energy from renewable resources, such as sunlight, and some regulations
are favoring their use. As a result, future energy supplies are likely to come from a
much wider range of sources.
Grade Band Endpoints for ESS3.A
By the end of grade 2. Living things need water, air, and resources from the land,
and they try to live in places that have the things they need. Humans use natural
resources for everything they do: for example, they use soil and water to grow
food, wood to burn to provide heat or to build shelters, and materials such as iron
or copper extracted from Earth to make cooking pans.
By the end of grade 5. All materials, energy, and fuels that humans use are derived
from natural sources, and their use affects the environment in multiple ways.
Some resources are renewable over time, and others are not.
By the end of grade 8. Humans depend on Earth’s land, ocean, atmosphere, and
biosphere for many different resources. Minerals, fresh water, and biosphere
resources are limited, and many are not renewable or replaceable over human
lifetimes. These resources are distributed unevenly around the planet as a result of
past geological processes (link to ESS2.B). Renewable energy resources, and the
technologies to exploit them, are being rapidly developed.
By the end of grade 12. Resource availability has guided the development of
human society. All forms of energy production and other resource extraction
have associated economic, social, environmental, and geopolitical costs and
risks, as well as benefits. New technologies and regulations can change the bal-
ance of these factors.
ESS3.B: NATURAL HAZARDS
How do natural hazards affect individuals and societies?
Natural processes can cause sudden or gradual changes to Earth’s systems, some
of which may adversely affect humans. Through observations and knowledge
of historical events, people know where certain of these hazards—such as earth-
quakes, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions, severe weather, floods, and coastal erosion—
are likely to occur. Understanding these kinds of hazards helps us prepare for and
respond to them.
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❚ Natural hazards and other geological events have shaped the course
of human history, sometimes significantly altering the size of human
❚
populations or driving human migrations.
While humans cannot eliminate natural hazards, they can take steps to
reduce their impacts. For example, loss of life and economic costs have been
greatly reduced by improving construction, developing warning systems, identify-
ing and avoiding high-risk locations, and increasing community preparedness and
response capability.
Some natural hazards are preceded by geological activities that allow for reli-
able predictions; others occur suddenly, with no notice, and are not yet predictable.
By tracking the upward movement of magma, for example, volcanic eruptions can
often be predicted with enough advance warning to allow neighboring regions to be
evacuated. Earthquakes, in contrast, occur suddenly; the specific time, day, or year
cannot be predicted. However, the history of earthquakes in a region and the map-
ping of fault lines can help forecast the likelihood of future events. Finally, satellite
monitoring of weather patterns, along with measurements from land, sea, and air,
usually can identify developing severe weather and lead to its reliable forecast.
Natural hazards and other geological events have shaped the course of
human history, sometimes significantly altering the size of human populations or
driving human migrations. Natural hazards can be local, regional, or global in
origin, and even local events can have distant impacts because of the intercon-
nectedness of human societies and Earth’s systems. Human activities can contrib-
ute to the frequency and intensity of some natural hazards (e.g., flooding, forest
fires), and risks from natural hazards increase as populations—and population
densities—increase in vulnerable locations.
Grade Band Endpoints for ESS3.B
By the end of grade 2. Some kinds of severe weather are more likely than others
in a given region. Weather scientists forecast severe weather so that communities
can prepare for and respond to these events.
By the end of grade 5. A variety of hazards result from natural processes (e.g.,
earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions, severe weather, floods, coastal erosion).
Humans cannot eliminate natural hazards but can take steps to reduce their impacts.
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By the end of grade 8. Some natural hazards, such as volcanic eruptions and
severe weather, are preceded by phenomena that allow for reliable predictions.
Others, such as earthquakes, occur suddenly and with no notice, and thus they are
not yet predictable. However, mapping
the history of natural hazards in a region,
combined with an understanding of relat-
ed geological forces can help forecast the
locations and likelihoods of future events.
By the end of grade 12. Natural hazards
and other geological events have shaped
the course of human history by destroy-
ing buildings and cities, eroding land,
changing the course of rivers, and reduc-
ing the amount of arable land. These
events have significantly altered the sizes
of human populations and have driven
human migrations. Natural hazards can be local, regional, or global in origin, and
their risks increase as populations grow. Human activities can contribute to the
frequency and intensity of some natural hazards.
ESS3.C: HUMAN IMPACTS ON EARTH SYSTEMS
How do humans change the planet?
Recorded history, as well as chemical and geological evidence, indicates that
human activities in agriculture, industry, and everyday life have had major impacts
on the land, rivers, ocean, and air. Humans affect the quality, availability, and dis-
tribution of Earth’s water through the modification of streams, lakes, and ground-
water. Large areas of land, including such delicate ecosystems as wetlands, forests,
and grasslands, are being transformed by human agriculture, mining, and the
expansion of settlements and roads. Human activities now cause land erosion and
soil movement annually that exceed all natural processes. Air and water pollution
caused by human activities affect the condition of the atmosphere and of rivers
and lakes, with damaging effects on other species and on human health. The activ-
ities of humans have significantly altered the biosphere, changing or destroying
natural habitats and causing the extinction of many living species. These changes
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also affect the viability of agriculture or fisheries to support human populations.
Land use patterns for agriculture and ocean use patterns for fishing are affected
not only by changes in population and needs but also by changes in climate or
local conditions (such as desertification due to overuse or depletion of fish popula-
tions by overextraction).
Thus humans have become one of the most significant agents of change in
the near-surface Earth system. And because all of Earth’s subsystems are intercon-
nected, changes in one system can produce unforeseen changes in others.
The activities and advanced technologies that have built and maintained
human civilizations clearly have large consequences for the sustainability of these
civilizations and the ecosystems with which they interact. As the human popula-
tion grows and per-capita consumption of natural resources increases to provide a
greater percentage of people with more developed lifestyles and greater longevity,
so do the human impacts on the planet.
Some negative effects of human activities are reversible with informed
and responsible management. For example, communities are doing many things
to help protect Earth’s resources and environments. They are treating sewage,
reducing the amount of materials they use, and reusing and recycling materials.
Regulations regarding water and air pollution have greatly reduced acid rain
and stream pollution, and international treaties on the use of certain refriger-
ant gases have halted the growth of the annual ozone hole over Antarctica.
Regulation of fishing and the development of marine preserves can help restore
and maintain fish populations. In addition, the development of alternative ener-
gy sources can reduce the environmental impacts otherwise caused by the use of
fossil fuels.
The sustainability of human societies and of the biodiversity that supports
them requires responsible management of natural resources not only to reduce
existing adverse impacts but also to prevent such impacts to the extent possible.
Scientists and engineers can make major contributions by developing technologies
that produce less pollution and waste and that preclude ecosystem degradation.
Grade Band Endpoints for ESS3.C
By the end of grade 2. Things that people do to live comfortably can affect the
world around them. But they can make choices that reduce their impacts on the
land, water, air, and other living things—for example, by reducing trash through
reuse and recycling.
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❚ Recorded history, as well as chemical and geological evidence,
indicates that human activities in agriculture, industry, and everyday life
❚
have had major impacts on the land, rivers, ocean, and air.
By the end of grade 5. Human activities in agriculture, industry, and everyday life
have had major effects on the land, vegetation, streams, ocean, air, and even outer
space. But individuals and communities are doing things to help protect Earth’s
resources and environments. For example, they are treating sewage, reducing the
amounts of materials they use, and regulating sources of pollution such as emis-
sions from factories and power plants or the runoff from agricultural activities.
By the end of grade 8. Human activities have significantly altered the biosphere,
sometimes damaging or destroying natural habitats and causing the extinction
of many other species. But changes to Earth’s environments can have different
impacts (negative and positive) for different living things. Typically, as human
populations and per-capita consumption of natural resources increase, so do the
negative impacts on Earth unless the activities and technologies involved are engi-
neered otherwise.
By the end of grade 12. The sustainability of human societies and the biodiver-
sity that supports them requires responsible management of natural resources.
Scientists and engineers can make major contributions—for example, by develop-
ing technologies that produce less pollution and waste and that preclude ecosys-
tem degradation. When the source of an environmental problem is understood
and international agreement can be reached, human activities can be regulated to
mitigate global impacts (e.g., acid rain and the ozone hole near Antarctica).
ESS3.D: GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE
How do people model and predict the effects of human activities on Earth’s climate?
Global climate change, shown to be driven by both natural phenomena and by
human activities, could have large consequences for all of Earth’s surface systems,
including the biosphere (see ESS3.C for a general discussion of climate). Humans
are now so numerous and resource dependent that their activities affect every part
of the environment, from outer space and the stratosphere to the deepest ocean.
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However, by using science-based predictive models, humans can anticipate long-
term change more effectively than ever before and plan accordingly.
Global changes usually happen too slowly for individuals to recognize, but
accumulated human knowledge, together with further scientific research, can help
people learn more about these challenges and guide their responses. For example,
there are historical records of weather conditions and of the times when plants
bloom, animals give birth or migrate, and lakes and rivers freeze and thaw. And
scientists can deduce long-past climate conditions from such sources as fossils, pol-
len grains found in sediments, and isotope ratios in samples of ancient materials.
Scientists build mathematical climate models that simulate the underlying
physics and chemistry of the many Earth systems and their complex interactions
with each other. These computational models summarize the existing evidence, are
tested for their ability to match past patterns, and are then used (together with
other kinds of computer models) to forecast how the future may be affected by
human activities. The impacts of climate change are uneven and may affect some
regions, species, or human populations more severely than others.
Climate models are important tools for predicting, for example, when and
where new water supplies will be needed, when and which natural resources will
become scarce, how weather patterns may change and with what consequences,
whether proposed technological concepts for controlling greenhouse gases will
work, and how soon people will have to leave low-lying coastal areas if sea levels
continue to rise. Meanwhile, important discoveries are being made—for example,
about how the biosphere is responding to the climate changes that have already
occurred, how the atmosphere is responding to changes in anthropogenic green-
house gas emissions, and how greenhouse gases move between the ocean and the
atmosphere over long periods. Such information, from models and other scientific
and engineering efforts, will continue to be essential to planning for humanity’s—
and the global climate’s—future.
It is important to note that although forecasting the consequences of envi-
ronmental change is crucial to society, it involves so many complex phenomena
and uncertainties that predictions, particularly long-term predictions, always have
uncertainties. These arise not only from uncertainties in the underlying science
but also from uncertainties about behavioral, economic, and political factors that
affect human activity and changes in activity in response to recognition of the
problem. However, it is clear not only that human activities play a major role in
climate change but also that impacts of climate change—for example, increased
frequency of severe storms due to ocean warming—have begun to influence
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human activities. The prospect of future impacts of climate change due to further
increases in atmospheric carbon is prompting consideration of how to avoid or
restrict such increases.
Grade Band Endpoints for ESS3.D
By the end of grade 2. [Intentionally left blank.]
By the end of grade 5. If Earth’s global mean temperature continues to rise, the
lives of humans and other organisms will be affected in many different ways.
By the end of grade 8. Human activities, such as the release of greenhouse gases
from burning fossil fuels, are major factors in the current rise in Earth’s mean sur-
face temperature (global warming). Reducing human vulnerability to whatever cli-
mate changes do occur depend on the understanding of climate science, engineer-
ing capabilities, and other kinds of knowledge, such as understanding of human
behavior and on applying that knowledge wisely in decisions and activities.
By the end of grade 12. Global climate models are often used to understand the
process of climate change because these changes are complex and can occur slowly
over Earth’s history. Though the magnitudes of humans’ impacts are greater than
they have ever been, so too are humans’ abilities to model, predict, and manage
current and future impacts. Through computer simulations and other studies,
important discoveries are still being made about how the ocean, the atmosphere,
and the biosphere interact and are modified in response to human activities, as
well as to changes in human activities. Thus science and engineering will be essen-
tial both to understanding the possible impacts of global climate change and to
informing decisions about how to slow its rate and consequences—for humanity
as well as for the rest of the planet.
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REFERENCES
1. Earth Science Literacy Initiative. (2010). Earth Science Literacy Principles: The Big
Ideas and Supporting Concepts of Earth Science. Arlington, VA: National Science
Foundation. Available: http://www.earthscienceliteracy.org/es_literacy_6may10_.pdf
[June 2011].
2. National Geographic Society. (2006). Ocean Literacy: The Essential Principles of
Ocean Science K-12. Washington, DC: Author. Available: http://www.coexploration.
org/oceanliteracy/documents/OceanLitChart.pdf [June 2011].
3. University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. (2008). Atmospheric Science
Literacy: Essential Principles and Fundamental Concepts of Atmospheric Science.
Boulder, CO: Author. Available: http://eo.ucar.edu/asl/pdfs/ASLbrochureFINAL.pdf
[June 2011].
4. U.S. Global Change Research Program/Climate Change Science Program. (2009).
Climate Literacy: The Essential Principles of Climate Sciences. Washington, DC:
Author. Available: http://downloads.climatescience.gov/Literacy/Climate%20
Literacy%20Booklet%20Low-Res.pdf [June 2011].
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Print copies of the Next Generation Science Standards are available for pre-order now or you can view the online version at nextgenscience.org
The standards are based largely on the 2011 National Research Council report A Framework for K-12 Science Education: Practices, Crosscutting Concepts, and Core Ideas.
