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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2012. Improving Adult Literacy Instruction: Options for Practice and Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13242.
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Improving
Adult Literacy
Instruction

Options for Practice and Research

Committee on Learning Sciences: Foundations and
Applications to Adolescent and Adult Literacy


Alan M. Lesgold and Melissa Welch-Ross, Editors

Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education

NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL
                    OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES

THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS
Washington, D.C.
www.nap.edu

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2012. Improving Adult Literacy Instruction: Options for Practice and Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13242.
×

THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS   500 Fifth Street, NW    Washington, DC 20001

NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competences and with regard for appropriate balance.

This study was supported by Contract No. ED-08-CO-0142 between the National Academy of Sciences and the U.S. Department of Education. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the organizations or agencies that provided support for the project.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

National Research Council (U.S.). Committee on Learning Sciences: Foundations and Applications to Adolescent and Adult Literacy.
  Improving adult literacy instruction : options for practice and research / Committee on Learning Sciences: Foundations and Applications to Adolescent and Adult Literacy, Alan M. Lesgold and Melissa Welch-Ross, Editors, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education, National Research Council of the National Academies.
       pages cm
   Includes bibliographical references.
  ISBN 978-0-309-21959-4 (pbk.) — ISBN (invalid) 978-0-309-21960-0 (pdf) 1. Functional literacy—United States. I. Lesgold, Alan M. II. Welch-Ross, Melissa K. III. Title.

  LC151.N385 2012

  302.2’2440973—dc23

          2012007109

Additional copies of this report are available from the National Academies Press, 500 Fifth Street, NW, Keck 360, Washington, DC 20001; (800) 624-6242 or (202) 334-3313; http://www.nap.edu.

Copyright 2012 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Printed in the United States of America

Suggested citation: National Research Council. (2012). Improving Adult Literacy Instruction: Options for Practice and Research. Committee on Learning Sciences: Foundations and Applications to Adolescent and Adult Literacy, A.M. Lesgold and M. Welch-Ross, Eds. Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2012. Improving Adult Literacy Instruction: Options for Practice and Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13242.
×

THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES

Advisers to the Nation on Science, Engineering and Medicine

The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Ralph J. Cicerone is president of the National Academy of Sciences.

The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government. The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. Charles M. Vest is president of the National Academy of Engineering.

The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the responsibility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal government and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of medical care, research, and education. Dr. Harvey V. Fineberg is president of the Institute of Medicine.

The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy’s purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Ralph J. Cicerone and Dr. Charles M. Vest are chair and vice chair, respectively, of the National Research Council.

www.national-academies.org

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2012. Improving Adult Literacy Instruction: Options for Practice and Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13242.
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2012. Improving Adult Literacy Instruction: Options for Practice and Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13242.
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COMMITTEE ON LEARNING SCIENCES: FOUNDATIONS AND APPLICATIONS TO ADOLESCENT AND ADULT LITERACY

ALAN M. LESGOLD (Chair), School of Education, University of Pittsburgh

KAREN S. COOK, Department of Sociology, Stanford University

AYDIN Y. DURGUNOĞLU, Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota, Duluth

ARTHUR C. GRAESSER, Psychology Department, University of Memphis

STEVE GRAHAM, Special Education and Literacy, Peabody College of Vanderbilt University

NOEL GREGG, Regents’ Center for Learning Disorders and Psychology Department, University of Georgia, Athens

JOYCE L. HARRIS, College of Communication, University of Texas at Austin

GLYNDA A. HULL, Graduate School of Education, University of California, Berkeley

MAUREEN W. LOVETT, Hospital for Sick Children and University of Toronto

DARYL F. MELLARD, School of Education, University of Kansas

ELIZABETH B. MOJE, School of Educational Studies, University of Michigan

KENNETH PUGH, Haskins Laboratories, New Haven

CHRIS SCHATSCHNEIDER, Department of Psychology, Florida State University

MARK S. SEIDENBERG, Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin–Madison

ELIZABETH A.L. STINE-MORROW, Department of Education and Psychology, University of Illinois

MELISSA WELCH-ROSS, Study Director

PATRICIA MORISON, Associate Executive Director, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences

MARY ANN KASPER, Senior Program Assistant

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2012. Improving Adult Literacy Instruction: Options for Practice and Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13242.
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2012. Improving Adult Literacy Instruction: Options for Practice and Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13242.
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Acknowledgments

The Committee on Learning Sciences: Foundations and Applications to Adolescent and Adult Literacy was established to review evidence on learning and literacy to develop a roadmap for research and practice to strengthen adult literacy education in the United States. This report is the culmination of a 36-month study by the 15 experts from diverse disciplines appointed to carry out this charge. First, we would like to thank the National Institute for Literacy (NIFL) and the U.S. Department of Education for their sponsorship of the study and for turning to the National Research Council (NRC) for help in synthesizing the available research to improve literacy instruction for adults and youth in the United States.

Over the course of the study, committee members and staff benefited from discussions and presentations by individuals who brought a range of perspectives and expertise to three fact-finding meetings. The first meeting allowed us to gain a better understanding of the study charge and the work before us. We heard from experts in adult literacy education to understand adult literacy levels, the literacy needs and challenges of diverse populations, and recent large-scale adult literacy interventions. The invited experts were Judy Alamprese, Abt Associates, Inc.; Alisa Belzer, Rutgers University; Daphne Greenberg, Georgia State University; Mark Kutner, American Institutes of Research; T. Scott Murray, DataAngel Policy Research, Inc.; Dolores Perin, Teachers College, Columbia University; and John Strucker, World Education, Inc.

At the second meeting, the committee heard evidence about cognitive and neural models of reading comprehension, genetic and environmental

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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2012. Improving Adult Literacy Instruction: Options for Practice and Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13242.
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influences on reading, the neurobiology of literacy in a second language, maturational effects on cognition and learning, the state of adult literacy assessment, and relations between oral language and literacy. Invited participants included Elena Grigorenko, Yale University; Arturo Hernandez, University of Houston; Denise Park, University of Texas, Dallas; John Sabatini, ETS; Paul van den Broek, University of Leiden and University of Minnesota; and Gloria Waters, Boston University.

The third meeting included a diverse set of presenters who provided researcher and practitioner perspectives about factors that affect persistence, motivation, and engagement for learners from late adolescence through adulthood and that are amenable to being influenced by instruction. Members also sought information about the cognitive and social factors that influence progress with literacy among English language learners. Invited experts included John Comings, World Education, Inc.; Edward L. Deci, University of Rochester; Ruth Kanfer, Georgia Tech; Judith Kroll, Pennsylvania State University; Nonie Lesaux, Harvard University; Steve Reder, Portland State University; Dan Wagner, University of Pennsylvania; and Heide Spruck Wrigley, Literacywork International.

Our work was also advanced by the contributions of able consultants who wrote papers that were invaluable to our discussions and development of report text: Eric Anderman, Ohio State University; Alisa Belzer, Rutgers University; Mary Ellen Cushman, Michigan State University; Edward L. Deci; Elena Grigorenko; W. Norton Grubb, University of California, Berkeley; Ruth Kanfer; Judith Kroll; Dolores Perin; Amy Stornaiuolo, University of California, Berkeley; Paul van den Broek; Lalitha Vasudevan, Teachers College, Columbia University; Kari L. Woods, University of Kansas; and Heide Spruck Wrigley. Francisco Rivera-Batiz of the Department of Economics and Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, was a member of the committee until other commitments required him to step down in November of 2009; we thank him for the insights and expertise he brought to the committee on issues of economics and education involving immigrant and minority populations.

We thank Peggy McCardle and Brett Miller. who facilitated access to the results of studies funded by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development and the U.S. Department of Education while the studies were in press. We also thank those who assisted committee members with literature searches or background research, including NRC staff Julie Shuck and Matthew von Hendy, as well as Mary Ann Kasper, who ably arranged logistics for members and meetings and assisted with manuscript preparation. The committee is grateful for the guidance and support of Patricia Morison, associate executive director of the Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education (DBASSE). We thank Chris McShane,

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2012. Improving Adult Literacy Instruction: Options for Practice and Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13242.
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Yvonne Wise, and Eugenia Grohman of the DBASSE Office of Reports and Communication for editing the report.

This report has been reviewed in draft form by individuals chosen for their diverse perspectives and technical expertise, in accordance with procedures approved by the Report Review Committee of the NRC. The purpose of this independent review is to provide candid and critical comments that will assist the institution in making its published report as sound as possible and to ensure that the report meets institutional standards for objectivity, evidence, and responsiveness to the study charge. The review comments and draft manuscript remain confidential to protect the integrity of the deliberative process.

We thank the following individuals for their review of this report: Patricia Alexander, College of Education, University of Maryland; Roger Azevedo, Department of Educational and Counseling Psychology, McGill University; Virginia Berninger, College of Education, University of Washington; Larry Condelli, American Institutes for Research; Laurie E. Cutting, Departments of Special Education and Psychology, Radiology, and Pediatrics, Vanderbilt University Kennedy Center; Morton Ann Gernsbacher, University of Wisconsin–Madison; Susan R. Goldman, Department of Psychology and Education, University of Illinois at Chicago; Maryalice Jordan-Marsh, School of Social Work, University of Southern California; Susan Kemper, Department of Psychology, University of Kansas; Richard E. Mayer, Department of Psychology, University of California, Santa Barbara; Larry J. Mikulecky, Department of Education, Indiana University; Timothy Shanahan, Department of Curriculum and Instruction, University of Illinois at Chicago; Catherine Snow, Harvard Graduate School of Education, Harvard University; Sharon Vaughn, Department of Human Development, College of Education, University of Texas at Austin; Dan Wagner, Graduate School of Education, University of Pennsylvania; and Christina Zarcadoolas, Department of Preventive Medicine and Public Health Literacy, Mt. Sinai School of Medicine.

Although the reviewers listed above have provided many constructive comments and suggestions, they were not asked to endorse the conclusions or recommendations, nor did they see the final draft of the report before its release. The review of this report was overseen by Paul R. Sackett, Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota, and Johanna T. Dwyer, Tufts University School of Medicine and Friedman School of Nutrition Science and Policy and Frances Stern Nutrition Center, Tufts Medical Center, and Jean Mayer Human Nutrition Research Center on Aging at Tufts University. Appointed by the NRC, they were responsible for making certain that an independent examination of this report was carried out in accordance with institutional procedures and that all review comments were carefully

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2012. Improving Adult Literacy Instruction: Options for Practice and Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13242.
×

considered. Responsibility for the final content of this report rests entirely with the authoring committee and the institution.

Alan M. Lesgold, Chair
Melissa Welch-Ross, Study Director
Committee on Learning Sciences:
Foundations and Applications to
Adolescent and Adult Literacy

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2012. Improving Adult Literacy Instruction: Options for Practice and Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13242.
×

Writing

Components and Processes of Writing

Writing Instruction

Neurobiology of Reading and Writing Development and Difficulties

Neurobiology of Reading

Neurobiology of Writing

Implications for Instruction

Instruction for Struggling Readers and Writers

Decontextualized Interventions

Principles of Instruction for Struggling Learners

Reading and Writing Across the Life Span

Summary and Discussion

3   Literacy Instruction for Adults

Contexts for Literacy Learning

Adult Education Programs

Literacy Instruction in Adult Education Programs

Developmental Education Courses in Colleges

Instructional Practices and Outcomes: State of the Research

Assumptions and Sources of Evidence

Orientation to the Findings

Adults in Basic and Secondary Education Programs

Topics for Future Study from Adult Literacy Research

Collaborative Learning

Contextualized Instruction

Instructional Materials

Writing Instruction

Funds of Knowledge and Authentic Learning Experiences

Social, Psychological, and Functional Outcomes

Underprepared Postsecondary Students

Summary and Directions for Research

4   Principles of Learning for Instructional Design

The Development of Expertise

Supporting Attention, Retention, and Transfer

Present Material in a Clear and Organized Format

Use Multiple and Varied Examples

Present Material in Multiple Modalities and Formats

Teach in the Zone of Proximal Development

Space Presentations of New Material

Test on Multiple Occasions, Preferably with Spacing

Ground Concepts in Perceptual-Motor Experiences

Page xiii Cite
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2012. Improving Adult Literacy Instruction: Options for Practice and Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13242.
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Supporting Generation of Content and Reasoning

Encourage the Learner to Generate Content

Encourage the Generation of Explanations, Substantive Questions, and the Resolution of Contradictions

Encourage the Learner to Construct Ideas from Multiple Points of View and Different Perspectives

Complex Strategies, Critical Thinking, Inquiry, and Self-Regulated Learning

Structure Instruction to Develop Effective Use of Complex Strategies

Combine Complex Strategy Instruction with Learning of Content

Feedback

Accurate and Timely Feedback Helps Learning

Qualitative Feedback Is Better for Learning Than Test Scores and Error Flagging

Adaptive and Interactive Learning Environments

Adaptive Learning Environments Foster Understanding in Complex Domains

Interactive Learning Environments Facilitate Learning

Learning Is Facilitated in Genuine and Coherent Learning Environments

Learning Is Influenced by Motivation and Emotion

Summary and Directions for Research

5   Motivation, Engagement, and Persistence

The Psychology of Motivation and Learning

Self-Efficacy

Intrinsic Motivation

Social, Contextual, and Systemic Mediators of Persistence

Formal School Structures and Persistence

Cultural and Linguistic Differences

Social Relationships and Interactions

Potentially Negative Effects of Stereotype

Social and Systemic Supports for and Barriers to Persistence

Directions for Research

6   Technology to Promote Adult Literacy

Classes of Technologies for Learning

How Technologies Affect Learning

Digital Tools for Practicing Skills

Summary and Directions for Research

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2012. Improving Adult Literacy Instruction: Options for Practice and Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13242.
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A high level of literacy in both print and digital media is required for negotiating most aspects of 21st-century life, including supporting a family, education, health, civic participation, and competitiveness in the global economy. Yet, more than 90 million U.S. adults lack adequate literacy. Furthermore, only 38 percent of U.S. 12th graders are at or above proficient in reading.

Improving Adult Literacy Instruction synthesizes the research on literacy and learning to improve literacy instruction in the United States and to recommend a more systemic approach to research, practice, and policy. The book focuses on individuals ages 16 and older who are not in K-12 education. It identifies factors that affect literacy development in adolescence and adulthood in general, and examines their implications for strengthening literacy instruction for this population. It also discusses technologies for learning that can assist with multiple aspects of teaching, assessment,and accommodations for learning.

There is inadequate knowledge about effective instructional practices and a need for better assessment and ongoing monitoring of adult students' proficiencies, weaknesses, instructional environments, and progress, which might guide instructional planning. Improving Adult Literacy Instruction recommends a program of research and innovation to validate, identify the boundaries of, and extend current knowledge to improve instruction for adults and adolescents outside school. The book is a valuable resource for curriculum developers, federal agencies such as the Department of Education, administrators, educators, and funding agencies.

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