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Committee on Uranium Mining in Virginia
Committee on Earth Resources
Board on Earth Sciences and Resources
Division on Earth and Life Studies
THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS
Washington, D.C.
www.nap.edu
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THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS 500 Fifth Street, NW Washington, DC 20001
NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing
Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of
the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute
of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for
their special competences and with regard for appropriate balance.
This study was supported by a grant from Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State Univer-
sity with funding provided by Virginia Uranium, Inc. The opinions, findings, and conclu -
sions contained in this document are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect
the views of the study sponsors.
International Standard Book Number 13: 978-0-309-22087-3
International Standard Book Number 10: 0-309-22087-4
Additional copies of this report are available from the National Academies Press, 500 Fifth
Street, NW, Keck 360, Washington, DC 20001; (800) 624-6242 or (202) 334-3313; http://
www.nap.edu.
Cover: Cover design by Michael Dudzik; map copyright Map Resources.
Copyright 2012 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America.
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The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of
distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the
furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the
authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a man -
date that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters.
Dr. Ralph J. Cicerone is president of the National Academy of Sciences.
The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of
the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers.
It is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with
the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government.
The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at
meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior
achievements of engineers. Dr. Charles M. Vest is president of the National Academy of
Engineering.
The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences
to secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examina -
tion of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the
responsibility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to
be an adviser to the federal government and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of
medical care, research, and education. Dr. Harvey V. Fineberg is president of the Institute
of Medicine.
The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in
1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy’s
purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in
accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the
principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National
Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the
scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both
Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Ralph J. Cicerone and Dr. Charles M. Vest
are chair and vice chair, respectively, of the National Research Council.
www.national-academies.org
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COMMITTEE ON URANIUM MINING IN VIRGINIA
PAUL A. LOCKE, Chair, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health,
Baltimore, Maryland
CORBY G. ANDERSON, Colorado School of Mines, Golden
LAWRENCE W. BARNTHOUSE, LWB Environmental Services, Inc.,
Hamilton, Ohio
PAUL D. BLANC, University of California, San Francisco
SCOTT C. BROOKS, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tennessee
PATRICIA A. BUFFLER, IOM, University of California, Berkeley
MICHEL CUNEY, Nancy Université, Centre National de la Recherche
Scientifique, Vandoeuvre, France
PETER L. deFUR, Environmental Stewardship Concepts, Henrico, Virginia
MARY R. ENGLISH, University of Tennessee, Knoxville
KEITH N. ESHLEMAN, University of Maryland Center for Environmental
Sciences, Frostburg
R. WILLIAM FIELD, College of Public Health, University of Iowa, Iowa City
JILL LIPOTI, New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection, Trenton
HENRY A. SCHNELL, AREVA NC (retired), British Columbia, Canada
JEFFREY J. WONG, California Environmental Protection Agency, Sacramento
National Research Council Staff
DAVID A. FEARY, Study Director
DEBORAH GLICKSON, Senior Program Officer
STEPHANIE JOHNSON, Senior Program Officer
SOLMAZ SPENCE, Communications Officer
NICHOLAS D. ROGERS, Financial and Research Associate
PENELOPE GIBBS, Senior Program Associate
COURTNEY R. GIBBS, Program Associate
JASON R. ORTEGO, Research Associate
iv
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COMMITTEE ON EARTH RESOURCES
CLAYTON R. NICHOLS, Chair, Idaho National Engineering and
Environmental Laboratory (retired), Ocean Park, Washington
SARA J. BANASZAK, America’s Natural Gas Alliance, Washington, D.C.
JAMES A. BRIERLEY, Brierley Consultancy LLC, Highlands Ranch, Colorado
THURE CERLING, University of Utah, Salt Lake City
ELAINE T. CULLEN, National Institute for Occupational Health and Safety,
Spokane Research Laboratory (retired), Chattaroy, Washington
DONALD JUCKETT, American Association for Petroleum Geologists (retired),
Springfield, Virginia
ANN S. MAEST, Stratus Consulting, Boulder, Colorado
LELAND L. “ROY” MINK, U.S. Department of Energy Geothermal Program
(retired), Worley, Idaho
MARY M. POULTON, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona
ARTHUR W. RAY, Wiley Environmental Strategies, Columbia, Maryland
RICHARD J. SWEIGARD, University of Kentucky, Lexington
ELIZABETH J. WILSON, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis
National Research Council Staff
ELIZABETH A. EIDE, Senior Program Officer
NICHOLAS D. ROGERS, Financial and Research Associate
ERIC J. EDKIN, Senior Program Assistant
v
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BOARD ON EARTH SCIENCES AND RESOURCES
CORALE L. BRIERLEY, Chair, Brierley Consultancy LLC, Highlands Ranch,
Colorado
WILLIAM E. DIETRICH, University of California, Berkeley
WILLIAM. L. GRAF, University of South Carolina, Columbia
RUSSELL J. HEMLEY, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, D.C.
MURRAY W. HITZMAN, Colorado School of Mines, Golden
EDWARD KAVAZANJIAN, Jr., Arizona State University, Tempe
DAVID R. MAIDMENT, University of Texas, Austin
ROBERT B. MCMASTER, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis
M. MEGHAN MILLER, UNAVCO, Inc., Boulder, Colorado
ISABEL P. MONTAÑEZ, University of California, Davis
CLAUDIA INÉS MORA, Los Alamos National Laboratory, New Mexico
BRIJ M. MOUDGIL, University of Florida, Gainesville
CLAYTON R. NICHOLS, Idaho National Engineering and Environmental
Laboratory (retired), Ocean Park, Washington
HENRY N. POLLACK, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
DAVID T. SANDWELL, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla
PETER M. SHEARER, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla
REGINAL SPILLER, Azimuth Investments LLC, Texas
TERRY C. WALLACE, Jr., Los Alamos National Laboratory, New Mexico
National Research Council Staff
ANTHONY R. de SOUZA, Director (until April 2012)
ELIZABETH A. EIDE, Director (from April 2012)
DAVID A. FEARY, Senior Program Officer
ANNE M. LINN, Senior Program Officer
SAMMANTHA L. MAGSINO, Senior Program Officer
MARK D. LANGE, Program Officer
JENNIFER T. ESTEP, Financial and Administrative Associate
NICHOLAS D. ROGERS, Financial and Research Associate
JASON R. ORTEGO, Research Associate
COURTNEY R. GIBBS, Program Associate
ERIC J. EDKIN, Senior Program Assistant
CHANDA IJAMES, Senior Program Assistant
vi
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Preface
T
he Commonwealth of Virginia first undertook the study of uranium min-
ing and processing more than 25 years ago, after several potentially com-
mercially viable deposits of uranium were discovered in the state. Since
that time, issues surrounding uranium mining have raised substantial questions
and have been extensively debated and discussed. In 2009, the National Research
Council of the National Academies was asked to undertake this study and address
a series of detailed questions about uranium mining, processing, and reclamation
to assist decision making by the Commonwealth of Virginia.
In accepting its charge to address a highly emotive issue such as uranium
mining and its related activities, the committee was mindful of its obligation to
provide technical and scientific answers to the questions in its statement of task.
In doing so, the committee benefited from briefings provided by international
experts, including U.S. and international regulators, scientists, engineers, and
others. Equally important, the committee benefited from the extensive testimony
provided by the citizens of the Commonwealth of Virginia. We received many
hours of public input, spread over all but one of our committee meetings, but
particularly focused on the two evening “town hall” meetings that we held in
Danville and Richmond, Virginia. Hundreds of members of local communities
attended and spoke at these town hall sessions. On behalf of the committee, I
wish to express our appreciation for the many specific comments and questions
directed to the committee at these gatherings. We are hopeful that our report is
reflective of what we learned, and that with this report we have managed to help
inform the public discussion and debate on this important topic. Although we
specifically do not make any recommendations concerning whether mining and
processing of uranium should or should not be permitted in the Commonwealth
vii
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viii PREFACE
of Virginia, we believe that this report will provide a solid scientific basis to
inform those who will make such decisions on behalf of Virginia citizens and
their communities.
The need to prepare our report in time for the 2011-2012 legislative session
in Virginia imposed a very tight time limit, as we sought to collectively under-
stand the scientific, technical, and regulatory subtleties of issues usually outside
our specific disciplines. As we started the committee process, we realized that it
would not be possible, considering the breadth of the task statement and the time
constraints, to prepare a scientifically and technically dense treatise. I thank the
committee for rising to the challenge and preparing a report that we hope will
be—as much as possible given the specialized nature of its content—accessible
to legislators and the wider public who are interested in this topic. I would also
like to thank the committee members for their thoughtful deliberations and will -
ingness to consider alternative viewpoints and learn from, and share, expertise
across disciplines.
Finally, the committee acknowledges the support provided by the National
Research Council staff, who handled our numerous and sometimes challenging
logistic and research demands. In particular, the committee would like to thank
Deborah Glickson, Jason Ortego, and Solmaz Spence for contributing to the
report writing and research efforts, and Courtney Gibbs and Penelope Gibbs for
making sure that our meetings ran without a hitch. Stephanie Johnson added
her scholarship and organizational skills and, by doing so, improved our work.
Anthony de Souza provided the committee with his valuable perspective and
experience.
Special thanks and praise go to two staff members who were instrumental to
this report. Nicholas Rogers played a key role in almost all aspects of this proj -
ect as a researcher and financial manager. And David Feary, our study director,
kept the committee on track and moving in the right direction. The committee is
indebted to him for his hard work and leadership.
Paul A. Locke, Chair
Committee on Uranium Mining in Virginia
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Acknowledgments
T
his report was greatly enhanced by all those who made presentations to the
committee at the public committee meetings, both the speakers specifically
invited by the committee to make presentations as well as the numerous
interested citizens who provided their perspectives and viewpoints. The presen -
tations and discussions at these meetings provided invaluable input and context
for the committee’s deliberations. The provision of additional text and figures
by William Lassetter, Theresa McClenaghan, Jim Neton, and Maria Angelica
Zamora-Duran are also gratefully acknowledged.
This report has been reviewed in draft form by individuals chosen for their
diverse perspectives and technical expertise, in accordance with procedures
approved by the NRC’s Report Review Committee. The purpose of this inde-
pendent review is to provide candid and critical comments that will assist the
institution in making its published report as sound as possible and to ensure that
the report meets institutional standards for objectivity, evidence, and responsive -
ness to the study charge. The review comments and draft manuscript remain
confidential to protect the integrity of the deliberative process. We wish to thank
the following individuals for their participation in the review of this report:
Jan Beyea, Consulting in the Public Interest, Lambertville, New Jersey
Corale L. Brierley, Brierley Consulting, Highlands Ranch, Colorado
Philip Egidi, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Grand Junction, Colorado
Rodney C. Ewing, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
John Greeves, JTG Consulting, Frederick, Maryland
Kelvin Gregory, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
David C. Kocher, SENES Oak Ridge, Inc., Oak Ridge, Tennessee
ix
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x PREFACE
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Craig Little, Tow Lines Inc., Grand Junction, Colorado
Robert Pierson, Independent Consultant, Walkersville, West Virginia
Samuel B. Romberger, Colorado School of Mines, Golden
Jonathan M. Samet, University of Southern California, Los Angeles
William H. Schlesinger, Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies, Millbrook,
New York
Courtney Young, Montana Tech of the University of Montana, Butte
Although the reviewers listed above have provided many constructive
comments and suggestions, they were not asked to endorse the conclusions or
recommendations nor did they see the final draft of the report before its release.
The review of this report was overseen by Dianne R. Nielson, energy and envi-
ronmental policy consultant, and Chris G. Whipple, ENVIRON International
Corporation. Appointed by the National Research Council, they were responsible
for making certain that an independent examination of this report was carried
out in accordance with institutional procedures and that all review comments
were carefully considered. Responsibility for the final content of this report rests
entirely with the authoring committee and the institution.
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Contents
SUMMARY 1
NONTECHNICAL SUMMARY 11
1 INTRODUCTION 29
Study Background, 29
Definitions, 30
Committee Process, 31
Report Scope and Structure, 33
2 VIRGINIA PHYSICAL AND SOCIAL CONTEXT 35
Geology and Geography of Virginia, 36
Climatic and Environmental Characteristics, 40
Social Characteristics, 47
Findings and Key Concepts, 52
3 URANIUM OCCURRENCES, RESOURCES, AND MARKETS 54
Worldwide Occurrences of Uranium, 55
Virginia Occurrences and Prospectivity Status, 67
Uranium Resources, Reserves, and Markets, 81
Findings and Key Concepts, 95
4 URANIUM MINING, PROCESSING, AND RECLAMATION 96
Uranium Mining Methods, 98
Uranium Processing Methods, 106
Water Treatment, 117
xi
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xii CONTENTS
Tailings Disposal, 119
Reclamation and Closure, 121
Findings and Key Concepts, 122
5 POTENTIAL HUMAN HEALTH EFFECTS OF URANIUM
MINING, PROCESSING, AND RECLAMATION 123
Radionuclide-Related Health Hazards, 126
Radon Health Hazards, 134
Uranium Health Hazards, 149
Radium Health Hazards, 154
Principal Uranium Mining and Processing Exposures other than
Radionuclides, 156
Miscellaneous Health Impacts, 169
Findings and Key Concepts, 175
6 POTENTIAL ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF URANIUM
MINING, PROCESSING, AND RECLAMATION 178
Environmental Exposure Pathways, 179
Surface Water Effects, 180
Groundwater Effects, 196
Soil Effects, 201
Air Effects, 202
Ecological Effects, 204
Environmental Monitoring, 215
Findings and Key Concepts, 221
7 REGULATION AND OVERSIGHT OF URANIUM MINING,
PROCESSING, RECLAMATION, AND LONG-TERM
STEWARDSHIP 223
Federal Laws, Regulations, and Policies, 233
State Agencies, Laws, Regulations, and Policies, 245
Public Participation in the Regulation of Uranium Mining, Processing,
and Reclamation, 254
Findings and Key Concepts, 256
8 BEST PRACTICES 258
Overarching Best-Practice Principles, 261
Specific Best Practices, 265
Overarching Conclusion, 275
REFERENCES 277
GLOSSARY 300
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xiii
CONTENTS
APPENDIXES
A Study Request Letters 310
B Committee Biographical Sketches 318
C World Nuclear Association Basic Principles 324
D IRPA Guiding Principles for Radiation Protection Professionals on
Stakeholder Engagement 330
E Presentations to Committee 339
F Acronyms and Abbreviations 342
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