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Appendix E
Glossary
Biobank a bank of biological specimens for biomedical research.
Biomarker a characteristic that is objectively measured and evaluated as an in -
dicator of normal biological processes, pathogenic processes, or pharmacologic
responses to a therapeutic intervention (IOM 2010a).
Biosamples Samples of biological materials
Candidate gene a gene whose chromosomal location is associated with a par-
ticular disease or other phenotype. Because of its location, the gene is suspected
of causing the disease or other phenotype (NHGRI 2011).
Chromosomal translocation a condition where a fragment of one chromosome
is broken off and is then attached to another. Depending on which piece of
chromosome is moved to where, this results in a wide range of medical prob -
lems, such as leukemia, breast cancer, schizophrenia, or muscular dystrophy
(USC 2011).
Clinical utility the ability of a screening or diagnostic test to prevent or amelio -
rate adverse health outcomes such as mortality, morbidity, or disability through
the adoption of efficacious treatments conditioned on test results (Khoury
2003).
Crowd sourcing informal reports of large groups of people
Database of Genotypes and Phenotypes (dbGap) developed to archive and
distribute the results of studies that have investigated the interaction of geno -
type and phenotype (NCBI 2011).
119
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120 APPENDIX E
Data-intensive biology understanding of biological processes through models
and algorithms of mathematics, statistics, and computer science using the vast
volumes of data generated by new technologies (http://sc11.supercomputing.
org/schedule/event_detail.php?evid=wksp120).
Decision-support systems a specific class of computerized information system
that supports business and organizational decision-making activities (Informa -
tion Builders 2011).
Disease marker specific molecular signature of disease, physiological measure-
ment, genotype structural or functional characteristic, metabolic changes, or
other determinant that may simplify the diagnostic process, make diagnoses
more accurate, distinguish different causes of disease, or enable physicians
to make diagnoses before symptoms appear and to track disease progression
(Medical Dictionary 2011)
Disease risk the probability that an individual who is initially disease-free will
developed given disease over specified time or age interval (e.g. one year or
lifetime) (Pigeot 2005).
Disease taxonomy the science of disease classification.
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) the polymer that encodes genetic material and
therefore the structures of proteins and many animal traits.
EHR (Electronic Health Record) a subset of each CDO’s EMR, presently
assumed to include summaries, such as ASTM’s Continuity of Care Record
(CCR) and HL7’s Care Record Summary (CRS), and possibly information from
pharmacy benefit management firms, reference labs and other organizations
about the health status of patients in the community (Garets and Davis 2005).
EHR-derived phenotype phenotype based on Electronic Health Record (EHR).
Electronic medical records (EMS) computerized legal clinical records created
in CDOs, such as hospitals and physician offices (Garets and Davis 2005).
Epigenetic relating to, being, or involving a modification in gene expression
that is independent of the DNA sequence of a gene (e.g., epigenetic carcino-
genesis, epigenetic inheritance) (Merriam-Webster 2007).
Epigenome the epigenome consists of chemical compounds that modify, or
mark, the genome in a way that tells it what to do, where to do it, and when to
do it. Different cells have different epigenetic marks. These epigenetic marks,
which are not part of the DNA itself, can be passed on from cell to cell as cells
divide, and from one generation to the next (NHGRI 2011).
Epiphenomenon an additional condition or symptom in the course of a disease,
not necessarily connected with the disease (Houghton Mifflin Company 2007).
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APPENDIX E
Etiology the study of all factors that may be involved in the development of
a disease, including the susceptibility of the patient, the nature of the disease
agent, and the way in which the patient’s body is invaded by the agent (Mosby
2009).
Exposome characterization of both exogenous and endogenous exposures that
can have differential effects at various stages during a person’s lifetime (Wild
2005; Rappaport 2011).
Gel electrophoresis electrophoresis in which molecules (as proteins and nucleic
acids) migrate through a gel and especially a polyacrylamide gel and separate
into bands according to size (Merriam-Webster 2007).
GenBank the GenBank sequence database is an annotated collection of all
publicly available nucleotide sequences and their protein translations (Mizrachi
2002).
Gene-environment interactions an influence on the expression of a trait that
results from the interplay between genes and the environment. Some traits are
strongly influenced by genes, while other traits are strongly influenced by the
environment. Most traits, however, are influenced by one or more genes inter-
acting in complex ways with the environment (NHGRI 2011).
Gene expression is the process by which the information encoded in a gene is
used to direct the assembly of a protein molecule. The cell reads the sequence
of the gene in groups of three bases. Each group of three bases (codon) cor-
responds to one of 20 different amino acids used to build the protein (NHGRI
2011).
Gene expression profiling is the measurement of the activity of thousands of
genes at once to create a global picture of cellular function. These profiles can,
for example, distinguish between cells that are actively dividing, or show how
the cells react to a particular treatment. Many experiments of this sort measure
an entire genome simultaneously, that is, every gene present in a particular cell
(InfoGlobalLink 2011).
Genetic polymorphisms the recurrence within a population of two or more
discontinuous genetic variants of a specific trait in such proportions that they
cannot be maintained simply by mutation. Examples include the sickle cell trait,
the Rh factor, and the blood groups (Mosby 2009).
Genetic privacy the protection of genetic information about an individual,
family, or population group from unauthorized disclosure (Kahn and Ninomiya
2010).
Genome the full sequence of genetic material encoded in DNA in an organism.
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122 APPENDIX E
Genome-Wide Association Study (GWAS) a study that identifies markers
across genomes to find genetic variation associated with a disease or condition
(PCAST 2008).
Genotype the genetic sequence of an individual organism, often categorized
in terms of known genetic variants. This can either refer to known alleles (or
types) of a single gene or to collections of genes. For example, some lung
cancers have a mutant Egf receptor genotype while other lung cancers have a
wild-type (or normal) Egf receptor genotype.
Geographic Information System (GIS) an organized collection of computer
hardware, software, geographic data, and personnel designed to efficiently cap-
ture, store, update, manipulate, analyze, and display all forms of geographically
referenced information (ESRI 1990).
Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) an act of Con-
gress, passed in 1996, that affords certain protections to persons covered by
health-care plans, including continuity of coverage when changing jobs, stan -
dards for electronic health-care transactions, and privacy safeguards for indi -
vidually identifiable patient information (Mosby 2009).
Heterozygous having inherited different forms of a particular gene from each
parent. A heterozygous genotype stands in contrast to a homozygous genotype,
where an individual inherits identical forms of a particular gene from each par-
ent (NHGRI 2011).
Histology the science dealing with the microscopic identification of cells and
tissue (Mosby 2009).
Human Microbiome Project (HMP) a National Institutes of Health initiative
that aims to characterize the microbial communities found at several different
sites on the human body, including nasal passages, oral cavities, skin, gastroin -
testinal tract, and urogenital tract, and to analyze the role of these microbes in
human health and disease.
Institutional Review Board (IRB) a group of physicians, scientists, ethicists,
lawyers, and community members that review human subjects research to
ensure that the research will be performed ethically and that it will benefit
patients. Individual institutions, such as universities, often have their own IRBs
that must approve all human subjects research before it is conducted within
the institution.
International Classification of Diseases (ICD) an official list of categories
of diseases, physical and mental, issued by the World Health Organization
(WHO). It is used primarily for statistical purposes in the classification of
morbidity and mortality data. Any nation belonging to WHO may adjust the
classification to meet specific needs (Mosby 2009).
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APPENDIX E
Linkage analysis (LA) a gene-hunting technique that traces patterns of heredity
in large, high-risk families in an attempt to locate a disease-causing gene muta -
tion by identifying traits co-inherited with it; the formal study of the association
between the inheritance of a condition in a family and a particular chromosomal
locus; LA is based on certain ground rules of genetics (McGraw-Hill 2002).
Lipidome the totality of lipids in cells (Quehenberger et al. 2010).
Longitudinal study a research study that collects repeated observations of the
same items over a long period of time (PCAST 2008).
Metabolic profiling identifying the types and amounts of known metabolic
intermediates present in a biological specimen.
Metabolome can be defined as the complete complement of all small molecule
(<1500 Da) metabolites found in a specific cell, organ, or organism. It is a close
counterpart to the genome, the transcriptome, and the proteome. Together
these four ‘omes’ constitute the building blocks of systems biology (Wishar et
al. 2007).
Microbiome term used to describe the collective genome of our indigenous mi-
crobed (microflora) (Hooper and Gordon 2001 in IOM 2010b). Identification
of the types of microbes present in a biological specimen or that are associated
with another organism, such as a human.
Molecular biology (A) a branch of biology dealing with the ultimate physico-
chemical organization of living matter and especially with the molecular basis of
inheritance and protein synthesis (Merriam-Webster 2007); (B) field of science
concerned with the chemical structures and processes of biological phenomena
at the molecular level (Merriam-Webster 2007).
Moore’s Law the number of transistors that can be placed inexpensively on an
integrated circuit doubles approximately every two years (Moore 1965).
National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) the National Center
for Biotechnology Information advances science and health by providing access
to biomedical and genomic information (NCBI 2011).
Natural language processing a theoretically motivated range of computational
techniques for analyzing and representing naturally occurring texts at one or
more levels of linguistic analysis for the purpose of achieving human-like lan -
guage processing for a range of tasks or applications (Liddy 2001)
Observational studies although molecular data will be collected from indi-
viduals in the normal course of health care, no changes in the treatment of the
individuals would be contingent on the data collected.
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124 APPENDIX E
Ontology a branch of metaphysics concerned with the nature and relations of
being (Merriam-Webster 2007).
Oophorectomy the surgical removal of an ovary (Merriam-Webster 2007).
Outcomes research the systematic study of the effects of different therapeutic
interventions on health outcomes.
Pathogenesis the origination and development of a disease (Merriam-Webster
2007).
Pathology (A) the study of the essential nature of diseases and especially of the
structural and functional changes produced by them; (B) something abnormal:
a : the structural and functional deviations from the normal that constitute
disease or characterize a particular disease (Merriam-Webster 2007).
Pathophysiology the physiology of abnormal states; specifically : the functional
changes that accompany a particular syndrome or disease (Merriam-Webster
2007).
Patient oriented research observation and scientific study of individuals or
small groups of subjects for an understanding of their physiologic and patho -
physiologic characteristics. The primary focus of the research is on mechanisms
of disease on the clinical observations and laboratory studies that define these
mechanisms as well as interventions that modify the course of the disease
(APOR 2011).
Personalized medicine (also see: Precision medicine) “refers to the tailoring
of medical treatment to the individual characteristics of each patient. It does
not literally mean the creation of drugs or medical devices that are unique to
a patient, but rather the ability to classify individuals into subpopulations that
differ in their susceptibility to a particular disease or their response to a specific
treatment. Preventive or therapeutic interventions can then be concentrated
on those who will benefit, sparing expense and side effects for those who will
not” (PCAST 2008). This term is now widely used, including in advertisements
for commercial products, and it is sometimes misinterpreted as implying that
unique treatments can be designed for each individual. For this reason, the
Committee thinks that the term “precision medicine” is preferable to “person -
alized medicine” to convey the meaning intended in this report.
Phenome-Wide Association Study (PheWAS) akin to the genome-wide as-
sociation studies (GWAS) widely used today to find single nucleotide poly-
morphisms (SNPs) that are genetically linked in a population to a particular
disease trait—except that PheWAS is GWAS in reverse. GWAS associates geno-
types with a given phenotype, such as height or a genetic disease. In contrast,
PheWAS attempts to determine the range of clinical phenotypes associated with
a given genotype (Mak 2011).
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APPENDIX E
Phenotype the idiosyncratic traits exhibited by an organism, often categorized
in terms of known trait variants. This can either refer to a specific trait or to
a collection of traits. For example, blue eyes and brown eyes are phenotypes
exhibited in subsets of humans.
Phenotype-genotype association (or correlation) the association between the
presence of a certain mutation or mutations (genotype) and the resulting physi -
cal trait, abnormality, or pattern of abnormalities (phenotype). With respect to
genetic testing, the frequency with which a certain phenotype is observed in the
presence of a specific genotype determines the positive predictive value of the
test (http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/glossary=genotypephenotypecorrelation).
Precision medicine (also see: Personalized Medicine) as used in this report,
“precision medicine” refers to the tailoring of medical treatment to the indi -
vidual characteristics of each patient. It does not literally mean the creation of
drugs or medical devices that are unique to a patient, but rather the ability to
classify individuals into subpopulations that differ in their susceptibility to a
particular disease, in the biology and/or prognosis of those diseases they may
develop, or in their response to a specific treatment. Preventive or therapeutic
interventions can then be concentrated on those who will benefit, sparing ex -
pense and side effects for those who will not. Although the term “personalized
medicine” is also used to convey this meaning, that term is sometimes misinter-
preted as implying that unique treatments can be designed for each individual.
For this reason, the Committee thinks that the term “precision medicine”
is preferable to “personalized medicine” to convey the meaning intended in
this report. It should be emphasized that in “precision medicine” the word
“precision” is being used in a colloquial sense, to mean both “accurate” and
“precise” (in the scientific method, the accuracy of a measurement system is
the degree of closeness of measurements of a quantity to that quantity’s actual
(true) value whereas the precision of a measurement system, also called repro-
ducibility or repeatability, is the degree to which repeated measurements under
unchanged conditions show the same results). http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Accuracy_and_precision. the point where pharmacogenetics and personalised
medicine meet (The Economist 2009).
Precompetitive collaboration collaboration among competitors to achieve goals
that can be more effectively accomplished by a group effort and have the po-
tential to benefit everyone (IOM 2010a).
Proteome the entire complement of proteins and associated modifications
produced by an organism (PCAST 2008).
Public–private partnerships agreement between a public agency (federal, state,
or local) and a private sector entity. Through this agreement, the skills and
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126 APPENDIX E
assets of each sector (public and private) are shared in delivering a service or
facility for the use of the general public (NCPP 2011).
Radioisotopic labeling the incorporation of radioactive atoms into DNA so that
the DNA can be detected and visualized based on its emission of radioactivity.
Recombinant DNA the artificial synthesis of sequences of DNA that may or
may not exist in nature using genetic engineering techniques. These techniques
are central to much of molecular biology and to the development of modern
drugs.
Sequelae a pathological condition resulting from a prior disease, injury, or at -
tack (MedicineNet.com. 2011).
Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) single genetic variation; DNA se-
quence variations caused by single base changes at a given position in a genome.
(PCAST 2008).
Signs and symptoms objective evidence of disease perceptible to the examin-
ing physician (sign) and subjective evidence of disease perceived by the patient
(symptom).
Social network an association of people drawn together by family, work, or
hobby.
Systematized Nomenclature of Medicine (SNOMED) a comprehensive clinical
terminology, originally created by the College of American Pathologists (CAP)
and, as of April 2007, owned, maintained, and distributed by the International
Health Terminology Standards Development Organisation (IHTSDO), a not-
for-profit association in Denmark.
Systems analyses analysis of all aspects of a project along with ways to collect
information about the operation of its parts (wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/
webwn).
Transcriptome the complete set of RNA transcripts produced by the genome
at any one time. The transcriptome is dynamic and changes under different
circumstances due to different patterns of gene expression. The study of the
transcriptome is termed transcriptomics (MedicineNet.com. 2011).
Translational research transforms scientific discoveries arising from labora-
tory, clinical, or population studies into clinical applications to reduce can -
cer incidence, morbidity, and mortality. (NCI 2011). http://www.cancer.gov/
researchandfunding/trwg/TRWG-definition-and-TR-continuum.
Whole-genome sequencing determining the sequence of deoxyribonucleotides
that compose an entire genome, including all of its chromosomes.
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127
APPENDIX E
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