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OCR for page 1
Research
Universities
and the Future of America
America is driven by innovation — advances in ideas, products, and processes that
create new industries and jobs, contribute to our nation’s health and security, and
support a high standard of living. In the past half-century, innovation itself has been
increasingly driven by educated people and the knowledge they produce. Our
nation’s primary source of both new knowledge and graduates with advanced skills
continues to be our research universities.
However, these institutions now face an array of challenges, from unstable revenue
streams and antiquated policies and practices to increasing competition from
universities abroad. It is essential that we as a nation reaffirm and revitalize the
unique partnership that has long existed among research universities, the federal
government, the states, and philanthropy, and strengthen its links with business and
industry. In doing so, we will encourage the innovation that leads to high-quality
jobs, increased incomes, and security, health, and prosperity for our nation.
1
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a PartnerShiP for innovation security and efficiency, education, and defense
and homeland security.
As America pursues economic growth and other
national goals, its research universities have Yet research universities now confront critical
emerged as a major national asset — perhaps pressures, including unstable revenue streams,
even its most potent one. This did not happen by demographic shifts in the U.S. population,
accident; it is the result of forward-looking and changes in the organization and scale of re-
deliberate federal and state policies. These began search, and shifting relationships between
with the Morrill Act of 1862, which established a research universities, government, and industry.
partnership between the federal government and Research universities also face growing competi-
the states to build universities that would address tion from their counterparts abroad. While U.S.
the challenges of creating a modern agricultural institutions have long attracted outstanding stu-
and industrial economy for the 20th century. dents and scholars from around the world who
have contributed substantially to our research
The government–university partnership was
and innovative capacity, other countries are rap-
expanded in the 1950s and 1960s to contribute
idly strengthening their institutions to compete
to national security, public health, and economic
for the best international students and for faculty,
growth. Through this expanded partnership, basic
resources, and reputation.
research — the source of new ideas for the long
term — would be increasingly funded by the fed- With these developments in mind, we have identi-
eral government and largely concentrated in the fied a set of specific challenges and opportunities
nation’s research universities. that a reasoned set of policies must address in or-
der to produce the greatest return to our society,
This partnership, which over time grew to
our security, and our economy:
include industry and philanthropy, has led to
significant benefits for America’s economy and • Federal funding for university research has been
quality of life. Lasers, radar, synthetic insulin, unstable and, in real terms, declining at a time
blood thinners, magnetic resonance imaging when other countries have increased funding for
(MRI), computers, and rocket fuel are among research and development (R&D).
the countless innovations in which university re-
• State funding for higher education, already
search has played an essential role. And talented
eroding in real terms for more than two decades,
graduates of these institutions have created
has been cut further during the recent recession.
and populated many new businesses that have
employed millions of Americans. • Business and industry have largely dismantled
the large corporate research laboratories that
new and CritiCal ChallengeS drove American industrial leadership in the 20th
century (e.g., Bell Labs), but have not yet fully
American research universities are widely recog-
partnered with research universities to fill the gap
nized as the best in the world, admired for their
at a time when the new knowledge and ideas
education and research. They have the potential
emerging from university research are needed by
to drive innovation in areas important to Ameri-
society more than ever.
ca’s future, including health and medicine, energy
2
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revitalizing the PartnerShiP
• Research universities must improve manage-
ment, productivity, and cost efficiency in both We believe that America’s research universities are
administration and academics. today a key asset for our nation’s future. They are so
because of the considered and deliberate decisions
• Young faculty have insufficient opportunities to
made in the past by policymakers, even in difficult
launch academic careers and research programs.
times. Our future now depends on the willingness
• There has been an underinvestment in campus of our current policymakers to follow their example
infrastructure, particularly in cyberinfrastructure and make the decisions that will allow us to con-
that could lead to long-term increases in pro- tinue to compete, prosper, and shape our destiny.
ductivity, cost-effectiveness, and innovation in
It is essential that we as a nation reaffirm, revi-
research, education, and administration.
talize, and strengthen substantially the unique
• The cost of sponsored research is not fully partnership that has long existed among the
covered by those who procure it, which means nation’s research universities, the federal
that universities have to cross-subsidize sponsored government, the states, and philanthropy by
research from other sources. enhancing their individual roles and the links
among them and also by providing incentives
• A burdensome accumulation of federal and
for stronger partnership with business and in-
state regulatory and reporting requirements in-
dustry. In doing so, we will encourage the ideas
creases costs and sometimes challenges academic
and innovations that will lead to more high-
freedom and integrity.
end jobs, increased incomes, and the national
• Doctoral and postdoctoral preparation could be security, health, and prosperity we expect.
enhanced by shortening time-to-degree, raising
completion rates, and enhancing programs’ effec-
PrinCiPleS
tiveness in providing training for highly produc-
Reaffirming and strengthening the unique part-
tive careers.
nership that has long existed among the nation’s
• Demographic change in the U.S. population research universities, the federal government, the
necessitates strategies for increasing the success of states, and business will require:
female and underrepresented minority students.
• A balanced set of commitments by each of the
• Institutions abroad are increasingly compet- partners — the federal government, state govern-
ing for international students, researchers, and ments, research universities, and business and
scholars. industry — to provide leadership for the nation in
a knowledge-intensive world and to develop and
The principles and recommendations that follow
implement enlightened policies, efficient operat-
are designed to help federal and state policymak-
ing practices, and necessary investments.
ers, universities, and businesses overcome these
hurdles and capitalize on these opportunities. • The use of requirements for matching funds
Strong leadership — and partnership — will be among these commitments, which provide strong
needed by these parties if our research universities incentives for participation at comparable levels
and our nation are to thrive. by each partner.
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ten StrategiC aCtionS
• Sufficient flexibility to accommodate differences
among research universities and the diversity of We recommend ten actions designed to accom-
their stakeholders. plish three broad goals:
• A commitment to a decade-long effort that Revitalizing the partnership. The first four
seeks both to address challenges and to take ad- actions will strengthen the partnership among
vantage of opportunities as they emerge. universities, federal and state governments,
philanthropy, and the business community in
• A recognition of the importance of supporting
order to revitalize university research and speed its
the comprehensive nature of the research univer-
translation into innovative products and services.
sity, spanning the full spectrum of academic and
professional disciplines, including the physical, Strengthening institutions. The next three ac-
life, social, and behavioral sciences; engineering; tions will streamline and improve the productivity
the arts and humanities; and the professions, all of research operations within universities.
of which enable universities to provide the broad
Building talent. The final three actions will ensure
research and education programs required by a
that America’s pipeline of future talent in science,
knowledge- and innovation-driven global economy.
engineering, and other research areas remains
Within this partnership, our research universities creative and vital, leveraging the abilities of all of
— with a historical commitment to excellence, its citizens and attracting the best students and
academic freedom, and service to society — must scholars from around the world.
pledge themselves to a new level of partnership
with government and business, strive anew to
be the places where the best minds in the world
want to work, think, educate, and create new
ideas, and commit to delivering better outcomes
for each dollar spent.
4
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Recommendation 1
Federal Action
Within the broader framework of U.S. innovation and R&D strategies, the federal
government should adopt stable and effective policies, practices, and funding for
university-performed R&D and graduate education so that the nation will have a
stream of new knowledge and educated people to power our future, helping us
meet national goals and ensure prosperity and security.
T O I M P L E M E N T T H I S R E C O M M E N D AT I O N :
• The federal government should review and modify policies and practices governing university research
and graduate education that have become burdensome and inefficient, such as research cost reim-
bursement, unnecessary regulation, and awkward variation and coordination among federal agencies.
• Over the next decade, as the economy improves, the federal government should invest in basic
research and graduate education sufficient to produce the new knowledge and educated citizens the
nation needs to reach its goals. As a core component of a national plan to raise total national R&D
funded by all sources — government, industry, and philanthropy — to 3 percent of gross domestic
product, Congress and the administration should provide full funding of the amount authorized by
the America COMPETES Act, doubling the level of basic research conducted by the National Science
Foundation, National Institute of Standards and Technology, and the Department of Energy’s Office
of Science. A portion of the increase should be directed to high-risk, innovative research. Investment
should also be sustained in other key areas, such as biomedical research.
• On an annual basis in the President’s annual budget request, the Office of Management and Bud-
get (OMB), together with the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP), should
develop and present a federal science and technology budget that addresses priorities for sustaining a
world-class U.S. science and technology enterprise. And every 4 years, OSTP and OMB should review
federal science and technology spending and outcomes to ensure that spending is adequate to sup-
port our economy and targeted to meet national goals. We recommend that this process consider
U.S. global leadership, a focus on developing new knowledge, balance in the science and technology
portfolio, reliable and predictable streams of funding, and a commitment to merit review.
By completing funding increases that Congress has already authorized through the America COMPETES
Revitalizing the Partnership
Act, the nation would ensure robust support for critical basic research programs, achieving a balanced
research portfolio capable of driving the innovation necessary for economic prosperity. Together with
cost-efficient regulation, this stable funding will enable universities to make comparable investments in
research facilities and graduate programs. And because research and education are intertwined in uni-
versities, this funding will also ensure that we continue to produce the scientists, engineers, and other
knowledge professionals the nation needs.
5
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Recommendation 2
State Action
Provide greater autonomy for public research universities so that these institutions
may leverage local and regional strengths to compete strategically and respond
with agility to new opportunities. At the same time, restore state appropriations for
higher education, including graduate education and research, to levels that allow
public research universities to operate at world-class levels.
T o i m p l e m e n T T h i s r e c o m m e n d aT i o n :
• State governments should move rapidly to provide their public research universities with sufficient
autonomy and agility to navigate an extended period with limited state support.
• As state budgets recover from the current recession, states should strive to restore and maintain per-
student funding for higher education, including public research universities, to the mean level for the
15-year period 1987-2002, as adjusted for inflation.
• Federal programs designed to stimulate innovation and workforce development at the state level, in-
cluding those recommended in this report, should be accompanied by strong incentives to stimulate
and sustain state support for their public universities, which are both state and national assets.
For states to compete for the prosperity and welfare of their citizens in a knowledge-driven global
economy, the advanced education, research, and innovation programs provided by their research univer-
sities are absolutely essential. And the importance of these universities extends far beyond state borders;
these institutions play a critical role in the
prosperity, public health, and security of Real state and local appRopRiations peR full-time student in public
ReseaRch univeRsities, 1987-2007
their regions and the entire nation.
$12,251
However, an alarming erosion in state $13,000
Very High Research
support for higher education over the past $12,000
$10,505
decade has put the quality and capacity $11,000
of public research universities at great $10,000
risk. State cuts in appropriations to public $8,050
$9,000
High Research
research universities over the years 2002 $8,000 $7,289
Revitalizing the Partnership
to 2010 are estimated to average 25 $7,000
percent, ranging as high as 50 percent for
$6,000
some universities — resulting in the need
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
for institutions to increase tuition or to
Public Research (VH) Public Research (H)
reduce either activities or quality.
There has been a downward trend since the late 1980s in state and local fund-
While over time states should strive to ing per full-time student for public universities with high and very high levels of
restore appropriations that were cut research, with the steepest decline starting in 2002.
during that decade, budget challenges
and shifting priorities may make this very difficult in the near term. Therefore it is equally important for
states to provide their public research universities with enough autonomy to navigate what could be an
extended period with inadequate state funding. Both steps — restoring state funding and increasing
university autonomy — are in the long-term interests of the states and the nation.
6
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Recommendation 3
Strengthening Partnerships with Business
Strengthen the business role in the research partnership, facilitating the transfer
of knowledge, ideas, and technology to society, and accelerate “time-to-innovation”
in order to achieve our national goals.
T o i m p l e m e n T T h i s r e c o m m e n d aT i o n :
• The federal government should continue to fund and expand research support mechanisms that
promote collaboration and innovation.
• The federal government should, within the context of also making the R&D tax credit permanent,
implement new tax policies that incentivize business to develop partnerships with universities (and
other research organizations as warranted) for research that results in new economic activities located
in the United States.
• The relationship between business and higher education should become more peer-to-peer in nature,
stressing collaboration in areas of joint interest rather than remaining in a traditional customer-supplier
relationship, in which business procures graduates and intellectual property from universities.
• Businesses and universities should work closely together to develop new graduate degree programs
that address strategic workforce gaps for science-based employers.
• Collaboration among national laboratories, the business community, and universities is encouraged
because the large-scale, sustained research projects of national laboratories both support and depend
on the participation of university faculty and graduate students as well as the marketplace.
• Universities should improve management of intellectual property to improve technology transfer.
Using research support mechanisms that promote collaboration between business and universities
will lead to the creation and efficient use of knowledge to achieve national goals. Tax incentives can
also provide practical motivation to establish new partnerships. Although these tax policies will have
a cost to the federal budget as a “tax expenditure,” it would be a relatively minor component of the
cost of current proposals to make permanent the R&D tax credit. And the partnerships that result will
generate new knowledge and ideas, achieving national goals in key policy areas and the economic
growth and jobs that result from new activity. Meanwhile, improving university management of intel-
lectual property will result in more effective dissemination of research results, generating economic
Revitalizing the Partnership
activity and jobs.
7
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Discovery and Progress
Protecting Earth’s Ozone Shield
T
he ozone layer is an important compo-
nent of Earth’s upper atmosphere that
protects human health. Ozone absorbs
medium-wavelength ultraviolet rays
from the Sun, providing a protective barrier
from harmful radiation that contributes to the
development of skin cancer and cataracts in hu-
mans. Important work from American research
universities has shown that the ozone layer is
directly endangered by human activity — specifi-
cally by chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) gases released
into the atmosphere by aerosol cans, older Scientists release a balloon from McMurdo Station in
Antarctica carrying instruments that measure ozone
model refrigerators, and other sources. depletion in the stratosphere.
In 1970, Dutch atmospheric chemist Paul the environmental and health concerns raised by
Crutzen, then affiliated with Oxford Univer- the hypothesis, the use of CFC gases in aerosol
sity, demonstrated that nitric oxide reached cans was banned in the United States in 1978.
the stratosphere and could deplete the ozone
layer. Building on this work, Mario Molina of Seven years later, in 1985, a team of British
the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and scientists announced that they had discovered
F. Sherwood Rowland of the University of ozone depletion over Antarctica, proving the
California, Irvine, who had studied Rowland–Molina hypothesis correct. A global
the properties of CFC gases, response to the crisis followed, with interna-
hypothesized that these gases tional agreements in 1985 and 1987 providing
could deplete the ozone layer specific means for reducing the production and
as well. Based on their re- use of ozone-depleting substances. Fully in force
search, Molina and Rowland by 1989, the Montreal Protocol on Substances
published an influential article That Deplete the Ozone Layer relied on scien-
in the journal Nature in 1974 tific findings from American research universi-
that predicted the destruction of ties to build an international consensus on
the ozone layer through the break- action to phase out the use of ozone-depleting
down of CFC gases in the upper atmo- substances. Had these steps not been taken,
sphere. Two years later, a National Academy of nearly two-thirds of Earth’s protective ozone
NASA image of
ozone hole over
Sciences report found strong scientific evidence would have been destroyed by 2065, according
Antarctica, 1985.
to support the Rowland–Molina hypothesis, to a team of atmospheric chemists from NASA,
leading the United States and other govern- Johns Hopkins University, and the Netherlands
ments to restrict use of CFC gases. In response to Environmental Assessment Agency.
8
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Recommendation 4
Improving University Productivity
Increase university cost-effectiveness and productivity in order to provide
a greater return on investment for taxpayers, philanthropists, corporations,
foundations, and other research sponsors.
T o i m p l e m e n T T h i s r e c o m m e n d aT i o n :
• The nation’s research universities should set and achieve bold goals in cost containment, efficiency,
and productivity in business operations and academic programs. Universities should strive to limit
the cost escalation of all ongoing activities — academic and auxiliary — to the inflation rate or less
through improved efficiency and productivity. In addition to implementing efficient business practices,
universities should review existing academic programs from the perspectives of centrality, quality, and
cost-effectiveness, adopting modern instructional methods such as cyberlearning. Universities should
also encourage greater collaboration among research investigators and among research institutions,
particularly in acquiring and using expensive research equipment and facilities.
• University associations should develop and make available more powerful and strategic tools for finan-
cial management and cost accounting that enable universities to determine the most effective ways
to contain costs and increase productivity and efficiency. As part of this effort, they should develop
metrics that allow universities to communicate their level of cost-effectiveness to the general public.
• Working together with key stakeholders, universities should intensify efforts to educate key audiences
about the unique character of U.S. research universities and their importance to state, regional, and
national goals, including economic prosperity, public health, and national security.
By increasing cost-effectiveness and productivity, institutions will realize significant cost savings in
operations that may be used to improve their performance, allowing them to shift resources strategi-
cally and/or reduce growth in their need for resources such as tuition. Many institutions have already
demonstrated that significant cost efficiencies are attainable. If research universities can take action,
states and the nation will realize greater returns on their investments, and the savings associated with
cost containment and greater productivity can then be deployed to other priorities such as constraining
tuition increases, increasing student financial aid, or launching new programs.
Revitalizing the Partnership
9
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Discovery and Progress
Forensic DNA Analysis
F
orensic DNA analysis — familiar to
many from TV crime shows such as
CSI: Crime Scene Investigation — pro-
duces reliable evidence used in criminal
investigations and trials, helping to identify
the guilty and exonerate the innocent. The
technique, which depends on a process called
polymerase chain reaction (PCR), became pos-
sible and practical because of discoveries at
American research universities.
Thomas Brock of Indiana University stands next to
Mushroom Spring in Yellowstone National Park, one of
PCR works by repeatedly copying DNA, which
the hot springs where he and his colleagues found the
is composed of two strands that fit together to bacterium Thermus aquaticus.
form the now well-known double helix. First,
polymerase available that could endure the
the DNA is “unzipped” into two strands — a
high temperatures needed to unzip the DNA,
process that uses high heat — and then a copy
a step that happens repeatedly during the PCR
of the segment of interest is made using an
process. To make it possible to do PCR quickly
enzyme called DNA polymerase. This process
and reliably on a broad scale, Mullis and his
is repeated multiple times to generate copies
colleagues drew on two discoveries by univer-
of the DNA sequence;
sity researchers.
having many copies of the
sequence allows it to be
In 1969, Thomas Brock and Hudson Freeze of
read clearly and reliably. It
Indiana University had isolated the heat-loving
is then possible to deter-
bacterium Thermus aquaticus from thermal
mine whether the DNA
springs in Wyoming and California. In subse-
sequence in a piece of
quent work in 1976 at the University of Cincin-
evidence — say, the root of
nati, John Trela and his coworkers isolated
a human hair — matches
the DNA polymerase enzyme from Thermus
that of a suspect or victim.
aquaticus. Harnessing this enzyme — which
continues to function despite the high heat
Kary Mullis invented PCR
used in the unzipping stage of the PCR cycle —
in 1983 while working for
allowed the Cetus researchers to turn PCR into
Cetus Corporation, but
an automated process, an advance that made
at first the process was
the technology useful in the criminal justice
slow and impractical for
system, the Human Genome Project, and a
wide use, because there
wide range of biotechnology applications.
was no version of DNA
10
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Recommendation 5
A Strategic Investment Program
Create a Strategic Investment Program that funds initiatives at research universities
critical to advancing education and research in areas of key national priority.
T O I M P L E M E N T T H I S R E C O M M E N D AT I O N :
• The federal government should create a new Strategic Investment Program to support initiatives that
advance education and research at the nation’s research universities. This should be designed as a
“living” program that responds to changing needs and opportunities; as such, it will be composed of
term-limited initiatives requiring matching grants in critical areas that will change over time.
We recommend that the program begin with two 10-year initiatives: an endowed faculty chairs
program to facilitate the careers of young investigators and a research infrastructure program initially
focused on advancing campus cyberinfrastructure, but perhaps evolving later to address emerging
needs for physical research infrastructure. Federal investments in these initiatives would be intended
for both public and private research universities, and they would require institutions to obtain match-
ing funds from states, philanthropy, business, or other sources. We recommend that the federal gov-
ernment support these first two initiatives in the Strategic Investment Program at $7 billion per year
over the next decade. These funds
will leverage an additional $9 billion AVERAGE AGE OF FIRST-TIME RO1-EQUIVALENT PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATORS, 1980-2007
per year through matching grants 45
from other partners.
44
• Universities should compete for MD PhD MD-PhD
43
funding under these initiatives,
bringing in partners — states, 42
business, philanthropy, and others
— that will support projects by 41
providing required matching funds.
40
This program will develop and 39
enhance the human, physical, and
38
cyberinfrastructure necessary for
cutting-edge research and advanced 37
education. The investment in rap- 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
Strengthening Institutions
idly evolving cyberinfrastructure will In the biomedical sciences, fewer recent doctorates are obtaining tenure-track
increase productivity and collabora- faculty positions and, as this figure shows, the average age at receipt of one’s first
NIH research grant has increased to over 43 years old.
tion in research and may also increase
productivity in administration and
education. Also of critical importance is the endowment of chairs, particularly for promising young
faculty, during a time of serious financial stress and limited faculty retirements. This initiative will ensure
that we are building our research faculty for the future, so that the nation can reap the rewards of their
work over the long term.
11
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Recommendation 6
Full Federal Funding of Research
The federal government and other research sponsors should strive to cover the
full costs of research projects and other activities they procure from research
universities in a consistent and transparent manner.
T o i m p l e m e n T T h i s r e c o m m e n d aT i o n :
• The federal government and other research sponsors should strive to support the full cost, direct and
indirect, of research and other activities they procure from universities so that it is no longer necessary
to subsidize these sponsored grants by drawing on resources intended to support other important
university missions such as undergraduate education and clinical care. Both sponsored research poli-
cies and cost-recovery negotiations should be developed and applied in a consistent fashion across all
federal agencies and academic institutions, public and private.
Over the past two decades, universities have had to cover an increasing share of the costs of research
that the government has procured but not fully supported. If the government covers the full costs of
research it procures, universities will be able to hold steady or reduce the amount of research fund-
ing they contribute from other sources, such as tuition revenue or patient clinical fees. Consequently,
universities will be able to allocate their resources from other sources more strategically, directing them
to the programs and purposes for which they were originally intended. This change will entail no net
change in cost to the federal government, since federal coverage of a higher portion of indirect costs
would, at the margins, shift part of federal research funding from direct to indirect costs.
Strengthening Institutions
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Recommendation 7
Reducing Regulatory Burdens
Reduce or eliminate regulations that increase administrative costs, impede
research productivity, and deflect creative energy without substantially improving
the research environment.
T o i m p l e m e n T T h i s r e c o m m e n d aT i o n :
• Federal policymakers and regulators (OMB, Congress, agencies) and their state counterparts should
review the costs and benefits of federal and state regulations, eliminating those that are redundant,
ineffective, inappropriately applied to the higher education sector, or that impose costs that outweigh
the benefits to society.
• The federal government should also make regulations and reporting requirements more consistent
across federal agencies so that universities can maintain one system for all federal requirements rather
than several, thereby reducing costs.
Reducing or eliminating regulations can reduce administrative costs, enhance productivity, and in-
crease the agility of institutions. Minimizing administrative and compliance costs will also provide a cost
benefit to the federal government and to university administrators, faculty, and students by freeing up
resources and time to support education and research efforts directly. With greater resources and free-
dom, universities will be better positioned to respond to the needs of their constituents in an increas-
ingly competitive environment.
Although the staff time to review regulatory and reporting requirements has a small cost in the near
term, the savings to universities and federal and state governments over the long run will be substan-
tial. It is not feasible to estimate the savings in advance of a review, but we believe they could run into
the billions of dollars over the next decade.
Strengthening Institutions
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Discovery and Progress
Making the Web Easy to Navigate
T
he first widely-used promoted the development
World Wide Web of the National Informa-
browser, NCSA tion Infrastructure, better
Mosaic, heralded known as the “informa-
the beginning of a new era tion superhighway.” This
in the development and legislation facilitated the
use of the Internet. In 1991 work of researchers Marc
the Internet was largely a Andreessen and Eric Bina,
network connecting federal who developed the Mosaic
agencies, universities, and browser at the National
companies that was accessi- Center for Supercomput-
ble only to those capable of ing Applications (NCSA) at
navigating its cumbersome the University of Illinois at
interface through dial-up Urbana–Champaign.
connections. That changed
Released publicly in 1993,
with the development of
Mosaic revolutionized how
the Mosaic browser, a uni-
users accessed information on the Web and
versity invention that transformed use of the
provided many of the fundamental tools of
Web by making it easier for people to navigate.
Web browsing we still use today, such as the
Funding provided under the High Performance “back” button, bookmarks, and the address
Computing and Communication Act of 1991 bar. Although Mosaic ceased development in
1997, it influenced the development of later
browsers such as Internet Explorer, Mozilla
Firefox, and Google Chrome.
Through Mosaic, and later through other
browsers whose technology built upon Mosaic,
the Web empowered individuals and stimu-
lated online commerce. In recent years it has
exploded into a major source of economic
growth, technological innovation, and social
interaction. It is not hard to see that the Web
has changed the world, and a university’s
A screen shot of the
Mosaic home page
development of the first popular Web browser
from 1997, viewed
in the Mosaic played an essential role in that transformation.
browser window.
14
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Recommendation 8
Reforming Graduate Education
Improve the capacity of graduate programs to attract talented students by
addressing issues such as attrition rates, time-to-degree, funding, and alignment
with both student career opportunities and national interests.
T o i m p l e m e n T T h i s r e c o m m e n d aT i o n :
• Research universities should restructure doctoral education to enhance pathways for talented un-
dergraduates, improve completion rates, shorten time-to-degree, and strengthen the preparation of
graduates for careers both in and beyond the academy.
• Research universities and federal agencies should ensure, as they implement the above measures, that
they improve education across the full spectrum of research university graduate programs — including
the social and behavioral sciences, the humanities, and the arts — because of the increasing breadth of
academic and professional disciplines necessary to address the challenges facing our changing world.
• The federal government should significantly increase its support for graduate education through
balanced programs of fellowships, traineeships, and research assistantships provided by all science
agencies that depend upon individuals with advanced training.
• Employers — businesses, government agencies, and nonprofits — that hire master’s- and doctorate-
level graduates should more deeply engage programs in research universities by providing internships,
student projects, advice on curriculum design, and real-time information on employment opportunities.
The number of federal fellowships and traineeships
cumulative 10-yeaR completion Rates foR doctoRal
should be increased to support 5,000 new gradu- students enteRing 1992-1994, by bRoad field
ate students per year in science and engineering, 70 70
an investment amounting to $325 million in year 60 60
Completion Rate (%)
Completion Rate (%)
1 and climbing to a steady-state expenditure of 50 50
$1.625 billion per year. This funding is not de- 40 40
30 30
signed to increase the overall numbers of doctoral
20 20
students per se, but to provide incentives for stu-
10 10
dents to pursue areas responding to national needs
00
and to shift support from research assistantships to
33 44 55 66 77 88 99 10 10
mechanisms that strengthen doctoral training. Im- Year
Year
plementing other aspects of our recommendation Engineering Life Sciences
Engineering Life Sciences
will save money for the federal government, uni- Mathematics & Physical Sciences Social Sciences
Mathematics & Physical Sciences Social Sciences
Humanities
Humanities
versities, and students. Improving completion rates
and reducing time-to-degree in doctoral programs, Overall, 57 percent of doctoral candidates complete their degrees
Figure 5.8.1.eps 64
by the end of 10 years,igurea5.8.1.eps percent in engineering
F with high of
for example, will increase the cost-effectiveness of and a low of 49 percent in the humanities.
federal and other investments in this area.
On the whole, improving pathways to doctoral degrees will ensure that we draw strongly from among
Building Talent
the “best and brightest” across fields that are critical to our nation’s future. Strengthening preparation
of doctorates for a broad range of careers, not just those in academia, assists students in their careers,
along with employers who need their staff to be productive in the short term.
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Discovery and Progress
Providing Data on U.S. Households
T
he Panel Study on Income Dynamics collected data on more than 70,000 individuals
(PSID), which collects data on a rep- over the past four decades.
resentative sample of the U.S. popula-
PSID has proved essential to understanding
tion over time, is the longest-running
long-term trends in Americans’ labor market
household survey of its kind. PSID has helped
participation, family connections, and eco-
researchers and policymakers stay in touch with
nomic well-being. Last year, for example, the
the status of individuals and families — includ-
study found that 23 percent of families had
ing their income, social connections, and health
no savings at all in liquid assets such as sav-
— for more than 40 years. The survey was
ings or checking accounts. Researchers from
developed at an American research university
universities across the country use the survey’s
with federal funding.
data to investigate issues as diverse as the use
PSID began in 1968 at the University of Michi- of food stamps by different age groups, the
gan with a survey of 5,000 households. The effect of childhood relationships on future job
survey questions were designed to gather a performance, and the health effects of losing
wide range of information about each house- one’s job. By enabling this kind of research —
hold — from family members’ income and which has both informed the development of
education levels to the number of rooms in laws and helped policymakers understand the
the house. Over impact of their work — American universities
time, the study have contributed an essential data resource for
has expanded and the social sciences and the public.
evolved. The study
now surveys over
9,000 families ev-
ery 2 years and has
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Recommendation 9
STEM Pathways and Diversity
Secure for the United States the full benefits of education for all Americans,
including women and underrepresented minorities, in science, mathematics,
engineering, and technology.
T o i m p l e m e n T T h i s r e c o m m e n d aT i o n :
• Research universities should engage in efforts to improve education for all students at all levels in
the United States by reaching out to K-12 school districts and by taking steps to improve access and
completion in their own institutions.
• Research universities should assist efforts to improve the education and preparation of those who teach
science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) subjects in grades K-12. Universities should
also strive to improve undergraduate education, including persistence and completion rates in STEM.
• All stakeholders — the federal government, states, local school districts, industry, philanthropy, and
universities — should take urgent, sustained, and intensive action to increase the participation and
success of women and underrepresented minorities across all academic and professional disciplines,
especially in science, mathematics, and engineering.
Our nation’s greatest asset is its people. Improving the educational success of our citizens at all levels
improves our democracy, our culture and society, social mobility, and both individual and national
economic success. As career opportunities in science, technology, engineering, and math continue to
expand at a rapid pace, recruiting more underrepresented minorities and women into STEM careers
and ensuring that they remain in the pipeline is essential not only for meeting the workforce needs of
an increasingly technological nation, but also for obtaining the intellectual vitality and innovation nec-
essary for economic prosperity, national security, and social well-being.
peRcentage of 2004 fReshmen at 4-yeaR institutions who aspiRe to
stem majoRs who then completed stem degRees in 4 and 5 yeaRs,
by Race/ethnicity
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
Building Talent
0
4-Year Completion 5-Year Completion
White Asian American Latino Black Native American
Latino, Black, and Native American students have significantly lower completion rates
after 4 and 5 years of study in STEM fields than white and Asian American students.
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Discovery and Progress
A Sustainable Cancer Treatment
N
ature provides researchers with many
compounds that can potentially be
used as drugs or precursors to drugs to
treat a wide variety of human illnesses.
Occasionally the harvesting of these natural
compounds comes at a cost to the environ-
ment, as happened with the development of
Taxol, a breakthrough drug in the treatment
of ovarian, breast, and lung cancer. Taxol was
isolated from the bark of the Pacific yew tree,
a threatened species that is home to another
threatened species, the spotted owl. Produc-
tion of Taxol initially required harvesting enor-
mous quantities of bark from the trees, leading
to their destruction and a loss of habitat for
spotted owls.
In response, chemist Robert Holton of Florida
State University set out to find a method of
producing Taxol that did not kill the Pacific
yew trees. While others were looking for
a completely synthetic alternative, Holton
focused on finding a semi-synthetic method.
After years of research, in 1991 Holton suc-
ceeded in developing a method that used only
the needles and twigs from English yew trees,
leaving the trees themselves to thrive. Taxol
continues to be hailed as a fundamental anti-
cancer tool, and research conducted at Ameri-
can universities resulted in an environmentally
sustainable method for its preparation.
Spotted owl perching in a Pacific yew tree, old growth
forest, Oregon.
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Recommendation 10
International Students and Scholars
Ensure that the United States will continue to benefit strongly from the
participation of international students and scholars in our research enterprise.
T o i m p l e m e n T T h i s r e c o m m e n d aT i o n :
• Federal agencies should ensure that visa processing for international students and scholars who wish
to study or conduct research in the United States is as efficient and effective as possible consistent
with homeland security considerations.
• To ensure that a high proportion of non-U.S. doctoral researchers remain in the country, the federal
government should streamline the processes for these researchers to obtain permanent residency
or U.S. citizenship. The United States should consider taking the strong step of granting residency
(a green card) to each non-U.S. citizen who earns a doctorate in an area of national need from an
accredited research university. The Department of Homeland Security should set the criteria for and
make selections of areas of national need and of the set of accredited institutions, in cooperation with
the National Science Foundation and the National Institutes of Health.
• The federal government should proactively recruit international students and scholars.
The United States has benefited significantly over the past half-century and more from highly talented
individuals who have come to this country from abroad to study or conduct research. Today, there is in-
creasing competition for these students and researchers both in general and from their home countries.
It is in our nation’s interest to attract and keep individuals who will create new knowledge or convert it
to new products, industries, and jobs in the United States.
doctoRate awaRds to tempoRaRy visa holdeRs by majoR field of study, 2009
70%
60%
55.2%
50%
42.4%
40%
30.1%
30% 27.2%
21.8%
20%
14.8%
8.7%
10%
0%
Engineering Physical Life Social/ Humanities Education Other
Sciences Sciences Behavioral Non-S&E
Sciences Fields
Building Talent
The number of doctoral degrees awarded to temporary visa holders (international stu-
dents), shown here by field, isFigure 5.10.1.eps
particularly high in the physical sciences and engineering.
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Discovery and Progress
Protecting Against Terrorism at U.S. Ports
S
ince the terrorist attacks of September the chemical composition of concealed
11, 2001, a major security concern materials. Bertozzi had been working on NRF
has been that a terrorist group would imaging for over a decade when the 2001
try to smuggle nuclear or chemical attacks galvanized efforts to protect the
weapons, or materials that could be used to nation against further attack. Private and
make them, in one of the 10 million to 15 government funding helped to establish a
million cargo containers that enter U.S. ports company dedicated to developing NRF as
every year. A new imaging technology that a method to image cargo.
had its beginnings at an American university
Using rays that can penetrate even lead-lined
may enable rapid security screening of these
vessels, this technology allows for fast, easy
containers without the need to physically
identification of the materials inside sealed
inspect each one.
containers. The continued development of
Nuclear resonance fluorescence imaging, NRF imaging may provide an efficient way to
which is being developed by researcher Wil- scan cargo entering American ports, improv-
liam Bertozzi of the Massachusetts Institute of ing security without disrupting the pace of
Technology, uses gamma rays to determine international trade.
20
