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3
Panel II--Focal Disciplines
The three presentations in Panel II addressed the status of women in higher education and
the workforce in the three focal disciplines: chemical sciences, computer science, and
mathematics and statistics. The first presentation by Robert Lichter, a principal at Merrimack
Consultants, LLC, focused on the chemical sciences. He found that the percentages of women
earning baccalaureate degrees in the chemical sciences were similar in Germany, the United
Kingdom, and the United States. For Germany and the United Kingdom, women's
representations on the faculty were also similar. He noted that comparable U.S. data were
unavailable. In the United Kingdom, Lichter reported that female graduate students were less
likely than their male colleagues to indicate plans to pursue a career in the chemical sciences.
Following the above presentation, Joanne Cohoon, associate professor at the Department
of Science, Technology, and Society at the University of Virginia, discussed the status of women
in computer science, focusing primarily on the baccalaureate degree. She addressed the
participation of women in computer science compared with their overall participation in higher
education in a variety of countries. Her examination of women's participation in the computing
workforces showed recent decline in India, Spain, and the United States. She concluded that
women's participation in computer science may be linked to cultural stereotypes about gender.
The final presentation by Keith Crank, the research and graduate education manager at
the American Statistical Association, and Ingrid Daubechies, professor at Duke University and
president of the International Mathematical Union, concentrated on women in graduate education
and the workforce in mathematics and statistics. Crank noted that European women earned
roughly half of the graduate degrees compared with approximately 40 percent of women in the
United States. He found gender differences in subdisciplines, females being more likely than
males to be in statistics. In terms of the academic workforce, Crank reported that women were
better represented on the faculties of master- and bachelor-level institutions. Daubechies spoke
further on the challenges of motivating women to join the mathematics and statistics fields and
suggested methods of debunking the myths associated with those disciplines.
15
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3.1 Chemical Sciences1
Robert Lichter
Merrimack Consultants, LLC
Lichter first thanked his colleagues for their contributions, including Willie Pearson, Jr.,
Janet Bryant, Lisa J. Borello, and other individuals who were not present but who had
contributed to the presentation.
Lichter began his presentation with a motivating argument as to why women in the
chemical sciences warranted focused attention. The progress of women in the field lags behind
men worldwide with respect to pay, promotion, and advancement to positions of leadership--a
critical driver of change. The chemical sciences are often embedded in other disciplines and
work settings, and are a key component of a country's ability to maintain global competitiveness.
In spite of the highly competitive nature of the field, significant fractions of the population
should not be excluded as a potential workforce. Thus, recruitment, retention, and advancement
of women in the chemical sciences are critical to all nations.
Robust and reliable data exist for participation of women in chemical sciences in a
variety of countries, which are essential for understanding the slow progress of women in the
chemical sciences via cross-national and cross-cultural comparisons. Such data are especially
critical for creating policies that can advance women in the chemical sciences and, ultimately, to
positions of leadership.
Lichter presented data on the percentage of degrees earned by women at the
undergraduate and doctoral levels in Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
These data showed no significant differences among the three countries: women earned 40-50
percent of the undergraduate degrees and approximately 40 percent of the doctoral degrees.
However, looking at women faculty, the percentages dropped to 11 and 12 percent for Germany
and the United Kingdom, respectively.
Lichter offered survey data on the career plans of 650 female and male doctoral students
in their first and third years of graduate studies (Table 3-1). The results showed that male
students' career aspirations were reinforced as they progressed through their studies, so that the
percentage of men planning to pursue a career in chemistry increased from 73 to 86 percent
between their first and third years, while a substantial drop occurred among women planning
careers in chemical sciences, from 85 to 79 percent.
When comparing planned careers in academia or research careers in the chemical
sciences, both men and women showed decreased interest in these career paths between their
first and third years. The largest drop, from 72 to 37 percent, was observed for women planning
research careers, while the drop for men was only 61 to 59 percent.
1
See Appendix E-5 for the full paper.
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FOCAL DISCIPLINES 17
TABLE 3-1. Career Choices of Men and Women in the U.K. Chemical Sciences Graduate
Programs (in percentage)
Men Women
1st Year 3rd Year 1st Year 3rd Year
Planning career in chemistry 73 86 85 79
Planning research in chemistry 61 59 72 37
Planning academic career 44 36 51 33
SOURCE: Royal Society of Chemistry. 2008. Change of Heart: Career Intentions and the Chemistry Ph.D. London,
U.K.: Royal Society of Chemistry.
To understand these trends qualitatively, Lichter quoted a U.K. female graduate student
about her sense of isolation and concern about a lack of appreciation in the field. He indicated
that these themes are common in the United States as well. The fundamental issue is one of
perceptions about possible career choices which are embedded within an environment that is
often not seen as welcoming to women.
Finally, Lichter highlighted the lack of
disaggregated international data. In many instances, The largest drop, from 72 to 37
chemistry is not explicitly considered its own field but percent, was observed for
included more generally with other physical sciences, women planning research
possibly due to varying definitions of chemistry across careers (in chemistry), while
sectors and countries. Frequently data are unavailable, the drop for men was only 61 to
particularly from nonacademic sectors, especially industry. 59 percent.
Also, data on program outcomes are sparse; in Germany,
for example, there are many industrial sector programs Robert Lichter
between employers and unions that are intended to promote women in chemistry. At the time of
the workshop, Lichter and his colleagues had been unable to obtain information on outcomes of
these initiatives, which prompted Lichter and his coauthors to expand their data collection efforts
to other countries, examining cross-national similarities and differences within chemical sciences
compared to other disciplines.
3.2 Computer Science2
Joanne Cohoon
University of Virginia
Cohoon presented data on entry-level degrees (bachelor's degrees) and workforce trends
in a few selected countries to address the question: How similar or different is women's
representation in computer science from one country or culture to another? Cohoon presented
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development data from 33 countries on the
percentage of women who earned bachelor's level degrees in computer science in 2008, as
shown in Figure 3-1. Women were underrepresented in computer science at the bachelor's level
in 33 countries, although the data showed tremendous variation among countries. Slovenia
2
See Appendix E-6 for the full paper.
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exhibited the lowest relative representation of women at approximately 7 percent, and Greece
reported comparatively high representation of women at approximately 40 percent.
Cohoon argued that an analysis of the percentage of women in computer science should
take into account the variation across countries in women's overall participation in higher
education. She normalized the data by calculating the mean and standard deviation for women's
representation in all disciplines in a country; then she compared these calculations with women's
representation in computer science (Figure 3-2). The result showed how the representation of
women in computer science varied from their representation in all higher education disciplines in
each country. In every case, women's participation in computer science lagged behind their
participation in higher education, although high variations among countries existed. For
example, women's representation in computer science in Turkey (24 percent) varied little from
their overall presence in higher education, while in Estonia their 26 percent share of the
computer science degrees was notably below all higher education disciplines in the country.
Percent Women Among First-Tertiary
Degrees in Computer Science, 2008
FIGURE 3-1. Women's Representation in Computing Varies across Countries
SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development Education Database. "Computer Science:
Cross-National View of Entry Degree and IT Workforce in Selected Countries," presented by Joanne Cohoon at the
Blueprint for the Future: Framing the Issues of Women in Science in a Global Context Workshop.
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FOCAL DISCIPLINES 19
# S tudents
Slovenia 3605
Switzerland 4511
Belgium 5054
Netherlands 7998
Iceland 3507
Chile 4168
Slovak Republic 4829
Czech Republic 5584
Norway 4679
Germany 18208
France 16770
Italy 7290
3449
Austria
5470
Portugal
7270
Poland
19757
Canada
8474
Brazil
18226
United Kingdom
23408
Spain
10823
United States 51043
Australia 16762
Hungary 5895
Korea 12406
New Zealand 4846
Denmark 4407
Turkey 5646
Israel 4403
Estonia 3780
Sweden 4480
Finland 4693
Mexico 20912
Greece 4123
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
S tandard Deviation
FIGURE 3-2. Women's Share of Tertiary Computing Degrees as Deviation Below Mean
Discipline, 2006-2007
SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development Education Database. "Computer Science:
Cross-National View of Entry Degree and IT Workforce in Selected Countries," presented by Joanne Cohoon at the
Blueprint for the Future: Framing the Issues of Women in Science in a Global Context Workshop.
Turning to the workplace, Cohoon described the participation of women in the computing
workforce in Brazil, India, Spain, and the United States. In 2009, women comprised
approximately 57 percent of the total U.S. workforce but only 30 to 35 percent of the U.S.
computing workforce. In addition, the overall percentage of women in U.S. computing
occupations declined between 2000 and 2009.
Similar decreases were observed in Spain. Figure 3-3 illustrates women's representation
in occupations that required a bachelor's level degree (but not necessarily in computing).
Overall, women's representation in computing professions declined from 24 percent to 20
percent between 2000 and 2009. Interestingly, this was at a time when women comprised 65
percent of the entire labor force in Spain. Cohoon noted that women's entry into the labor force
in Spain is a relatively recent change; in 2000, women were significantly less well represented.
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30.0
Computing professionals
25.0 (213)
20.0 Computing associate
professionals (312)
15.0
Optical and electronic
10.0 equipment operators
(313)
5.0 Electrical and electronic
equipment mechanics and
fitters (724)
0.0
2002 2009
FIGURE 3-3. Women's Share of Spanish Computing Profession, 2002 and 2009
NOTE: Numbers in parentheses stand for International Standard Classification of Occupation Category Code.
SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development data in "Computer Science: Cross-National
View of Entry Degree and IT Workforce in Selected Countries," presented by Joanne Cohoon at the Blueprint for
the Future: Framing the Issues of Women in Science in a Global Context Workshop.
Similar data for Brazil in 2006 indicated that women comprised 20 percent of the
computing workforce compared with their overall workforce participation of 42 percent--and 43
percent at the executive position level. In India, data based on a survey of 45 companies
revealed that in 2008, women held 36 percent of technical positions in computing professions
(although Cohoon noted that some debate exists in the reporting of that number). The number
constitutes 3.6 percent of the total female Indian workforce employed in professional- and
technical-related positions, similar to the 3.9 percent of the Indian male workforce employed in
the same field.
Cohoon concluded her presentation by hypothesizing that the representation of women in
computer science may be linked to variations in cultural stereotypes about gender. She posed
some questions for additional research: What does it mean to be masculine or feminine in a
culture? What stereotypes are there about an occupation and how closely is it aligned with
characteristics that are masculine or feminine? In cultures with more essentialist beliefs about
men and women (that is, women are close to nature and men are analytical and unemotional),
those cultural stereotypes are more likely to align technical and computing occupations to
masculine characteristics, leading to an underrepresentation of women. Attention should be paid
to how social structures in a country may either facilitate or inhibit those stereotypes.
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FOCAL DISCIPLINES 21
3.3 Mathematics and Statistics
Keith Crank
American Statistical Association, and
Ingrid Daubechies
Duke University and International Mathematical Union
Crank focused his presentation on graduate
degrees, because many jobs in mathematics and In Europe, the percentage of
statistics require at least a master's degree. He female graduate degree recipients
presented U.S. and Eurostat data comparing all in mathematics and statistics is
(European Union) EU-15 nations, EU-27 nations, and higher than the percentage
3
the United States. In 2005-2008, approximately 50 enrolled, while the opposite is the
percent of the graduate degrees in Europe were case in the United States.
awarded to women compared with about 40 percent in
the United States. Keith Crank
Similar rates were found in female graduate student participation in the EU-15, the EU-
27, and the United States. In 2008, a large number of U.S. students pursued graduate degrees in
mathematics and statistics, with women accounting for 40 percent of these graduate students.
But U.S. women dropped out of mathematics graduate school programs at a higher rate than
men. Figure 3-4 shows the percentage of women among overall graduate degree recipients in all
fields and among students enrolled in graduate programs in mathematics and statistics in the
United States compared with the EU-27. In the EU-27, the percentage of female degree
recipients is consistently higher than that of women enrolled in mathematics and statistics.
Except for 2008, the opposite is the case for the United States. What is Europe doing differently
that allows more female students to graduate? Crank hypothesized that this variance may be due
to different distributions of women in subdisciplines of mathematics and statistics in Europe as
compared to the United States.
3
The specific subset of European Union countries constituting the EU-15 are Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland,
France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, The Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, and the United
Kingdom. The EU-27 include those countries listed in the EU-15 as well as Bulgaria, Cyprus, the Czech Republic,
Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, and Slovenia.
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55
50
Female Percent
Euro27 Degrees
45
Euro 27 Student Enrollment
US Degrees
40
US Student Enrollment
35
2005 2006 2007 2008
Year
FIGURE 3-4. Comparison of Percentages of Females in Total Student Enrollment with Females
in Total Students Who Earned Degrees, 2005-2008
SOURCE: European Commission. Eurostat, 2005-2008.
Crank also presented data from the American Mathematical Society (AMS) on the
number of male and female Ph.D. students who earned their degrees in the various subdisciplines
of mathematics and statistics, arranged in six groups (Figure 3-5). Males represented the
majority in all subdisciplines although nearly half of the degrees in statistics and biostatistics
(Group IV) were awarded to women. He speculated that this finding may explain the higher
percentage of females awarded graduate degrees in mathematics in Europe, where EU-27
countries as a whole might produce a higher percentage of statistics degrees than the United
States.
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FOCAL DISCIPLINES 23
Female Male
400
350
Number of 300
Doctoral 250
Degrees
Granted 200
150
100
50
0
Group Group Group Group Group Group
I (Pu) I (Pr) II III IV Va
FIGURE 3-5. Gender of Mathematics and Statistics U.S. Doctoral Recipients by Subdiscipline
NOTE: Group I includes 48 doctoral programs in mathematics with quality scores in the 3.00-5.00 range, as
determined by the 1995 National Research Council ratings (Pu Public, Pr Private).4 Group II is composed of 56
mathematics programs with scores in the 2.00-2.99 range. Group III contains the remaining U.S. departments
reporting a mathematics doctoral program. Group IV contains doctoral programs in statistics, biostatistics, and
biometrics. Group V contains doctoral programs in applied mathematics and applied science.
SOURCE: Cleary, R., J. W. Maxwell, and C. Rose. 2011. Preliminary Report on the 2009-2010 New Doctoral
Recipients. Notices Am. Math. Soc. 58 (Feb. 2011):294. Reprinted with permission of the American Mathematical
Society.
Finally, Crank described the participation of women as faculty members in mathematics
and applied mathematics (Groups I, II, III, and V above). Table 3-2 shows the percentage of
full-time tenured and tenure-track female faculty in these fields. At all degree levels, women's
representation has improved slightly since 2002.
4
National Research Council. 1995. Research-Doctorate Programs in the United States: Continuity and Change.
Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press.
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TABLE 3-2. Number and Percent of Full-time Tenured and Tenure-track Female Faculty in
Mathematics and Applied Mathematics by Level of Highest Degree, 2002-2009
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Doctoral programs
Number 5616 5559 5604 5686 5668 5709 5666 5834
Percent 10 10 11 11 12 12 13 13
Master's only programs
Number 3188 3005 3113 3351 3400 3325 3403 3208
Percent 22 22 23 24 25 25 26 27
NOTE: Doctoral programs include those in Groups I, II, III, and V (see note in Figure 4-5). Master's only programs
consist of U.S. programs granting a master's degree as the highest graduate degree. Bachelor's only programs
include all U.S. programs granting a baccalaureate degree only.
SOURCE: Cleary, R., J. W. Maxwell, and C. Rose. 2011. Annual Survey of the Mathematical Sciences in the U.S.
(Third Report). Notices Am. Math. Soc. 57 (Nov. 2010):1309. Reprinted with permission of the American
Mathematical Society.
Crank then turned the presentation over to Daubechies, who discussed the International
Mathematical Union's concerns with mathematics education at all levels and its interest in
recruiting young people, particularly women, to the field at an earlier age. Daubechies was the
director of a program for women in mathematics at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton
University, which has a number of initiatives intended to improve the situation for women in the
field. She noted that the other speakers addressed the need to gather data and offered some
theories for the slow progress of women in science. One does not need to understand the
phenomenon to make change.
While other fields in the sciences have experienced increased representation of women,
Daubechies said, the situation for women in mathematics has not changed much over the years.
The "leaking pipeline" problem is compounded in Europe (except Germany) by the inability to
attract young people in general. She attributed Germany's success to its outreach efforts,
including the sponsorship of an international congress of mathematics, where outreach helped
increase the numbers of both women and men in mathematics. She added that emphasizing
mathematics as more of an interesting human endeavor seemed to attract more women and
young people to the field.
Daubechies asserted that women are frequently told that a scientific career is challenging
but rewarding. But young women want to know more about women's careers in mathematics
and statistics: Is the work environment enjoyable? Can they make difference in the world? Can
they earn a good income? A broader approach in designing activities to engage young women in
mathematics is needed. Daubechies concluded by mentioning different global activities, such as
a math Olympiad in Europe, intended to increase the interest in mathematics among girls, and
efforts by other European nations to conduct studies on the gender gap in the sciences.
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FOCAL DISCIPLINES 25
3.4 Panel Discussion
Bradley Miller, director, Office of International Activities at the American Chemical
Society (ACS), began his presentation by describing several occasions at ACS meetings where
he found a "borderless" character to the conduct of research, education, and the practice of
chemistry and chemical engineering. He pointed out that young chemical scientists regularly
traverse geographic boundaries and that increasingly the country of citizenship, birth, and
residence are easily confounded. The ACS International Experiences for Undergraduates, for
example, takes students from the United States for a 10-week experience in Europe. Since the
program started in 2007, there has been an increase in the number of participants, especially
among women (from 40 percent in 2007 to 70 percent in 2011).
Given this increased mobility and increased women's participation in international
research experiences or study abroad programs, Miller posed a number of questions: What is the
role of the international experience or study abroad programs? How do they accelerate or hinder
productivity and the professional development of women? The ACS program suggests
interesting horizontal issues, where students are finding ways to move across borders worldwide
and forgo the traditional nation-based training. The question becomes, What is the impact of
such training?
Miller then commented on the points raised by Lichter and Daubechies concerning the
measurement of impact. Although there are traditional ways to measure scientific productivity,
such as manuscripts, citations, patents, and research funding, there are other creative ways to
identify impact and success. He recommended measures of mentoring participation, awards and
recognition, and leadership in professional associations. There are nontraditional measures of
how success in the sciences should be noted.
Allan Fisher, vice president at Laureate Education, Inc., focused on two threads. The
first addressed Cohoon's presentation, which suggested a link between gender and cultural
impacts on society. Another set of factors in that equation is the dictum: "Follow the money."
This is related to Anneke Sengers' observation about women having choices in economically
privileged environments. In computer science, for example, although women in the United
States are underrepresented, a disproportionate number of women in the field are from
developing countries studying abroad. Fisher's research revealed that many women from
developing countries perceived fewer options than the women who began and finished their
studies in the United States.
The second theme Fisher addressed stemmed from something he initially learned from
Mary Frank Fox's research: there is a strong correlation between the economic status of a
profession and its gender balance. Across nations in Latin America, for example, there is a
correlation between the economic development status of the nation and the status of females in
some of professions. Fisher also suggested that the perception of quality of life is potentially
coupled with the issue of economic choice. This idea presents challenges to institutions, whether
universities or corporations or the profession itself: What does the career offer to all the
perspective joiners and persisters? Fisher argued that when employers anguish over the shortage
of supply of workers, they may find that the shortage is often related to quality of life, worklife
balance, attractiveness, or difficulty earning tenure in that profession. He concluded that as
much attention should be paid to the supply side as to the demand side of the problem.
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3.5 Question and Answer Comments
Discussion Following Lichter Remarks
An audience participant referenced the survey data of women and men doctoral students
in the United Kingdom and the drop in female students who were interested in pursuing careers
in chemistry (Table 3-1), asking how much of the decline reflects a lack of role models. Lichter
clarified that the data were extracted from a single survey from a larger report, which indicated
that respondents reported a lack of feedback from advisors. Also, the structure of doctoral study
may have contributed to a sense of isolation. In Britain, unlike the United States, students work
independently and often are not part of a research group, so they may not have a sense of
community. The women perceive that no one is there for them.
Anneke Sengers from the InterAmerican Network of Academies of Sciences suggested
that the worklife balance is a great luxury for women in developed countries. She clarified that
women in developed countries now have choices. Perhaps such a woman can work half-time or
has a husband to support her. Women in developing countries generally work all day and as long
as they have light, whether or not they have kids. If they do have children, they tie them to their
backs so that they can be out in the fields. They do not have a choice. She asked, "Is it an
abundance of choice that is doing our women scientists in?"
Lichter agreed that the issue of worklife balance relates to the issue of choice versus
environment and culture. He added that this issue of competing demands has been, to some
extent, addressed by fellowship programs for students and young faculty that allow them to be
paid while dealing with personal obligations.
Discussion Following Cohoon Remarks
Rebecca Taylor, senior adviser in innovation and entrepreneurship, Office of the Science
and Technology Adviser to the Secretary in the U.S. Department of State, asked for clarification
on the U.S. data. Cohoon responded that she provided the total number of students who earned
bachelor's degrees in the United States; the numbers have fluctuated over the years. Taylor
suggested that it would be interesting to track graduates at their first job and then 5 and 10 years
later, which might provide insights into how career choices are made vis-à-vis the total number
of men and women working in the field. Cohoon responded that tracking cohorts is very
difficult to implement because of limited data; few studies examine the production of Ph.D.s and
transitions to academic careers. She is interested in following degree trends at both the
undergraduate and graduate levels. She pointed out that in the United States, women's
participation at the Ph.D. level has increased, while it has decreased at the bachelor's level. She
concluded that it may be much less a pipeline issue and more an issue of changing cultural
beliefs over times.
Lisa M. Frehill from the National Academies pointed out the existence of data sets that
track individuals after they graduate from college. For example, the National Science
Foundation's (NSF) Scientists and Engineers Statistical Analysis System (SESTAT) provides
cross-sectional data for U.S. scientists and engineers. The NSF's Survey of Doctorate Recipients
is a longitudinal component of SESTAT and provides data over time about scientists and
engineers who hold doctoral degrees from U.S. colleges and universities. The National Center
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FOCAL DISCIPLINES 27
for Education Statistics' survey program, "Bachelor's and Beyond," is a longitudinal study with
data on U.S. college graduates from all fields.
Discussion Following Crank Remarks
Catherine Didion from the National Academies asked whether professional associations
and researchers count or define the presented disciplines differently across countries. Crank
responded that the AMS probably counts differently than other countries, which can affect cross-
national data analysis. He added that the statistics profession in the United States has been
working hard and long to convince the public that they are not mathematicians. Crank explained
that, in the United Kingdom, statistics is usually within a department of mathematics but that
students in these countries go on to become research statisticians of some prominence.
Discussion Following Panel Discussion
Zakya Kafafi of NSF commented on the metrics cited during Daubechies' presentation,
in which she showed data from the Association for Women in Mathematics. Although the
Institute for Advanced Study started in 1994, the data shown were only from 2000 and 2006;
Kafafi added it would be interesting to follow the careers of women to best monitor their
progress. Daubechies agreed and said the challenge is to prove that the Institute made a
difference. She said that she needed comparative data that included career outcomes of those
who completed and did not complete the Institute program. Kafafi suggested that progress alone
would be good indicator. Frehill added that Daubechies should use the longitudinal data in the
Survey of Doctorate Recipients from NSF.
Kaye Husbands Fealing, from the Committee on National Statistics at the National
Academies, pointed out that there is some literature that follows cohorts over time, which could
provide an appropriate model. She suggested that it is useful to think about what is coming
down the road in terms of the demand for new areas of exploration in the sciences and then think
about what should be the share of women in these areas. She observed that the previous
presentations did not mention wage and salary. Fealing said that she is interested in examining
critical degree-level transitions (B.S. to M.S. to Ph.D.), especially focusing on the ebbs and flows
of percentages of women and men. This issue raises questions about the experimental side, the
nominal impact of wage and salary, and how that affects women's participation.
Lichter thanked Miller for raising the issue of evaluation. He explained that the
measurement of impact is an undercurrent of the chemical sciences research team's work. He
argued that there is a tendency to confuse outputs with outcomes and called for more research on
outcomes and impact.
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