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5
Knowledge to Action
I
history of IPY/IGY and a critical factor in shaping the
PY 2007-2008 occurred during a period of change
IPY agenda toward more “applied” (knowledge-to-
in the U.S. research enterprise, as evidenced by an
action) outcomes. Another reason for the focus on polar
increase in and funding for two-way connections
communities was the extent of recent environmental
between knowledge and action—knowledge informing
change in the polar regions—they are experiencing
action, and action influencing the pursuit of knowledge.
climate forcing, climate effects, and climate change
Thus scientists have been integrated as advisors in
response more significantly than elsewhere. These
policymaking processes, and policymakers, local agen-
changes, many of which exceed the range of historical
cies and communities, and other stakeholders have
measurements, have underscored the very present reality
been included in the initial design of problem-oriented
of climate change and driven home the need for adapta-
research.
tion planning and mitigation of environmental impacts.
One factor fostering connections between knowl-
In recognition of the rapid changes in the Arctic
edge and action was the 2002 National Science Foun-
environment, residents, state and federal land manag-
dation (NSF) requirement that all proposals address the
ers, and industry representatives have called on the
“ broader impacts criterion” (Box 5.1).
scientific community to help inform decisions about
In keeping with this new imperative, the IPY
adapting to a rapidly changing environment.1 Infra-
V ision Report (NRC, 2004) called for “improv[ing]
structure planners in coastal communities, for example,
predictions” and improving understanding of social
need reliable projections of polar influences such as the
processes, in particular those “that shape the resilience
impacts of glacier and ice sheet mass loss on sea level
and sustainability of circumpolar human societies.” In
rise and of the warming Arctic on continental winter
addition, the IPY Joint Committee ( JC) and Inter-
weather patterns.
national Programme Office (IPO) required that all
The Arctic receives greater attention because of
JC-endorsed international projects describe plans “for
the significance of its changes for the people who live
addressing the education, outreach, and communica-
and work in the region, and the pace of change in
tion issues outlined in the Framework document”
most of Antarctica differs in important respects from
(Rapley and Bell, 2004). As noted in that Framework
that in the Arctic. But in both cases endeavors that
d ocument, “IPY 2007-2008 aims to inform both
entail multiple-decade planning must factor in the
governmental and scientific decision-makers, includ-
challenges of a changing baseline, and changes in both
ing funding and resource managers, on the roles and
places can have important impacts on the entire globe.
importance of polar regions.”
The inclusion of social and human sciences in the
IPY program and its increased focus on polar residents, 1 See, for example, http://ine.uaf.edu/accap/research/cross_region_
including indigenous peoples, was a first in the 125-year dialogue.htm; ACCAP (2010); and Lovecraft and Eicken (2011).
89
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90 LESSONS AND LEGACIES OF INTERNATIONAL POLAR YEAR 2007-2008
mitigation policy. The interest in connecting knowl-
BOX 5.1 edge with action emerged as a logical extension of
NSF Broader Impacts Criterion research projects or in response to information needs
associated with expanding human activities, particu-
In every proposal seeking research funding from NSF, the
larly in the Arctic.
principal investigator must spell out the research questions,
The applications and observations described below
intended methods, and proposed budget for the project. Start-
are presented as examples and are not a comprehensive
ing in 2002, researchers were challenged to think more broadly
review of the portfolio of IPY knowledge-to-action
about the societal impacts of their proposed activity, guided by
activities.
the following questions:
• How well does the activity advance discovery and un-
KNOWLEDGE-TO-ACTION EXAMPLES
derstanding while promoting teaching, training, and learning?
• How well does the proposed activity broaden the par-
IPY gave impetus for increased interaction and
ticipation of underrepresented groups (e.g., based on gender,
discussions between scientists and practitioners, includ-
ethnicity, disability, geography)?
ing community planning groups, as the practitioners
• To what extent will it enhance the infrastructure for
research and education, such as facilities, instrumentation, net- sought relevant, science-based information as a basis
works, and partnerships?
for their planning. Because of the larger environmental
• Will the results be disseminated broadly to enhance
changes and greater populations in the North, most of
scientific and technological understanding?
the applications noted below are from the Arctic region.
• What may be the benefits of the proposed activity to
society?
Predictions, Projections, Forecasts, and Scenarios
SOURCE: NSF, 2007.
IPY had a strong focus on observations and mod-
eling to improve predictive capability, in part due to
Recent and ongoing studies of the stability of the West
the need to understand and project the forcing and
Antarctic ice sheet and grounding line (e.g., Jenkins et
implications of cryospheric changes. The foundation
al., 2010; Velicogna, 2009)—otherwise highlighted in
for this focus was laid years earlier under the scientific-
Chapter 3—show that large changes to global sea level
community-inspired “Study of Environmental Arctic
rise are possible in response to global warming. Infor-
Change” (SEARCH).2 SEARCH eventually became
mation about polar changes is thus relevant to decisions
in interagency initiative with an international legacy
that affect the lives of millions of nonpolar residents.
through the International Study of Arctic Change
IPY addressed the growing concerns about polar
(ISAC), which was established in 2003. The SEARCH
changes by organizing public and educational forums,
tripartite charge “Observing Change, Understanding
and IPY outreach efforts led policymakers to turn
Change, and Responding to Change” is explicit about
to polar scientists to help inform decisions. In turn,
informing action.
through their experience preparing presentations for
The record sea ice minimum in 2007, the first year
and answering questions from general audiences, many
of IPY, stimulated concerted efforts to understand its
polar scientists learned about the concerns of the public,
cause, project plausible future trajectories, and consider
educators, and stakeholders, and in some cases adapted
systemwide implications. Cooperative oceanographic
their research based on this new knowledge. The result
cruises and remote sensing imagery provided by many
was an increase during IPY in basic research that con-
nations in concert with sophisticated modeling stud-
sidered possible applications and stakeholder guidance
ies provided a comprehensive picture of its shrinking
(e.g., Stokes, 1997).
extent and thickness.
The committee notes that “action” was not defined
With the rate of change in the Arctic outpacing
as a major goal by the IPY Planning Group (2003-
traditional modes of scientific communication, the
2004), the JC, or the National Research Council spe-
cifically. For example, the 2004 NRC Vision Report
does not refer to the creation of adaptation plans or 2 www.arcus.org/search/sciencecoordination/development.php.
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91
KNOWLEDGE TO ACTION
international sea ice research community has also made IPY-related predictive modeling has and will con-
progress in exploring innovative approaches of synthe- tinue to play a role in helping companies, individuals,
sizing observations of the ice cover and model simula- and governments assess various risks associated with
tions to track and project the evolution of the ice cover changing ice conditions, sea level rise, permafrost
on the seasonal scale. Advances were made in the area degradation, and other effects of polar warming. Such
of seasonal predictions of sea ice conditions, particularly assessments help inform a wide variety of decisions
through the use of ensemble approaches with coupled involving siting and insurance of property and infra-
ice-ocean models (e.g., Zhang et al., 2008). The rec- structure, community planning and zoning, construc-
ognized importance of improved seasonal predictions tion of ice roads, emergency preparedness and disaster
led to development of the Sea Ice Outlook3 in 2008 by response, and long-term planning for moving military,
the SEARCH community. It has brought together a industrial, and public infrastructure (and in some cases
diverse international group of leaders in the field of sea whole villages) to higher ground. See Box 5.3. Overall,
ice modeling and forecasting to share and discuss yearly the ability of ecosystems and human communities to
predictions of the summer sea ice minimum beginning adapt to the rapid changes under way at both poles
in early summer each year. The Sea Ice Outlook is related to global warming depends in large measure on
widely viewed as one of IPY’s key legacies (Calder et how “healthy” those human and natural communities
al., 2011; Box 5.2). are at the outset. In natural ecosystems, resilience and
Just as sea ice loss resulted in mobilizations of adaptive capacity are related to species and trophic
the sea ice science community, melting glaciers also diversity. For human communities, resilience appears
mobilized the glacier science community to understand strongly related to the strength of human social net-
processes and make better projections of future sea level works and institutions.
rise. One of the most significant outcomes of IPY ice
sheet research is the multisensory documentation of Information for Subsistence
a net loss of ice from both the Greenland ice sheet Communities in the Arctic
and Antarctica with a corresponding increase in sea
In part, groundwork for two-way communication
level. Investigators have tracked the melt areas on the
was laid through the process of preparing the Arctic
Greenland ice sheet through a distinct melt signature
Climate Impact Assessment (ACIA, 2005). Led by
in the passive microwave satellite data (SMMR and
the United States, this report detailed the myriad and
SSM/I), showing a significant increase in the melt of
wide-ranging impacts of climate change and gave
the ice sheet over the last 29 years with 2007 having
governments of many nations justification to initiate
the highest melt extent on record. This increase in melt
programs to detect and document a changing climate.
is important directly to shrinkage of the Greenland ice
The voices of polar residents recorded prior to and dur-
sheet and sea level rise but also contributes indirectly
ing IPY expressed the message of urgency and the call
by providing more melt water to lubricate the interface
for action. Several IPY studies undertaken in human
between the ice and bedrock on which it rests, causing
health, community vulnerability, food security, and
the ice to flow faster toward the sea. The increase in gla-
local observations of change, were intrinsically aimed
cial melt has clear and very significant implications for
at practical applications to be shared with polar com-
a variety of social, economic, and ecological manage-
munities, local agencies, and grassroots organizations.
ment considerations. Sea level rise projections for this
IPY promoted the practice of returning usable data
century are now 0.62 to 1.8 m (NRC, 2010a). This is
to communities to encourage and solidify the involve-
a significant increase over the IPCC (2007b) estimates
ment of local people in research, long-term environ-
of 0.18 to 0.59 m, which did not include dynamic
mental monitoring, and heritage preservation. Specific
aspect of glaciers. Extensive civil actions are required
examples include:
to prepare for this reshaping of the world’s coastlines.
• New data sets were created by indigenous IPY
participants and managed by a special IPY project,
ELOKA (Exchange of Local Knowledge in the Arctic);
www.arcus.org/search/seaiceoutlook/index.php.
3
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92 LESSONS AND LEGACIES OF INTERNATIONAL POLAR YEAR 2007-2008
BOX 5.2
The Sea Ice Outlook
The Sea Ice Outlook— begun during IPY—is an international ef- to plan, prioritize, and map out activities and requisite infrastructure in
fort to provide annual Arctic sea ice forecasts. This effort has continued newly opened waters. The United States and other governments rely on
beyond the period of IPY and has promoted advances in sea ice predic- sea ice predictions (Figure) to evaluate future needs for services (e.g.,
tion, integration, and coordination of ground-based observations, as well port facilities, search and rescue capability, oil spill response facilities),
as provided a more complete picture of the predictability of the Arctic ice regulation (e.g., discharge controls, requirements for ice-capable ships,
cover on different scales. The outlook has been able to draw in different limits on fishing), and information (e.g., new mapping and charting, com-
stakeholder communities, including Arctic residents, federal agencies, munications capability, research priorities, etc.). According to a survey of
nongovernmental organizations, and industry. It has thus fostered a Sea Ice Outlook users.a it provides a bigger picture for looking at the data,
community of practice that can take the next steps in operationalizing planning for shoreline changes, projecting impacts on marine mammals,
different ice prediction approaches. Sea ice predictions are necessary and understanding where the uncertainties lie in the forecasts.
Predictions of the annual minimum arctic sea ice areal extent, compiled from numerous sources, are provided monthly (June
through October) as a forum to facilitate communication among sea ice researchers and provide information to stakeholders,
including Arctic residents, federal agencies, nongovernmental organizations, and industry. SOURCE: Study of Environmental
Arctic Change/Arctic Research Consortium of the United States.
a www.arcus.org/search/seaiceoutlook/survey.
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93
KNOWLEDGE TO ACTION
permafrost, and other changes faced by subsistence
BOX 5.3 communities around the Arctic. For example, a valu-
Climate Change Adaptation able product of the IPY period was an international
assessment of Arctic coastal erosion (IASC, 2011).
Climate change is already having measureable effects on
This collaborative research advanced the understanding
the polar regions. Whether beneficial or detrimental, those ef-
of the processes responsible for the recent increase in
fects will require ecosystems and human communities to adapt
erosion rates throughout the circumpolar Arctic, but
to the changes. Global climate models are advancing our ability
more importantly, it provided scientific insight needed
to understand what changes are coming and beginning to help
to evaluate areas of stability and areas of vulnerability.
inform decision about how to adapt to potential impacts. Important
examples are the models included in the Intergovernmental Panel Throughout the Arctic, many small villages and towns
on Climate Change (IPCC) assessment process. IPY came at an
are located adjacent to the coast or on rivers. With
important time when the IPCC models were being developed in
accelerated permafrost thawing, loss of sea ice armor,
preparation for the Fifth Assessment Report (AR5). IPY produced
and increase in summer storms, many coastal commu-
a wealth of information that will be featured prominently in several
nities now face imminent threat of erosion and pos-
chapters of AR5 (in preparation), in particular in a chapter on
sible destruction. In Alaska, the villages of Shishmaref,
“Polar Regions” in the volume on Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulner-
ability (Working Group II). Other modeling work has shown the Kivalina, and Newtok have already begun relocation
influence of climate forcings at various latitudes, emphasizing that
plans. Since 2003, federal, state, and village officials
forcings at the midlatitudes in the Northern Hemisphere strongly
have identified 31 villages that face imminent threats
influence Arctic temperatures (Shindell et al., 2010).
from flooding and erosion. The U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers has identified over 160 additional rural com-
munities threatened by erosion (GAO, 2009).
• A new Web-based monitoring and data-sharing
The Arctic Human Health Initiative (AHHI) was
network in the Bering Strait region, Sea Ice for Walrus
the U.S.-led IPY coordinating project introduced via
Outlook SIWO4 (Eicken et al., 2011), was developed
the Arctic Council with the overall goal to increase
by ice scientists in partnership with the Eskimo Wal-
awareness and visibility of human health concerns
rus Commission and several local village monitors;
of Arctic peoples, foster human health research, and
SIWO uses high-resolution satellite images, analysis of
promote health strategies to improve health and well-
weather and ice patterns, and observations from local
being of Arctic residents. It was a broad circumpolar
scientists and indigenous experts to provide forecasts
effort with multinational participation that included
for the spring ice breakup and the walrus migration
almost 30 individual projects in several thematic fields:
in the northern Bering Sea region in a format that is
health network expansion, infectious disease research,
helpful to local users, as well as regional 10-day weather
e nvironmental health, and behavioral and mental
forecasts;
health (Parkinson, 2010). Among many U.S. contribu-
• A long-term study of ice trails built by indig-
tions, the Center for Alaska Native Health Research
enous whalers across spring shore-fast ice off Barrow
(CANHR) at the University of Alaska, Fairbanks used
and other Alaskan communities shared digital maps of
the IPY momentum to build a collaborative research
trails with the community (SIZONeT project); and
presence in Alaska Native communities, focusing on
• Various efforts to share computer and Web-
prevention and reduction of health disparities—par-
based maps and satellite imagery of subsistence sea ice
ticularly in the areas of behavioral, dietary, and genetic
use, hunters’ and herders’ traveling, local impact of oil
risks—and protective factors related to obesity, diabe-
and gas development, marine mammal distribution,
tes, and cardiovascular disease risk in Alaska Natives.
and other information were part of IPY.
All CANHR studies, particularly those related to
substance abuse and suicide prevention, the develop-
Risk assessments done during IPY have also played
ment of novel dietary biomarkers, contaminants, and
an important role in predicting coastal erosion, loss of
the safety of subsistence foods, employed community-
based participatory research approaches. Also, dur-
ing IPY, opportunities were created for cross-border
4 http://www.arcus.org/search/siwo.
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94 LESSONS AND LEGACIES OF INTERNATIONAL POLAR YEAR 2007-2008
Information for Shipping
partnerships to explore needs related to service delivery.
Together, the NSF and Alaska Federal Health Care
Decline of sea ice during the summer months will
Access Network (AFHCAN) facilitated cooperation in
create increased access to large and small ships from
telemedicine technology expertise between Alaska and
subarctic as well as Arctic nations; for example, the
the Sakha Republic and the Khanty-Mansiysk region
Arctic Ocean will become the shortest shipping route
in Russia. The goal of this partnership was to promote
between Hong Kong and New York. The Arctic marine
a mutually beneficial collaboration in telemedicine,
and terrestrial environments are fragile, and oil spills or
telehealth, mobile medicine, and distance learning in
other environmental disruptions will be more difficult
remote areas of Alaska and the Russian north.
and take longer to remediate than those in the lower
The IPY project entitled Arctic Change: An Inter-
latitudes. Sea ice loss projections related to IPY inform
disciplinary Dialog Between the Academy, Northern
many different decisions regarding shipping routes,
Peoples and Policy Makers led to several diverse
port siting, emergency response (see below), ship con-
workshops to capture talking points important for
struction, and others.
informing policymakers on issues of Arctic security and
The Arctic Marine Shipping Assessment (Arctic
climate change, Arctic health, Arctic Ocean shipping,
Council, 2009), prepared during IPY, concluded that
and human security in a changing Arctic. The Arctic
the most significant threat from ships to the Arctic
Institute for Applied Circumpolar Policy (IACP 5) was
marine environment is the release of oil through acci-
founded as an outgrowth of this framework. IACP is
dental or illegal discharge. That potential problem is
a joint effort of Dartmouth College, the University of
compounded by the lack in the Arctic of emergency
Alaska, and the University of the Arctic and brings
response capability for saving lives and mitigating
together representatives of governments, the academy,
pollution. This assessment spurred an agreement to
nongovernmental groups, and indigenous peoples to
negotiate a new mandatory Polar Shipping Code.
discuss Arctic and polar issues, identify and prioritize
In the Antarctic, growing awareness of polar eco-
the policy-related research requirements, and help
systems and biodiversity, along with burgeoning com-
develop the agendas for governments to address press-
mercial activities in the region, sparked new interest in
ing policy issues facing the northern and polar regions.
tighter controls on shipping and fishing vessel opera-
The inclusion of social and human-focused research
tions and upgrading emergency response capability in
in the IPY program is broadly viewed as one of its key
the region. Tourist and fishing vessels gravitate toward
features as well as major achievements. It transformed
areas of high diversity or productivity, and their activi-
into a massive flow of new knowledge that produced
ties can be inconsistent with maintaining both. This
tangible benefits to many stakeholders beyond partici-
was highlighted when the MV Explorer was sunk by
pating scientists. It included research efforts supported
ice in November 2007 (Figure 5.1). Since that time, the
by a broad spectrum of governmental agencies, such as
International Maritime Organization has extended the
NSF, the National Park Service (NPS), National Oce-
Polar Shipping Code to waters at both poles.
anic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services (HHS),
Information for Emergency Preparedness
and the Smithsonian Institution, as well as the Uni-
versity of Alaska, North Pacific Research Board, and
As shipping, energy development, tourism, and
other public and private players. The overall U.S. IPY
other human activities expand throughout the Arctic,
input in social and human fields was unprecedented in
awareness of the need for effective emergency planning
its scope and funding (more than $20M in the United
has grown. For example, increasing interest in the polar
States alone over 3 years) and resulted in the largest and
regions as tourist destinations reveals the risks inher-
the most diverse effort of its kind.
ent in traveling in remote and sometimes dangerous
locations. For example, when the tourist ship Explorer
capsized near the Antarctic Peninsula in 2007 (Fig-
ure 5.1, top), passengers had to rely on other nearby
5 http://iacp.dartmouth.edu/.
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95
KNOWLEDGE TO ACTION
FIGURE 5.1 Top: The tourist ship Explorer capsized near the Antarctic Peninsula in November 2007. SOURCE: Fuerza Aerea de Chile
via European Pressphoto Agency; Bottom: The Antarctic tourist ship Clelia II without power and making slow headway north of the
South Shetland Islands in rough seas during December 2010. SOURCE: Copyright Stewart/McIntosh
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96 LESSONS AND LEGACIES OF INTERNATIONAL POLAR YEAR 2007-2008
cruise ships. More recently, the tourist ship Clelia II lost
BOX 5.4
power and communications during particularly rough
Ocean Acidification
seas in the Drake Passage (Figure 5.1, bottom). Projec-
tions of sea ice changes during IPY have propelled and
The increase in seawater acidity (decrease in pH) due to
informed emergency preparedness and response mech-
the uptake of anthropogenic carbon dioxide has been termed
anismsnd will continue to do so. Effective emergency “ocean acidification.” Given the scenarios for pH changes in the
preparedness and response will have to draw on data Arctic Ocean and adjacent Arctic shelves seas, there will likely
from both research and operational observing systems be an increasing impact by ocean acidification, with potentially
developed during IPY, with high demands placed on negative implications for shelled benthic organisms as well as
those animals that rely on the shelf seafloor ecosystem with
data availability and spatiotemporal resolution during
consequent impacts to the fishing industry such as crab fishing.
an emergency. Hence, such information needs may turn
(Also see section in Chapter 2 on “Marine Carbon Cycling and
into a powerful driver outside of the research commu- Ocean Acidification”.)
nity towards collaborative, internationally coordinated
activities governed by open data/access practices as
promoted during IPY.
the United States’ newly adopted U.S. National Oceans
As part of the Arctic Marine Shipping Assessment,
Policy. Since the July 2010 Executive Order establishing
the Coast Guard, the U.S. Arctic Research Commis-
the Policy, the Administration has moved forward with a
sion, and the Coastal Response Research Center (a
number of initiatives to advance ecosystem-based man-
partnership between the University of New Hampshire
agement in the Arctic Ocean. In May 2010 the foreign
and NOAA) organized a workshop of international
ministers of the eight Arctic Council states agreed to
experts to anticipate responses to environmental and
establish an expert working group on ecosystem-based
s afety incidents in the Arctic (Coastal Response
management. Ecosystem and species mapping and
Research Center, 2009). The workshop identified
predictive modeling is helping to identify ecologically
gaps in current response capabilities, assessed future
important and vulnerable areas, and will help inform
response needs, and recommended improvements in
new processes initiated within the United States and at
the ability of Arctic nations and indigenous communi-
the Arctic Council to promote ecosystem-based marine
ties to prepare for and respond to marine incidents.
resource management.
In response to the growing recognition of the need
After extensive debate and analysis of the conse-
for more effective disaster planning, discussions were
quences of the loss of sea ice on polar bear habitat, the
initiated during IPY that led to an agreement on search
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service determined that a viable
and rescue coordination that was signed in May 2011
threat exists and will continue to threaten the polar bear
by the foreign ministers of the eight Arctic states that
species. A ruling was published in the Federal Register
constitute the Arctic Council.
(U.S. Department of the Interior, 2008) on May 15,
2008, listing the polar bear as a threatened species
Information for Ecosystem Management
under the Endangered Species Act (ESA). The ruling
found that changes in the abundance, distribution, or
IPY identified new marine and terrestrial species,
existence of sea ice will have effects on the number and
habitats, and ranges, which greatly expanded under-
behavior of these animals and their prey.
standing and awareness of polar biodiversity. Better
understanding of polar ecosystem dynamics has in turn
spurred a number of new initiatives aimed at managing Information for Fisheries
human activities in the oceans, with an eye toward pro-
Documentation of the northward movement of
tecting biodiversity and maintaining ecosystem functions
commercial fish populations that occurred during IPY
as these ecosystems undergo profound change due to
has opened the possibility of new commercial fisher-
global warming, including ocean acidification (Box 5.4).
ies that will need management (at present, there is
For example, the Arctic and ecosystem-based manage-
no international management mechanism in place to
ment are among nine strategic priorities identified under
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97
KNOWLEDGE TO ACTION
manage fisheries in most of the Arctic Ocean). This 22 percent of the undiscovered, technically recoverable
possibility led the United States to proactively pro- resources in the world.
hibit most commercial fishing in its waters north of Planning for Arctic offshore oil and gas develop-
the Bering Strait until better scientific information is ment requires projections of sea ice as well as other
available on the ecology of the region and the impacts marine ecosystem information, from subsea permafrost
of new commercial fishing on both subsistence users status and trends to the projected distribution of marine
and the marine environment. As one online question- wildlife in and around drilling sites. Information gener-
naire respondent stated as part of the input to this ated during and after IPY will play an essential role in
report, “gathered biological data are providing the first permitting and other decisions (National Commission
pan-Arctic baseline to assess changes in Arctic marine on the BP Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill and Offshore
biodiversity.” Informal international discussions are also Drilling, 2011).
under way regarding the establishment of some mecha-
nism to manage commercial fisheries in the area of the Information for Onshore Development
Arctic Ocean where such mechanisms are lacking.
In the Antarctic, IPY-related scientific data are Arctic and subarctic wildfire frequency and severity
being generated for use in policy-relevant conservation have increased markedly in the past decade (Kasischke
and management efforts related to fisheries and tourism. et al., 2011) with important impacts to natural eco-
The Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources systems and the social network dependent upon them
(CCAMLR) is an organization that was established in (Chapin and Lovecraft, 2011). Insurance companies are
1982 as part of the Antarctic Treaty system. CCAMLR revisiting their procedures for coverage of structures in
manages and sets fishing limits in the Southern Ocean, fire-prone areas, including prescribing techniques of
identifies needed research, and is involved in monitor- fire protection to home owners. State, federal, and local
ing environmental impact. The Southern Ocean Global land managers need to strategically position equipment
Ocean Ecosystems Dynamics Program (SO GLOBEC; and manpower and to consider long-term effects of fire
described in Chapter 4), was an international multidis- and the changing trajectories of ecosystem recovery
ciplinary effort during IPY, designed to examine the (Payne, 2010).
growth, reproduction, recruitment, and overwintering Construction and new development in a period of
survival of Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba). The ris- warming present unprecedented challenges for design
ing recognition of krill as a key element of Antarctic engineers. In the past, design protocols were based
ecosystem function during IPY led CCAMLR to spa- upon compilations of measurements of actual field
tially allocate the fishery to prevent the catch from being conditions (for example, Hartman and Johnson, 1978).
concentrated in a small area, and to mandate scientific However, documentation of circumpolar warming has
observers on at least half the ships harvesting krill. forced engineers to realize that future environmental
conditions will fall outside the domain of historical
observations; therefore it is necessary to include pro-
Information for Offshore Oil and
jections of warming and potential thawing in design of
Gas Development
roads, buildings, and other infrastructure (McGregor,
In 2008, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) 2010).
completed the Circum-Arctic Resource Appraisal, an Projects such as the IPY Thermal State of Per-
assessment of undiscovered conventional oil and gas mafrost (Romanovsky et al., 2008) demonstrated to
resources in all areas north of the Arctic Circle (Fig- the engineering community that warming is nearly
ure 5.2). The USGS estimated that the Arctic accounts ubiquitous throughout the high northern latitudes
for about 13 percent of the undiscovered oil, 30 percent and that new approaches are required for construction
of the undiscovered natural gas, and 20 percent of the in ice-rich environments. “Warming rates are much
undiscovered natural gas liquids in the world, about 84 smaller for permafrost already at temperatures close to
percent of which are expected to occur offshore. It is 0°C compared with colder permafrost, especially for
estimated that these resources may account for about
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98 LESSONS AND LEGACIES OF INTERNATIONAL POLAR YEAR 2007-2008
FIGURE 5.2 Potential oil and natural gas reservoirs in the Arctic account for a significant percentage of the world’s energy resources.
Map shows assessment units (AUs)—mappable volumes of rock with common geologic traits—in the Circum-Arctic Resource Appraisal
(CARA) color-coded by assessed probability of the presence of at least one undiscovered oil and/or gas field with recoverable resources
greater than 50 million barrels of oil equivalent (MMBOE). Probabilities for AUs are based on the entire area of the AU, including
any parts south of the Arctic Circle. SOURCE: Bird et al., 2008.
ice-rich permafrost where latent heat effects dominate Continued warming will limit use of ice roads,
the ground thermal regime. Colder permafrost sites are which are now commonly used in Northern Canada,
warming more rapidly.”6 New construction techniques Alaska, and Siberia. By 2050, inland regions of the
are being developed to passively cool roadbeds in ice- Arctic, now accessible through seasonally constructed
rich permafrost terrain to maintain thermal stability ice roads, may become inaccessible (Stephenson et al.,
and structural integrity (Xu and Goering, 2008). 2011). Presently, seasonal transportation and construc-
tion in winter allows access to vast roadless regions,
minimizing environmental impacts and construction
costs. Most of the communities connected by the roads
6
Vladimir Romanovsky, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, per-
sonal communication, 2011.
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99
KNOWLEDGE TO ACTION
Navy was not an active participant in IPY 2007-2008.9
are small, remote villages, so it will not be economical
to replace the ice roads with all-weather roads. However, as the importance and urgency of the Arctic
ice retreat became evident during the IPY years, the
Navy, U.S. Coast Guard, NOAA, ONR, National Ice
Issues of Sovereignty and Security
Center, and NSF cosponsored three symposia on the
Rapid environmental changes establish condi- “Impact of the Ice-Diminishing Arctic on the Naval
and Maritime Operations.”10 Also, in 2011, ONR
tions that create more favorable local climates in some
regions of the Earth but that in other regions may reestablished targeted research efforts in polar regions
threaten societies and the environment. Even in the through the Arctic and Global Prediction Program.
midlatitudes, climate change will exacerbate drought in ONR will expand upon the extensive understanding of
some regions and flooding in others, enough to make sea ice dynamics that was gained during IPY.
human habitation difficult in some areas where cities
currently flourish (IPCC, 2011). The U.S. Army has Polar Policy
realized the potential of this to cause international con-
flict, and this has been an increasing topic of concern In response to the information generated in part
and activity in U.S. Army future scenario planning.7 during IPY, governments have undertaken significant
S eabed mapping and sampling associated with revisions of their policies. While the United Nations
IPY has been important to inform the development of Law of the Sea still remains unsigned by the U.S.
the U.S. submission to the Commission on the Limits government, there were assertive actions by U.S. gov-
of the Continental Shelf regarding territorial claims ernmental agencies during IPY. During IPY years, the
on the outer continental shelf. Understanding of the projections for ice-free Arctic summers, rising sea level,
continental shelf and its relationship to the surround- and increased need for disaster response in the Arctic
ing seas is required under the Law of the Sea Treaty, led to U.S. Navy and Coast Guard planning for Arctic
which allows the Arctic rim countries, including the conditions that are unlike those of past decades (Arctic
United States, Canada, Denmark, Norway, and Rus- Council, 2009). In January 2009, President George W.
sia to make claims for undersea resources on, above, Bush signed the National Security Presidential Direc-
and underneath the seabed up to 200 miles from their tive 66 and Homeland Security Presidential Directive
natural coasts.8 25 on Arctic Regional Policy. These directives estab-
In the summer of 2007, just as IPY was getting lish policies aimed at meeting national and homeland
under way, a Russian expedition sent a submarine to the security needs in the Arctic, protect the Arctic environ-
seabed on the Lomonosov Ridge to plant the Russian ment and conserve its biological resources, strengthen
flag, claiming that it was an extension of their conti- institutions for international cooperation, involve the
nental shelf. This action did not trigger any response or Arctic’s indigenous communities in decisions that affect
reaction from the U.S. military. As reported by a think them, and enhance scientific monitoring and research
tank of international representatives from government, in local, regional, and global environmental issues.
military, and economic sectors, there is no perceived IPY also coincided with a general recognition
military threat in the Arctic. Rather, the greatest that Arctic geopolitics have entered into a new era of
security threat in the Arctic arises from environmental strengthened indigenous rights, increased attention
or natural disasters, and an urgent need remains to
establish regional and international coordination and 9 In 1948, the US Navy, Office of Naval Research (ONR) estab-
cooperation in preventing and mitigating such events lished the Naval Arctic Research Laboratory (NARL) in Barrow,
(Carnegie Foundation, 2008). Alaska. With the end of the Cold War and no broad acceptance
that climate change was a serious problem, this facility was closed
The U.S. Navy Postgraduate School in Monterey,
1980 and ORN focused on research in more temperate regions. In
California, was active in sea ice modeling and moni-
2000, the US Navy began to consider the actions needed to prepare
toring, though in contrast to the IGY, the operational for Naval Operations in an Ice-free Arctic.
10 I n 2007, w ww.star.nesdis.noaa.gov/star/IceSymposium.php ;
7 2009, www.star.nesdis.noaa.gov/star/IceSymposium2009.php; 2011,
www.armyscienceconference.com/.
8 www.star.nesdis.noaa.gov/star/Ice2011.php.
http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/eez.html.
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100 LESSONS AND LEGACIES OF INTERNATIONAL POLAR YEAR 2007-2008
to Arctic matters by non-Arctic Asian and European emissions and the devastating effects of warming in
nations, and an emerging role of the Arctic Council the Arctic, the ICC issued a Call to Action during the
and other international frameworks. These trends COP15 meetings that addressed many issues, including
were manifested through increasingly active role of calling on global leaders at COP15 to help sustain Inuit
the Arctic Council and its six Permanent Participants lands and territories by ratifying a post-2012 agreement
representing polar indigenous peoples in promoting to help stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations at 350
new science initiatives during the IPY years and in ppm in order to maintain long-term global temperature
promoting IPY itself. Several IPY projects and result- increases well below 2°C.
ing publications addressed the sociopolitical and policy While the Arctic had the Arctic Climate Impact
aspects of the changing status of the polar regions (i.e., Assessment (ACIA, 2005) as a foundation coming
Berkman et al., 2011; Launius et al., 2010; Shadian and into IPY, an analogous report was developed and
Tennberg, 2009). released for the Antarctic during IPY. Called the Ant-
The Inuit Circumpolar Council (ICC) is an inter- arctic Climate Change and the Environment (ACCE;
national indigenous peoples’ organization represent- Turner et al., 2009), the report was sponsored by the
ing approximately 160,000 Inuit living in the Arctic Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR).
regions of Alaska, Canada, Greenland, and Chukotka Like ACIA, it is a seminal synthesis of scientific find-
(Russia). The ICC had U.S. partners at universities and ings that provides a comprehensive and authoritative
agencies within the United States during IPY, both for analysis useful for informing policy decisions.
actions on joint IPY projects and also for discussions on The Antarctic Treaty (Secretariat of the Antarctic
international issues. In 2007, the ICC was successful in Treaty, 2009), a major international document that fol-
moving forward a new United Nations declaration on lowed on the heels of the IGY years, has been periodi-
the Rights of Indigenous Peoples Act.11 UN Resolu- cally updated, and a variety of new initiatives that link
tion 61/295 adopted in September 2007 identifies the policy with the environment were advanced at several
declaration as an international standard of achievement Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings during the IPY
to be pursued in a spirit of partnership and mutual time frame, specifically the ATCM XXXII in Balti-
respect, with 46 articles spanning a large range of rights, more, Maryland (April 2009), which was the first-ever
including self-determination, rights not to be subjected joint meeting of the Arctic Council with the Antarctic
to forced assimilation or destruction of culture, rights Treaty Consultative Meeting, and the Antarctic Treaty
to participation in decision-making matters that would “Summit” dedicated to the 50th anniversary of the
affect their rights, and rights to redress for lands and Antarctic Treaty in December 2009 (Berkman, 1960).
traditional resources that have been used or damaged These initiatives were informed by the ACCE report
without their consent. As perhaps the first people to be and other findings and included a number of science-
severely affected by a climate change caused primarily based conservation and protection initiatives put forth
by industrialized nations, the Inuit moved to action by the Committee on Environmental Protection on a
during the IPY years. broad spectrum of topics, including climate impacts
In 2008, ICC convened an IPY climate change on the environment, biological indicators of human
policy workshop aboard the vessel CCGS Amundsen, impact, disturbance on wildlife, and introduction of
which brought together climate change scientists and nonnative species. The ACCE had multiple U.S. coau-
Inuit leaders to address the effects of climate change thors, and the report has had wide visibility in Antarctic
in the Arctic region. Based on insights from these Treaty meetings, in IPCC discussions, and the United
leaders, the ICC released the “Amundsen Statement: Nations Framework Conventions on Climate Change
2012 Climate Change Roadmap,”12 which highlighted (UNFCCC) meetings.
their strategy for addressing the potential impacts of
global climate change. Building upon the Amundsen
statement and in response to rising greenhouse gas
11 www.inuit.org/index.php?id=267.
12 www.inuitcircumpolar.com.
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KNOWLEDGE TO ACTION
Decision Making Beyond the Poles lower latitudes, including colder winter temperatures.
The character of extreme winter events is influenced
by many factors, including both climate oscillations
Global Sea Level Rise
such as El Niño, as well as longer-term trends such
The current rapid climate change that is most as changes in the Arctic stratosphere and snow cover.
evident in the polar regions will affect all of human- Changing weather patterns in the midlatitudes, in some
ity, either directly or indirectly. The ongoing demise cases precipitated by changing conditions in the polar
of glaciers and ice sheets is contributing to global sea regions, will affect agriculture, forestry, and lifestyles
level rise that affects coastal communities and cities in many places on Earth. These teleconnections of the
worldwide, but due to gravitational effects, it will cause Warm Arctic-Cold Continent require further research
the most marked rise in North America and the Arc- through observational and modeling studies (this is
tic (Raymo et al., 2011). Research conducted during also described in Chapter 2 in the section on “Sea Ice
IPY helped quantify how the ice sheets are changing, Vulnerability and Teleconnections to Society”).
advanced our understanding of the driving mecha-
nisms, and furthered our knowledge of the rheology of
Levers and Hurdles
the ice sheets. Flooding of cities and increased coastal
storm damage is projected to cause billions of dollars In making connections between knowledge and
of damage within the timespan of a human lifetime action, there are many hurdles that need to be over-
(IPCC, 2007a; Nicholls et al., 2007). come, with some interesting levers (opportunities to
Public awareness of the role of ice sheets and gla- encourage action) identified through IPY activities.
ciers in the climate system and their direct effect on The IPY framework served several important func-
sea level grew during IPY. For example, the California tions in connecting knowledge with action. IPY was seen
Coastal Commission met with scientists in 2009 with as a neutral space where the goal was the pursuit and
the aim of using scientific results on sea level rise dissemination of knowledge. Academics and research-
to inform their decisions on infrastructure planning ers were largely viewed as honest brokers who would
along the California coast.13 The state of Delaware has represent their findings without bias. For example,
developed a sea level rise action plan that rests upon the Extreme Ice Survey15 documentary on the National
estimates of future sea level rise from scientific stud- Geographic Channel during IPY generated great inter-
ies (Valencik, 2010). New York City’s “Responding to est and public engagement. This translation of climate
Climate Change in New York State” assessment run- information into public action is new and growing, and it
ning from 2008-2010 (Rosenzweig et al., 2011) used was greatly facilitated by the publicity generated by IPY.
“rapid ice melt scenario based on accelerated melting Thus IPY contributed to a knowledge base that could
of the Greenland and West Antarctic Ice Sheets” in its then be used by others to suit their needs.
projection of potential sea level rise. A new aspect of the “knowledge to action” function
of science research during this IPY is that it helped
engage local stakeholders and was instrumental in gen-
Sub-Arctic Weather
erating the capacity-building momentum in the U.S.
The “Warm Arctic-Cold Continent” weather polar regions. In earlier IPYs/IGY, there was little if
pattern can influence sub-Arctic weather and is thus any local research infrastructure in Alaska besides the
important for midlatitude forecasts.14 Characterizing fledging university campus in Fairbanks (then called
and quantifying teleconnections among polar processes “College”). During the IPY 2007-2008 era, numerous
and subpolar or temperate region responses is difficult. local players in the State of Alaska were among the key
Record warm weather in the Arctic over the past 5 years beneficiaries of the U.S. engagement in IPY. The Uni-
may have played some role in affecting the weather in versity of Alaska system of three urban and several rural
campuses ran its own IPY program that was one of the
13 http://institute.lanl.gov/igpp/_docs/Final_SLR_workshop5-11.
pdf.
14 15
www.arctic.noaa.gov/future/warm_arctic_cold_continent.html. www.extremeicesurvey.org/.
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102 LESSONS AND LEGACIES OF INTERNATIONAL POLAR YEAR 2007-2008
largest in the nation; this included active IPY research provide actionable advice; they are trained to conduct
programs in a wide variety of scientific disciplines and and interpret scientific analyses. Second, through their
the initiation of 11 postdoctoral fellowships for research experience with IPY, many participants became increas-
that embraced the IPY philosophy and criteria. ingly aware of the value of communication through
The newly expanded Barrow Arctic Science Con- education and outreach, but they also came to recognize
sortium facility in Barrow acted as a major hub for that different audiences require different communication
several IPY projects, ensuring the flow of resources, approaches. This has challenged the polar community
knowledge, and practices to the Barrow community and to learn how to express themselves in ways that are
local institutions. State offices of many federal agen- scientifically accurate but also meaningful to a variety of
cies, including NOAA, USGS, NPS, HHS, Fish and audiences. Several IPY-supported activities invested in
Wildlife Service, Environmental Protection Agency, training scientists to be better communicators.
and U.S. Coast Guard were actively engaged in IPY Third, anthropogenic contributions to the warming
research. IPY produced tangible practical outcomes and acidification trends observed in polar regions have
to local stakeholders, such as improved services, flow led many polar scientists to see the need to reduce future
of data, improved data management, and monitoring impacts through decreasing the emissions of greenhouse
capacities, as well as active outreach programs. gases. As researchers seek, or are called on, to integrate
A special “knowledge to action” impact of IPY was their research with decision making, they find that they
the engagement of northern residents and indigenous encounter a complex set of issues in connecting knowl-
organizations. edge with action. Who makes decisions? What informa-
tion do they need for their decision making? Who imple-
The inclusion of “human dimensions” in IPY 2007- ments changes? What structures incentivize change?
2008 program took it to the next level, but the vision
Interactions have become increasingly difficult with
of the IPY organizers eventually expanded the notion
the polarization of the political and cultural landscape
of inclusiveness to the range never experienced in
(Overland and Wang, 2009). This has further compli-
the previous “polar years.” Arctic residents, especially
cated the task many scientists faced in navigating the line
indigenous peoples, were recognized as important
stakeholders, collaborators and drivers of new research, between conducting polar research to inform action, and
and, for the first time, were explicitly called upon to conducting research to promote action. While the com-
participate in IPY science. (IPCC, 2007a)
munity survey run by this committee revealed concerns
when there is a “mixing of advocacy with science” (Sur-
Other indigenous organizations in the State of
vey Response #157392819), there is a growing sense in
Alaska (Eskimo Walrus Commission, Nanuq/Polar
the polar research and education community that “IPY
Bear Commission) as well as dozens of local com-
has made ‘knowledge to action’ a proper domain for
munities, from Barrow to tiny Shaktoolik (population
scientists—in the past it was often disregarded as ‘activ-
160) took part in the impressive spectrum of IPY
ism’” (Survey Response #158556187).
research, from sea ice and weather observations to lan-
Lastly, with respect to scientific data, decision mak-
guage documentation, human health, and community
ers, educators, and the general public are increasingly
heritage programs. New technologies, improved data
accessing data directly in order to tailor their own analy-
management, and knowledge sharing (Gearheard et
ses and interpretations. The fundamental concept of the
al., 2011), better forecasting and health services, trained
Arctic Observing Network (AON) was rapid access to
local personnel, and science-inspired indigenous youth
all data. Specifically, NSF, as a core supporter of AON,
were the obvious benefits of the unprecedented local
reflected decision maker and scientific community
engagement in IPY research. Nothing of this kind had
interests in stipulating that data from AON cannot be
been achieved in any previous national polar program,
embargoed and needs to be made available immediately
including IGY 1957-1958 or the earlier IPY-1 and
after collection. With more than 50 active AON projects,
IPY-2.
this open-access policy ensures that long-term Arctic
As polar scientists were drawn during IPY into
observations collected through a research network can
working with stakeholders, scientists faced several chal-
also help serve increasingly important operational needs.
lenges. First, most polar scientists are not trained to
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KNOWLEDGE TO ACTION
BOX 5.5
Perspectives on “Knowledge to Action” During IPY
In the course of conducting this study, the Committee gathered institutionalize the hubs that allow much of these activities to occur.
perspectives on the importance of converting knowledge to action dur- Here, a concerted effort across different federal, state and local agen-
ing IPY from those inside and outside of the polar research community. cies is needed.”
Some examples include: — Hajo Eicken, University of Alaska, Fairbanks
“The U.S. has huge geopolitical interests in the Arctic region, and
we need to understand the changes that are taking place there. Many “Many elements of the IPY networks and initiatives can provide the
other countries have direct economic interests in the Arctic, and all seeds for further development of a comprehensive polar observing system.
are served by joining forces in IPY research. Additionally the rapidly At present, these initiatives are acting separately, and their integration,
diminishing ice in the Arctic is creating new opportunities for transport ensuring data delivery and optimization should turn them into the first
and marine resource development.” functioning polar observing system, which is able to provide data for
— John H. Marburger III, U.S. Science Adviser under President scientific research and practical applications. Cooperation of the IPY-
George W. Bush (Revkin, 2007) born observing systems mostly driven so far by scientific and academic
institutions with agencies having operational responsibilities should be
“I would think a strong take-away from this IPY would be a decision encouraged to sustain the achieved and required IPY legacy in terms of
to include effective communications plans, and resources for them, in polar observations.”
every aspect of the effort.” — Vladimir Romanovsky, University of Alaska, Fairbanks
—Roger Launius, Smithsonian Institution
“Over the past decade, including the IPY, the awareness of the
“Significantly, IPY has made impressive progress with the last scientific community has been heightened with respect to stakeholder
goal—educating the public and decision-makers. As a variety of high needs. We are now paying much more attention to stakeholder needs and
profile events and publications shared some of the program’s early we are integrating these needs into our research planning.”
scientific results, it became increasingly obvious that national and in- — Peter Schlosser, Columbia University
ternational policy-makers and the public are beginning to recognize
the Arctic’s scientific and strategic importance. From international “We are encouraged by discoveries made during the International
diplomatic events to presidential policy changes and increased science Polar Year. Look at what’s been accomplished: scientists produced de-
budgets, the events of the past few months show that arctic science no tailed maps of the last unexplored mountain range on Earth, sent robot
longer operates in obscurity. In this new era of arctic awareness, it is submarines under the Antarctic Ice Shelf to map the sea beds, drilled
incumbent on the members of the research community to be prepared— deep beneath the sea floor to learn more about the effects of carbon
both to maximize the many opportunities the new era brings and to think dioxide on the West Antarctic Ice Sheet, and shed light on how climate
through the policy implications of their work.” change affects the microscopic life at the base of our ecosystem. To-
—Mead Treadwell, Lt. Governor of Alaska (Treadwell, 2009) gether, these discoveries will advance our understanding and hopefully
inspire us to work more closely together to limit the impacts on our
“Key challenges in the post-IPY phase are how to sustain this lives.”
engagement, which will require an investment of some sort to help — Hillary Clinton, U.S. Secretary of State (Clinton, 2009)
data exchange between industry and academia.”16 There
For example, in development of their “Arctic Roadmap,”
the U.S. Navy includes the Arctic Observing Network may be a role for regulatory agencies to promote free data
among the important assets and describes the need to access along with leasing requirements.
increase operations of unmanned systems for Arctic
data collection, monitoring, and research (U.S. Navy, CONCLUSIONS
2009). Compared to the data sharing that occurs within
academic research groups, there is comparatively mod- The polar science community gained a wealth of
est engagement by the private sector. “In particular the experience during IPY in learning to understand and
resource industries are making major investments in the
Arctic, yet, there is comparatively little coordination and
Hajo Eicken, University of Alaska Fairbanks, personal com-
16
munication, 2011.
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104 LESSONS AND LEGACIES OF INTERNATIONAL POLAR YEAR 2007-2008
manage change in a time of change (Box 5.5). IPY of readiness within the polar community that is impor-
showed that training and continued exposure of scien- tant for tackling future research endeavors. Looking
tists to addressing real and present issues increases their ahead, further development of two-way communication,
effectiveness in connecting knowledge with action, by observing systems, and predictive capability is needed to
improving communication skills, influencing research maintain and extend connecting knowledge with action.
agendas, and by direct experience of navigating the line At the time of this report-writing, the concluding IPY
between communication and advocacy. This sets a stage Conference is scheduled to take place in April 2012,
and will highlight this theme of “knowledge to action.”
