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5
Health Professional Education
In seeking treatment for epilepsy and its comorbidities, patients and families
interact with primary care, emergency, and specialist physicians, as well as a
range of other health professionals. Beyond the technical aspects of care, high-
quality care for people with epilepsy requires health professionals who are
willing and able to co-manage patients across specialties (e.g., primary care,
neurology, psychiatry, obstetrics/gynecology) and to coordinate care across
disciplines (e.g., medicine, nursing, psychology, nutrition, rehabilitation, phar-
macy). Teams should comprise professionals assembled and prepared to meet
the diverse needs of individual patients. Research has identified gaps in health
professionals’ knowledge about treating epilepsy and its comorbidities and
in their level of confidence in doing so. At the same time, few educational in-
terventions have been developed to improve health professionals’ knowledge
about the epilepsies, and researchers have found that physicians outside of the
epilepsy field may be reluctant to take advantage of epilepsy education pro-
grams that are available. Negative perceptions of people with epilepsy among
health professionals contribute to stigma and can affect quality of care. Epi-
lepsy centers and epilepsy advocacy organizations can—and often do—play
a major role in supporting professional education programs. Actions needed
to improve the education of health professionals include defining essential
knowledge and skills, indentifying specific knowledge gaps and information
needs, evaluating the efficacy and reach of current educational opportunities,
exploring and developing innovative educational tools and technologies, and
disseminating educational materials and tools more broadly.
231
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232 EPILEPSY ACROSS THE SPECTRUM
B
uilding the health care workforce’s knowledge base and skill sets
in diagnosing, treating, supporting, and generally working with
people with epilepsy is necessary to ensure that patients and families
have access to high-quality care. People with epilepsy typically encounter
a variety of health professionals, including an array of physicians (e.g.,
neurologists, epileptologists, psychiatrists, neurosurgeons, primary care
physicians), nurses, psychologists and counselors, pharmacists, emergency
medical technicians (EMTs) and first responders, electroneurodiagnostic
(END) technologists, and direct care workers, who play differing roles in
their health care (Appendix D provides examples of these roles and the
relevant professional boards and organizations). Health professionals need
current knowledge about many aspects of the epilepsies: seizure recognition
and diagnosis; prevention and treatment options; associated comorbidi-
ties, risks, and safety concerns; necessary social services; psychosocial and
quality-of-life factors; and stigma. The specific types and depth of knowl-
edge required vary across professions, depending on the roles, responsibili-
ties, and scope of practice of the professionals and the specific settings in
which they work.
In considering how to improve the education of health professionals,
the committee conducted a search for literature and available resources.
However, at the outset, it must be underscored that few articles are avail-
able on the epilepsy-related educational needs of the wide range of health
professionals or on effective teaching methods for meeting those needs.
Much of the available information is outdated or international and not nec-
essarily applicable to professionals in the United States. For some aspects
of education, the strongest information pertains to physicians, although
the committee fully recognizes the important role of the nonphysician
workforce (e.g., nurses, pharmacists, psychologists and counselors, END
technologists, direct care workers) in caring for people with epilepsy. How-
ever, very little has been done to assess their specific knowledge gaps and in-
formation needs or to develop targeted, effective educational interventions
for them. The committee was not asked to conduct an in-depth review and
analysis of the various educational opportunities, licensing and certification
requirements, or specific curricula and content taught in the diverse range
of educational programs for all of the health care disciplines individually.
Therefore, this chapter focuses on how education and training could be
improved broadly, across all professions involved in caring for people with
epilepsy, rather than focusing on specific professions or educational oppor-
tunities, except to describe a few illustrative programs and knowledge gaps.
The committee’s vision for the education of health professionals about
epilepsy would culminate in a workforce that has been taught and trained in
multidisciplinary settings to provide high-quality, coordinated, and patient-
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HEALTH PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION
centered care (as described in Chapter 4). It further sees the ideal practice
environment as being a team-oriented, learning environment that allows
professionals to practice to the fullest extent of their training and skills,
consistent with their roles, responsibilities, and scope of practice. Health
professionals also need to have opportunities to deepen their understanding
and strengthen their array of skills over entire careers, in accord with evolv-
ing guidelines, best practices, and research advances. Ideally, the health care
workforce would be sufficiently prepared to provide every person experi-
encing seizures with accurate diagnostic services and patient-centered care
that meets the patient’s (and family’s) needs, delivered in a manner that
takes into consideration health literacy, cultural, and psychosocial factors.
DEMONSTRATED KNOWLEDGE GAPS
Physicians in every branch of medicine and mental health workers in every
branch of mental health need to recognize the symptoms of epilepsy, and
they need to know where to refer and what good treatment looks like.
–Susan Farber
Through its work the committee identified three areas with documented
knowledge gaps in epilepsy care: providing primary care, treating comor-
bidities, and responding to the specific needs of women. The testimony
provided to the committee during its deliberations by people with epilepsy
and their families suggests additional gaps in knowledge, including areas
related to accurate diagnoses, new treatment options, the risks of sudden
unexpected death in epilepsy (SUDEP), and how to sufficiently and sensi-
tively convey those risks. Additionally, Hirsch and colleagues (2011) noted
the dearth of research and data related to health professionals’ knowledge
about SUDEP and their comfort in discussing SUDEP with patients and
their families. Gaps in knowledge across various areas likely exist among
neurologists without specialized education in epilepsy and, more broadly,
among physicians and other health professionals outside of the neurology
field (e.g., emergency medicine, psychiatry). Specific knowledge gaps may
also exist with respect to treating a number of subpopulations:
• infants, very young children, and all children with the rarer, more
severe epilepsy syndromes;
• people at any age who have complex comorbidities or who have
seizure-like events with a psychological basis that may or may not
be associated with an epilepsy diagnosis;
• the growing number of older adults whose clinical picture is com-
plicated by chronic physical and mental conditions associated with
aging and who may already have a complicated drug regimen;
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234 EPILEPSY ACROSS THE SPECTRUM
• people who have low health literacy and who may have difficulty
following clinicians’ instructions; and
• people who can be identified as at higher risk of premature death
from suicide, injury, or SUDEP.
However, detailed exploration of knowledge gaps in these areas and
how to remedy them awaits future assessment and documentation.
Primary Care
Each [pediatrician] asked about car seats, home safety, and second-hand
smoke, but none noticed [the] seizures or developmental delays until we
asked.
–Carrie Baum
I experienced a couple of complex partial seizures for the first time, then a
dozen or so complex partial seizures in a single day. Our family doctor was
unavailable so I saw one of his associates. He was baffled and prescribed
Tylenol, Gatorade, and rest.
–Jim Ashlock
A number of medical disciplines make up the nation’s primary care
physician workforce, including family physicians, general internists, general
pediatricians, obstetrician-gynecologists, and geriatricians. Other primary
care providers include physician assistants and nurse practitioners. Many
patients with new-onset seizures are first evaluated in primary care settings
(Chapter 4). In the United States, high-quality primary care is essential for
people with epilepsy, inasmuch as only 17 percent of those with new-onset
epilepsy see a neurologist, and primary care physicians provide most of
the day-to-day care and treatment for about 40 percent of epilepsy pa-
tients (Fountain et al., 2011; Montouris, 2000). Additionally, Begley and
colleagues (2009) found that people with epilepsy who were racial/ethnic
minorities, had low incomes, or were uninsured or insured through public
programs (e.g., Medicaid, Medicare) were less likely to receive specialty
care and more likely to receive care through generalists (Chapter 4). This
finding further emphasizes the importance of high-quality epilepsy care in
primary care settings and the importance of these providers having suf-
ficient knowledge about diagnosing, treating, and referring patients with
epilepsy to specialty care when needed.
Primary care providers’ knowledge, skill, and comfort regarding di-
agnosing and treating the epilepsies have been questioned (by themselves
and others) and sometimes criticized (Chappell and Smithson, 1999; Elliott
and Shneker, 2008; Gomes, 2000; Hayes et al., 2007; Minshall and Smith,
2012; Montouris, 2000; Moore et al., 2000; Sweetnam, 2011; Thapar
et al., 1998; Theodore et al., 2006). It is believed that primary care physi-
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HEALTH PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION
cians gain the majority of their knowledge pertaining to epilepsy during
medical school through a combination of didactic coursework and clini-
cal experiences, such as neurology clerkships. One study concluded that
medical students and residents had low confidence and difficulty when
caring for patients with neurological conditions generally, which resulted,
in part, from limited exposure to neuroscience subject matter and neuro-
logical patients throughout their education. The authors expressed concern
about these findings, noting that the number of patients with neurological
conditions being cared for in primary care settings is increasing (Zinchuk
et al., 2010). Education about epilepsy and other neurological conditions
in medical school curricula is disjointed, and not all medical schools re-
quire students to participate in a neurology clerkship (discussed below)
(Devinsky et al., 1993; Galetta et al., 2006). Moore and colleagues (2000)
hypothesized that the development of new seizure medications and a lack
of knowledge in prescribing them likely contribute to clinicians’ lack of
confidence in caring for people with epilepsy.
An international literature review revealed the need for “earlier tar-
geted education to improve [primary care physicians’] attitudes toward and
beliefs about epilepsy and confidence in managing epilepsy” (Elliott and
Shneker, 2008). Yet it appears that few educational interventions have been
specifically developed to improve education and training about the epilep-
sies. Such programs need to be sensitively designed, taking into account
the considerable caseloads, wide range of clinical conditions, increasing
responsibilities, and lower reimbursements that primary care providers face.
The American Academy of Neurology’s (AAN’s) Family Practice Cur-
riculum in Neurology is the result of collaborations between neurology and
family practice faculty that aims to provide family care physicians with
knowledge about common neurological conditions. The curriculum was
designed for medical students, residents, and practicing physicians and in-
cludes information and case studies on seizures and epilepsy (AAN, 2011).
However, the curriculum is provided as an informational resource and may
or may not be widely used in developing or updating educational programs.
Nor has the impact of this resource on physician education and knowledge
been assessed insofar as the committee could determine.
Surveys of UK general practitioners have concluded that the epilepsy-
related topics about which they are most interested in learning are medica-
tion therapies and side effects, diagnosis and referral, how to give advice
about lifestyle, and non-medication therapies (Chappell and Smithson,
1999; Stuart and Muir, 2008). Practitioners preferred courses that were
up to a day in length and that were offered during the week. Additionally,
they wanted the information on epilepsy to be combined with information
on other neurological conditions. Younger practitioners preferred online
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236 EPILEPSY ACROSS THE SPECTRUM
courses and case studies as teaching mechanisms (Chappell and Smithson,
1999; Stuart and Muir, 2008).
A handful of educational programs have been developed and used in
different countries to improve the knowledge of primary care providers and
general practitioners about epilepsy (Adamolekun et al., 1999; Fernandes
et al., 2007; Isler et al., 2008; Minshall and Smith, 2012; Stuart and Muir,
2008):
• Stuart and Muir (2008) developed a half-day course specifically
tailored to the needs and preferences of UK general practitioners
and nurses. The course used case studies and multidisciplinary lec-
tures to deliver information on medication therapy and side effects,
the specific needs of women with epilepsy, and ways to respond
to prolonged seizures or status epilepticus. Although participants
expressed satisfaction with the course, the developers conducted no
assessment of improved knowledge or changes in practice.
• In another UK study, the authors concluded that to be most effec-
tive in promoting practice changes among general practitioners,
practice guidelines should be paired with targeted educational in-
terventions (Minshall and Smith, 2012; Minshall et al., 2011).
• A Brazilian study found success in three types of educational
programs: an 8-hour information course for physicians stressing
diagnosis, treatment, and related basic content; a 3-hour “social
reintegration” course on the biopsychosocial aspects of epilepsy,
designed to equip practitioners and community leaders to pro-
vide social support; and a 20-hour “train-the-trainer” course to
prepare physicians to pass information on to other health care
personnel. These authors highlighted the need for ongoing educa-
tion to improve quality and management of care (Fernandes et al.,
2007).
• Isler and colleagues (2008) used a modular education program that
included videos and was delivered via CD-ROM. The program
significantly improved seizure recognition and classification skills
among pediatric residents, nurses, and electroencephalography
(EEG) technologists working in general pediatric clinics in Turkey.
• A program developed in Zimbabwe taught rural primary care
nurses and community health educators about epilepsy with a focus
on diagnosing and managing people with generalized tonic-clonic
seizures. The program included a 1-day seminar with lectures,
case studies, and video presentations, and authors documented a
significant increase in the knowledge of the nurses, increased pa-
tient recruitment to the health center (74 percent), and improved
medication adherence (Adamolekun et al., 1999).
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HEALTH PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION
As noted in Chapter 4, high-quality primary care services for people
with epilepsy can lead to improved seizure control and reductions in emer-
gency hospitalizations (Shohet et al., 2007). Targeted educational inter-
ventions can be used to increase knowledge and change practices among
primary care providers, which in turn would improve quality of care.
Although educational programs and courses need to be tailored to meet
the needs, preferences, and time constraints of primary care providers
(Chappell and Smithson, 1999), all primary care providers, including nurse
practitioners and physician assistants who are playing an increasingly im-
portant role in primary care (Bielaszka-DuVernay, 2011; IOM, 2011), need
current knowledge about the epilepsies.
Special consideration also should be given to epilepsy education for
primary care providers who focus on children, older adults, and women’s
health because these groups have specific, and often complex, epilepsy-
related needs, as described throughout this report. Part of this training
should enable primary care providers to recognize when referrals to spe-
cialist physicians or specialized assistance are necessary (Montouris, 2000).
Care for Comorbidities
The epilepsies are associated with a range of physical and mental
health comorbidities and cognitive impairments that can have an impact
on many aspects of quality of life from family and social relationships and
interactions to academic performance and independent living. Research has
connected epilepsy with a variety of physical conditions (somatic comor-
bidities), such as diabetes and cardiovascular disease (Chapter 3). Often
these comorbidities, especially mental health conditions and cognitive im-
pairment, go undiagnosed and untreated or undertreated, despite patients’
symptoms (Barry, 2003; Devinsky, 2003; Marchetti et al., 2004; Ott et al.,
2003; Wiegartz et al., 1999). Mental health services are a critical compo-
nent of comprehensive and effective epilepsy care for many people. A range
of health professionals—including psychiatrists, neurologists, primary care
physicians, psychologists and counselors, psychiatric nurses, and clinical
social workers—can provide the necessary services. However, knowledge
about these comorbidities—even among epileptologists and neurologists—
appears to be lacking, and knowledge about epilepsy among mental health
professionals is also inadequate.
Few studies have examined health professionals’ knowledge about
comorbidities of epilepsy and their specific educational needs. However,
common concerns voiced among neurologists and epileptologists caring for
both children and adults with epilepsy are that they are not confident in
assessing and diagnosing common comorbid mental health conditions and
that few mental health specialists are available and both willing and well
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238 EPILEPSY ACROSS THE SPECTRUM
prepared to treat individuals with epilepsy (Hayes et al., 2007; Smith et al.,
2007; Sweetnam, 2011). Participants in focus groups conducted at the 2010
American Epilepsy Society (AES) annual meeting identified management of
psychological and social comorbidities as a “critical professional practice
gap” and noted that “they weren’t trained to treat comorbidities and are
uncomfortable doing so” (Sweetnam, 2011, p. 5). At the same time, par-
ticipants were reluctant to refer patients to psychiatrists and psychologists
because of their perceived lack of knowledge about epilepsy.
A study conducted in Brazil, where many psychiatrists reported car-
ing for people with epilepsy,1 found a significant lack of knowledge about
epilepsy and its comorbid conditions (Marchetti et al., 2004). Of particular
concern was the fact that less than half of psychiatrists knew that depres-
sion is the most common comorbid mental health condition associated
with epilepsy, which leads to questions about whether depression is being
recognized and appropriately treated. While this study may not be directly
transferable to U.S. health professionals, it does demonstrate that regular
interaction with epilepsy patients is not enough to establish awareness
about the complexities of their condition, and specific educational interven-
tions are necessary.
In an effort to improve knowledge of mental health and cognitive
comorbidities associated with epilepsy, Smith and colleagues (2007) dem-
onstrated the efficacy of a 50-minute lecture in improving the knowledge
of pediatricians and pediatric neurologists on epilepsy topics, such as the
cognitive and mental health comorbidities; effects of epilepsy, seizure medi-
cations, and stress on behavior and learning; and suicidality. Despite the
effectiveness of this small intervention, pediatricians and pediatric neu-
rologists “made it clear that they did not have time” (p. 405) to pursue
such educational opportunities, regardless of delivery mechanism (e.g.,
lecture, video, papers, manuals). This response reiterates the overall deficit
in awareness and knowledge about the importance of mental health and
cognitive comorbidities and their impact on patients’ quality of life. Clini-
cians’ lack of awareness and understanding creates a substantial barrier
to obtaining needed mental health services, which, in turn, can increase
morbidity and mortality (Barry, 2003).
The committee did not find studies that evaluated the epilepsy-specific
knowledge of nonphysician mental health professionals, such as psycholo-
gists, counselors, or psychiatric nurses. Apparently, despite the demon-
strated educational needs and concerns of health professionals, few efforts
have been made to develop corresponding educational programs or re-
sources. Developing creative ways to encourage and incentivize health
1 Of those psychiatrists surveyed, 95 percent had worked with people with epilepsy and men-
tal disorders previously and 48 percent frequently work with epilepsy patients with comorbid
mental health conditions (Marchetti et al., 2004).
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HEALTH PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION
professionals to participate in educational opportunities that focus on
comorbidities appears essential.
Caring for Women with Epilepsy
Women with epilepsy have specific needs and concerns that health care
providers must understand in order to provide high-quality care. For ex-
ample, hormonal fluctuations can affect seizure frequency, and some seizure
medications have adverse effects on reproductive functioning, pregnancy,
and breastfeeding. A number of evidence-based practice guidelines and pa-
rameters exist that define optimal care for people with epilepsy, and there
are a number of guidelines and parameters that are specific to women with
epilepsy (see Box 4-2 in Chapter 4). These guidelines are designed to inform
health professionals caring for women with epilepsy about evidence-based
best practices in the field; they include specific information on a number of
topics such as which medications are safe to prescribe during pregnancy,
risks associated with seizure frequency during pregnancy, and the use of
folic acid supplements during pregnancy (Harden et al., 2009a,b,c). The
guidelines present an important opportunity to educate physicians about
caring for women with epilepsy. However, little information is available on
how often existing guidelines are followed or what role they play in educat-
ing health professionals.
A survey was conducted in 1998 by the Epilepsy Foundation to assess
the knowledge and awareness of health professionals involved in the care of
women with epilepsy following the release of practice guidelines for provid-
ing care for women with epilepsy by the AAN and the American College
of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. The majority of respondents across all
disciplines were not aware of the effects of estrogen and progesterone on
seizures or the interactions of seizure medications with oral contraceptives
(Morrell et al., 2000). More recent surveys continue to find that physicians,
including neurologists and neurology residents and pharmacists, lack criti-
cal knowledge about the unique needs of women with epilepsy, particularly
the effects of epilepsy and seizure medications on pregnancy, breastfeeding,
and sexual dysfunction (Long et al., 2005; McAuley et al., 2009; Roberts
et al., 2011).
Roberts and colleagues (2011) concluded that, despite the availability
of guidelines from the AAN and AES, knowledge about the use of seizure
medications during pregnancy was low—less than half of neurologists were
able to identify which medications were linked to adverse events during
pregnancy. Additionally, less than a third knew that women with epilepsy
do not have a significantly increased risk for pregnancy complications or
that epilepsy does not increase the risk of perinatal mortality. The authors
concluded that more needs to be done to implement existing guidelines,
including educational outreach (Roberts et al., 2011).
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240 EPILEPSY ACROSS THE SPECTRUM
These studies and others highlight the persistent knowledge gaps as-
sociated with the specific needs of women with epilepsy, and they identify
an important opportunity for targeted educational efforts.
ATITTUDES AND BELIEFS OF HEALTH PROFESSIONALS
Because physicians can by their personal attitudes enhance or diminish
stigma of epilepsy in the community and within the family, they are also
central to quality of life issues.
–Paula Apodaca
Effective epilepsy care requires a productive and positive relation-
ship and effective communication among health care providers and pa-
tients and their families. Negative attitudes and beliefs about people with
epilepsy that may exist among some health professionals can perpetuate
stigma and negatively affect quality of care. Generally, the literature
on the attitudes and beliefs of health professionals who care for people
with epilepsy is outdated; it comes primarily from Australia, the United
Kingdom, and Brazil; and it focuses solely on medical students and phy-
sicians. In these studies, health professionals recognize the social stigma
associated with the epilepsies (Beran et al., 1981; Davies and Scambler,
1988; Gomes, 2000; Hawley et al., 2007; Hayes et al., 2007), but they
may not recognize how their own attitudes and beliefs affect the quality
of care they provide and contribute to broader societal stigma and felt
stigma for their patients.
International studies of medical students, general practitioners and
other physicians have identified negative perceptions of people with epi-
lepsy (who may be characterized as having behavioral and emotional prob-
lems, mood swings, or aggressive behavior, for example) and linked these
perceptions with stigma (Beran and Read, 1983; Beran et al., 1981; Caixeta
et al., 2007; Davies and Scambler, 1988; Frith et al., 1994; Marchetti et al.,
2004). Davies and Scambler (1988) emphasized that health care providers
can unknowingly promote stigma by avoiding discussion and treatment of
patients’ psychosocial challenges and mental health and cognitive comor-
bidities. Two decades later, Hayes and colleagues (2007) highlighted atti-
tudes of U.S. health professionals as a serious barrier in achieving positive
health outcomes for people with epilepsy, especially attitudes associated
with caring for patients with multiple needs, working with families that
have expectations that may be misaligned or unrealistic, treating patients
who do not follow medication regimens as prescribed, responding to cul-
tural variation, and managing patients with negative attitudes, including
skepticism and denial. The resulting perception among some health profes-
sionals is that people with epilepsy can be difficult to work with (Hayes
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HEALTH PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION
et al., 2007). These studies demonstrate the need for targeted efforts to
improve the attitudes of health professionals about working with people
with epilepsy and their confidence and skills in working with these patients
and families.
According to a UK study, attitudes of general practitioners can affect
patient-rated quality of care. In this research, patients rated quality of care
higher when general practitioners indicated they believed epilepsy is “a
primary care responsibility” (Thapar and Roland, 2005, p. 3). A previous
study noted that educational initiatives could play a role in building health
care providers’ confidence in caring for people with epilepsy and in improv-
ing quality of care (Thapar et al., 1998). The results from the few interna-
tional studies that have examined the impact of educational interventions
on improving attitudes of health professionals are mixed (Fernandes et al.,
2007; Mason et al., 1990; Noronha et al., 2007). However, it is promising
that the more recent studies have observed positive changes in attitude as a
result of educational interventions (Fernandes et al., 2007; Noronha et al.,
2007).
As mentioned above, some health professionals in the epilepsy field
may also be concerned about the nature of the care provided to people
with epilepsy by other health professionals, which can negatively affect the
interface among primary care, mental health, and neurology profession-
als (Hayes et al., 2007; Sweetnam, 2011). Hayes and colleagues (2007)
indicated that negative attitudes can interfere with professional relation-
ships, which in turn affect referral patterns, effective interdisciplinary col-
laboration, and patient co-management. The extent of distrust and lack
of referrals among health care providers is unknown but could potentially
have a significant impact on the quality of epilepsy care. Efforts are needed
to foster improved interdisciplinary collaboration and co-management of
patients with epilepsy, and those efforts must start during the educational
process (see also Chapter 4).
Although it is unknown whether the negative attitudes of health pro-
fessionals observed in other countries are prevalent in the United States
or have persisted over time, some evidence suggests that attitudinal chal-
lenges do exist here (e.g., Hayes et al., 2007). As Gomes (2000) pointed
out, “Care is influenced not only by knowledge, but by doctors’ attitudes.”
Additional research is needed, in order to understand current attitudes and
beliefs of U.S. health professionals about epilepsy and the corresponding
impact on stigma and quality of care. Educational programs can attempt
to foster more positive attitudes and beliefs through building confidence in
providing care; providing opportunities to practice strategies for handling
challenging situations; and, in general, promoting a patient-centered ap-
proach to improve quality of care through professional collaboration and
co-management (Chapter 4).
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258 EPILEPSY ACROSS THE SPECTRUM
The AES has recently formed a potentially fruitful collaboration with
the National Association of Epilepsy Centers (NAEC) to develop an online,
interactive program (described below) to improve patient safety in EMUs.
Despite some setbacks, online and interactive approaches to education are
promising and deserve further exploration. Significant and creative efforts
will be required to promote and incentivize the use of these modules by
health professionals inside and outside the epilepsy field.
Epilepsy organizations have developed an array of educational op-
portunities to teach health care providers about the epilepsies. They need
to continue to lead efforts to promote improved education and to expand
efforts to reach the full range of health professionals. These organizations
need to forge partnerships with each other and with other professional
organizations (e.g., the AAN, ABPN, and those listed in Box 5-3 and Ap-
pendix D), in order to develop, implement, and evaluate innovative ap-
proaches. Partnerships are essential for expanding the reach of the resources
that are available and are especially important when funding is scarce. Part-
nerships with organizations that represent other neurological diseases and
disorders (e.g., autism spectrum disorders, stroke, Alzheimer’s disease) also
could be especially beneficial in expanding the reach of educational efforts.
Epilepsy Centers
Although the NAEC’s 2010 guidelines for specialized epilepsy centers
primarily focus on the essential elements of care delivery, some guidance on
professional education within the centers also is included. The guidelines
note that CE offered through the centers “can take the form of journal
clubs, case management conferences, didactic lectures, development of care
plans or clinical pathways, and quality assessment and improvement activi-
ties” (Labiner et al., 2010, pp. 2325-2326). Despite promulgating profes-
sional education as a goal for epilepsy centers, the NAEC has not collected
data from epilepsy centers about the actual educational opportunities they
offer (Personal communication, E. Riker, NAEC, September 20, 2011). A
survey of opportunities, format, and frequency could be beneficial in estab-
lishing best practices for engaging clinicians in continuous, interdisciplinary
learning within epilepsy centers.
The specific educational area highlighted in the NAEC guidelines is the
need for educating nurses about patient safety. The guidelines indicate that
“there should be a formal educational program at centers to assure nursing
competency with regard to patient safety. This should include epilepsy-
specific training for nursing staff that will be responsible for the patients
undergoing video-EEG monitoring and other diagnostic testing” (Labiner
et al., 2010, p. 2325). The number of centers that have formal programs
of this nature is unknown. However, the NAEC and AES currently are
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HEALTH PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION
partnering to develop an online program called “Enhancing Patient Safety
in Epilepsy Monitoring Units,” which could be implemented across all
epilepsy centers and will benefit physicians, nurses, and END technolo-
gists. The program will include modules and case studies that will cover
areas such as a culture of safety, injury and adverse events, assessing safety,
patient and family education, and transitions to outpatient care and will
include systematic and individual aspects of patient safety. The objectives of
this program are to “provide standardized information, teach appropriate
skills, and make usable resources on patient safety and preferred practices
readily available to professionals caring for people in monitoring units”
and to promote interdisciplinary approaches to patient safety (Personal
communication, C. A. Tubby, AES, September 28, 2011). The development
of this online program and the collaboration between the NAEC and AES
signify important steps toward improving the education of clinicians who
care for patients in epilepsy centers.
Significant opportunities exist for epilepsy centers not only to play a
role in educating health professionals within the centers, but also to develop
partnerships and educational opportunities for other health professionals in
the communities and regions where they are located. The NAEC guidelines
say that “comprehensive epilepsy center personnel [should] also participate
in education of the larger health care community” (Labiner et al., 2010).
While this may happen in some locations, the extent of any such efforts
has not been documented.
Epilepsy centers provide an important venue for educating a wide range
of health professionals about the epilepsies. The education of health pro-
fessionals could be made a priority among the criteria for epilepsy center
accreditation (Chapter 4). Continued collaboration between the NAEC and
AES could facilitate definition of best educational practices and improve
educational programs and resources for many disciplines. Opportunities to
use innovative teaching approaches and technologies, including high-fidelity
simulation, also could be explored.
EDUCATING HEALTH PROFESSIONALS TO EDUCATE
PEOPLE WITH EPILEPSY AND THEIR FAMILIES
Health professionals need good skills in communication and patient ed-
ucation (see also Chapters 4 and 7). They play an essential role in educating
patients and families about the epilepsies and in directing them to accurate
and reliable resources and tools to improve knowledge, skills, and self-
management. In contrast, poor clinician-patient communication is a major
barrier to patients’ ability to successfully navigate the health care system,
act on basic health instructions, and self-manage chronic or other health
conditions. Studies indicate that patients recall as little as half of what their
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260 EPILEPSY ACROSS THE SPECTRUM
physicians tell them during an outpatient appointment (Schillinger et al.,
2003). Physicians need to confirm that patients understand their condition
(e.g., specific seizure type, epilepsy syndrome, seizure triggers), how to carry
out treatment and medication instructions, and risks associated with their
condition and nonadherence or discontinuation of their treatment regi-
men. However, in one diabetes study, physicians assessed patients’ recall
and comprehension of new concepts in only one in five patient encounters,
even though such practices have been shown to improve clinical outcomes
(Schillinger et al., 2003). Therefore, it is critically important that health
professionals provide patients and their families with written information
about their specific seizure type, epilepsy syndrome, and treatment plan to
augment discussions that happen in the clinical setting.
In order to educate patients and families effectively, health care provid-
ers must be knowledgeable and skilled in communicating and conveying
information that meets the individual needs and preferences of patients. A
UK survey highlighted the desire of patients with epilepsy to have physi-
cians who are both knowledgeable and effective communicators (Poole
et al., 2000). In addition, patient-rated quality of care also increases when
health care providers use patient-centered communication and shared deci-
sion making (Thapar and Roland, 2005).
Based on the discussion presented in Chapter 7, it is important that
health professionals learn how to
• recognize the critical junctures for patient and family education—at
diagnosis, during the first year, when there is a change, in treatment
options (e.g., introduction, switch, discontinuation), or when a new
concern develops (Box 7-5);
• understand the specific information needs and preferences of pa-
tients and their families and take into consideration factors related
to health literacy and culture, including cultural differences that
may exist between them and their patients (Chapter 7);
• listen actively and put the patients and their needs first when pro-
viding education and counseling;
• be competent in patient and family education and communication,
including targeting education to the specific needs of the patient;
• be comfortable discussing risks associated with the epilepsies and
their treatments including SUDEP, suicide, and status epilepticus
(Chapter 3, 4, and 7);
• be aware of informational resources for patients and families that
are available online and through local epilepsy organizations; and
• promote the use of self-management tools and programs.
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HEALTH PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION
CONCLUSION
The preceding review of current information about efforts for educat-
ing health professionals about epilepsy reveals several important points:
• Because of epilepsy’s prevalence and its diverse comorbid condi-
tions, most clinicians need at least a basic knowledge of epilepsy
diagnosis, treatment, comorbidities, and mortality risks.
• Primary care providers and others providing epilepsy services need
a deeper understanding of the epilepsies and more skills and ongo-
ing educational opportunities (a priority list of educational areas
for health professionals is included in Box 5-5).
• Ideally, epilepsy education programs would be evidence-based,
with content designed to meet providers’ needs and fill identified
knowledge gaps; programs would be delivered in ways most likely
to improve practice; and effective incentive systems would encour-
age participation by a wide range of health professionals.
• Epilepsy education programs should reflect current research find-
ings, promote best practices, incorporate clinical guidelines, and
undergo evaluation to ensure that educational objectives are being
met.
• Providers need to know how to educate other members of the care
team and patients and families.
• Educational innovations—interactive online courses, increasingly
sophisticated simulations, and other means—need to be developed,
tested, and evaluated, so that limited resources for educational
programs are used most effectively.
• Innovative and effective strategies should be used to train health
professionals throughout the educational continuum and into their
careers, through robust CE programs.
• Epilepsy centers and organizations have an important leadership
role in designing high-quality educational programs, but they need
to work collaboratively with each other and with other profes-
sional associations and credentialing bodies within and outside the
epilepsy field, in order to ensure the programs’ quality, relevance,
value, and sustainability.
• Epilepsy centers and organizations should be at the forefront of dis-
seminating high-quality educational tools and resources to health
professionals, making them available online, and promoting their
use.
• Research is needed on the scope and penetration of current epilepsy
education and training in order to identify specific gaps and make
improvements.
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262 EPILEPSY ACROSS THE SPECTRUM
PRIORITY EPILEPSY EDUCATIONAL AREAS FOR
Box 5-5 HEALTH PROFESSIONALS
In order to ensure the highest quality of care for people with epilepsy and
their families, the committee believes that health professionals should have—at a
level appropriate to their roles, responsibilities, and scope of practice—knowledge
and skills regarding the following:
• arious seizure types and syndromes associated with the epilepsies,
v
broadly, and mechanisms for recognizing and diagnosing them;
• ppropriate responses to seizures, seizure first aid, and response and treat-
a
ment for status epilepticus;
• tiologies of and risk factors for seizures and the epilepsies, with a focus
e
on prevention;
• vailable treatments—including medications, diet, devices, and surgery—
a
and the efficacy and effectiveness of those treatments—including aware-
ness of which treatments work best for which patients, their possible side
effects or harmful interactions, and the risks associated with discontinua-
tion or nonadherence;
• vailable clinical guidelines, best practices, and quality indicators for ensur-
a
ing the best possible care for people with epilepsy;
• isks associated with seizures and the epilepsies, such as accidental injury,
r
early mortality (e.g., sudden unexpected death in epilepsy, suicide);
• he full range of comorbid conditions—including somatic disorders, neuro-
t
logical disorders, mental health conditions, cognitive disorders, infectious
diseases, infestations, disabilities, injuries, and nutritional problems—and
the impact they have on a patient’s health and quality of life;
• actors related to quality of life and burden of the disorder on patients and
f
families;
• vailable health care and community resources and services, such as epi-
a
lepsy treatment centers, sources of information for patient and family
education, family support groups, and tools for self-management;
• pproaches to personalizing care based on the patient’s social situation,
a
cultural background, health literacy level, and other personal and family
factors;
• f fective s trategies f or pa tient an d f amily ed ucation an d pa tient
e
self-management;
• he role of other health professionals in providing care for individuals with
t
epilepsy and best practices in referring patients to other clinicians;
• tigma that people with epilepsy face and strategies for reducing stigma;
s
and
• pplicable laws and regulations, such as driving restrictions for individuals
a
with active seizures.
Throughout this chapter, the committee has provided the basis for its
research priorities and recommendations regarding improvements needed in
epilepsy education for health professionals that are detailed in Chapter 9.
In order to improve epilepsy education for health professionals, additional
research and time needs to be devoted to
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HEALTH PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION
• define the essential knowledge and skills for the various professions;
• identify knowledge gaps and information needs;
• evaluate existing educational materials and learning opportunities
to ensure they reflect current research, clinical guidelines, and best
practices;
• explore and develop innovative educational tools and technologies
that are interactive and engaging; and
• disseminate educational information and tools more broadly.
Partnerships among epilepsy organizations and relevant professional
boards and associations, such as the AES, ILAE, Epilepsy Foundation, and
those listed in Appendix D, will be critical to realizing these goals.
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