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3
The Geriatric Mental Health and
Substance Use Workforce
Abstract: The geriatric mental health and substance use (MH/SU)
workforce is a loosely defined set of providers who assess, diagnose, treat,
manage, and care for older adults who have or are at risk for MH/SU
conditions. Members of this workforce have shifting and overlapping
roles, as older adults may see many types of health providers to deal
with their complex array of physical and mental health concerns. Cur -
rent education and training for most health care providers do not cover
the skills and competencies necessary to provide adequate care for older
adults who need MH/SU care. Geriatric MH/SU specialists, who are the
most highly trained to handle complex MH/SU cases, are in very short
supply. Direct care workers, peer support providers, and consumers and
their families are playing increasingly vital roles in the MH/SU work -
force. Training for these groups is less systematic and thus more difficult
to analyze. Though the challenges facing the geriatric MH/SU workforce
are numerous and complex, many stakeholders have initiated efforts to
build and strengthen the workforce, with various degrees of success.
This chapter addresses the Institute of Medicine (IOM) committee’s
most fundamental challenge: to assess the capacity and competence of the
mental health and substance use (MH/SU) workforce to meet the needs
of the rapidly growing older population. Yet, this workforce is not easy
159
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160 MENTAL HEALTH AND SUBSTANCE USE WORKFORCE FOR OLDER ADULTS
to define, document, or examine. The term “workforce” often connotes
a cohesive, definable group of professionals, paraprofessionals, and oth -
ers who are employed with a common purpose. However, the geriatric
MH/SU workforce is more aptly described as a de facto group (Robiner,
2006) of diverse professionals and others who care for older adults in a
wide variety of settings under many different working conditions. Some
members of the MH/SU workforce are highly trained individuals with
advanced graduate training while others have associate’s or bachelor’s
degrees, high school diplomas, or less formal education (Hoge et al., 2007).
Each profession has its own history, unique educational requirements and
curriculum, career path, certification and licensure requirements, earning
potential, and employment options, though these may vary significantly
within some professions. In addition, the MH/SU workforce is blurred
by the ambiguous boundaries among the numerous professions. Mental
health providers, such as psychiatrists and psychologists, advanced prac-
tice nurses and physician assistants, and counselors and social workers,
often have overlapping roles and scopes of practice, which may differ by
state.
Many researchers have described the difficulties in trying to ascertain
the nature, location, qualifications, and size of the MH/SU workforce for
patients of any age (Hoge et al., 2007; IOM, 2006; Robiner, 2006). Focusing
on the workforce with specific skills who are providing geriatric MH/SU
services is even more of a challenge. The committee discussed these
challenges at its first meeting and addressed two questions: first, how
to define the geriatric MH/SU workforce and, second, how to estimate
workforce demands and supply. These decisions are explained below.
The chapter then presents a review of the key sectors of the workforce.
The following sections will describe some of the primary challenges in
improving the geriatric MH/SU workforce and include relevant efforts
that have been implemented to strengthen the workforce.
DEFINING THE GERIATRIC MH/SU WORKFORCE1
Older adults are diagnosed and treated for MH/SU conditions by
an array of providers in a wide variety of settings, including primary
care offices, hospitals, individuals’ homes, long-term care facilities, and
specialty settings (both outpatient and residential), which makes defining
the “geriatric MH/SU workforce” difficult. The committee focused on
those who provide services specifically in the diagnosis, treatment, care,
1 This report uses the term “geriatric MH/SU workforce” to refer to the full range of per -
sonnel providing services to older adults with mental health and substance use conditions.
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161
THE GERIATRIC MENTAL HEALTH AND SUBSTANCE USE WORKFORCE
BOX 3-1
Geriatric Mental Health and Substance Abuse
Workforce Professions
• Physicians
Primary care physicians
Psychiatrists
• Nurses
Licensed practical nurses
Registered nurses (RNs)
Advanced practice RNs
• Physician assistants
• Psychologists
• Social workers
• Marriage and family therapists
• Counselors
• Pharmacists
• Occupational therapists
• Peer support specialists
• Community health workers
• Direct care workers
• Family and other unpaid caregivers
and management of MH/SU conditions in the geriatric population. This
includes primary care providers, MH/SU professionals, and profession -
als providing other types of therapies for MH/SU conditions, direct care
workers (DCWs), community providers, and family caregivers, as listed
in Box 3-1. Many other groups also work closely with older adults and are
integral to the overall health and well-being of this population. Their role
in identifying MH/SU symptoms and referring older adults to appropri -
ate services is vitally important, but will not be discussed in this review.
ESTIMATING WORKFORCE SUPPLY AND DEMAND
Questions about demand/need and their relationship to supply
emerge naturally in any discussion of workforce issues. At first blush, it
might seem straightforward to translate data on illness prevalence into
estimates of service need and then, in turn, to estimates of required work -
force supply. Throughout the history of health care, however, such efforts
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162 MENTAL HEALTH AND SUBSTANCE USE WORKFORCE FOR OLDER ADULTS
have been fraught with methodological challenges and serious questions
about the validity of estimates that have been generated.
A previous IOM committee, which focused on the provision of psy-
chosocial services to cancer patients, grappled with this issue and drew
the following conclusions:
Ideally, one might want to estimate carefully the level of need for these
services and then attempt to predict accurately the necessary workforce
supply to meet that need. However, experts in health care workforce is -
sues note decades of failure of efforts to estimate the size, composition,
and distribution of the nation’s health care workforce. . . . Even in coun -
tries with centrally managed, universal health care systems, progress in
medical technology and changes in the organization of care can create
large forecasting errors. Predicting workforce supply in the United States
is further complicated by the fact that demand for services is not tightly
controlled, and the distribution of the workforce is neither controlled nor
actively shaped through reimbursement mechanisms. . . . To complicate
the matter, data on health professions are not collected in a routine,
standardized fashion across the multiple disciplines . . . and the dramatic
growth in selected disciplines, such as clinical psychology and counsel -
ing, has reshaped the composition of the health care workforce. Another
limitation on a forecasting effort is that the same function (e.g., care
coordination, case management, or patient navigation) may be carried
out by different types of professionals, paraprofessionals, or volunteers
in different organizations or systems. Thus, workforce needs are heavily
influenced at the local level by the assignment of functions to provid -
ers. For these and other reasons . . . the development of estimates of the
overall workforce capacity required to meet psychosocial health needs
through modeling or other methods was not a feasible activity for this
study. (IOM, 2008a, pp. 287-288)
Data on the geriatric MH/SU workforce is even more elusive because
the majority of workers who provide services to the geriatric population
do not have recognized credentials in this specialty, and are thus more
difficult to count, track, and analyze. The committee used information
from professional organizations, government agencies such as the Bureau
of Labor Statistics (BLS) and the Health Resources and Services Admin-
istration (HRSA), and other sources to obtain estimates of the existing
workforce. However, the committee chose not to make predictions of
workforce capacity or demands because the data to inform these estimates
are severely lacking.
REVIEW OF THE GERIATRIC MH/SU WORKFORCE
This portion of the chapter will provide an overview of the main pro-
fessions that comprise the geriatric MH/SU workforce. Each section will
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163
THE GERIATRIC MENTAL HEALTH AND SUBSTANCE USE WORKFORCE
describe the general scope of the profession, the nature of the profession’s
work with older adults and patients or clients with MH/SU conditions,
and workforce characteristics. Required training and competency in geri-
atric MH/SU will be discussed briefly for each group. Detailed require-
ments for each profession in the areas of older adult care, mental health,
substance use, co-occurring MH/SU conditions, and geriatric MH/SU are
listed in Appendix C.
Overview on Accreditation, Licensure, Examination, and Certification
A wide variety of organizations and entities, at both the national
and state levels, play a role in setting standards and requirements for the
education and training of health care providers. Accreditation, licensure,
examination, and certification are the primary processes used to ensure
quality training and minimum competencies for a provider. The process,
structure, and requirements for each vary among professions. However,
there are some commonalities, and they will be described generally here.
The entities responsible for accreditation, licensure, examination, and
certification for each profession are listed in Table 3-1.
Accreditation is the primary process by which higher education insti -
tutions and programs ensure quality to the public. Accreditation is carried
out by private, nonprofit organizations. Institutions, specific programs, or
freestanding schools (e.g., schools of medicine) may be accredited. While
accreditation is voluntary, it is often used as an indicator of academic
quality, and may be a condition of federal and state funding or profes -
sional licensure. Accreditation bodies are held accountable by receiving
recognition from the Council for Higher Education Accreditation (non-
governmental) or the U.S. Department of Education (Eaton, 2011).
Licensure is state regulated and required for individual practitioners.
Where a profession is licensed, it is illegal for an individual to practice
without a license (Hartigan, 2011). State licensing boards establish scopes
of practice, minimum standards for education and training, examina-
tion requirements, and standards for professional behavior and ethics
(NCSBN, 2011b).
Examination is a process that is typically required for licensure.
Because state licensing boards are the primary user of exam scores, many
licensing exams are created by nonprofit associations of state licensing
boards, such as the Association of Social Work Boards and the National
Coalition of State Boards of Nursing. Most professions use the same
exam nationwide to ensure consistency and to improve the portability of
credentials across state lines. However, individual state boards may have
different criteria for passing.
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TABLE 3-1
164
Accreditation, Licensure, Examination, and Certification Bodies for the Mental Health and Substance Use
Workforce
Certification
Workforce Licensure (Voluntary
Sector Accreditation Licensure Examination Credentialing)
Physicians: Liaison Committee State medical boards Federation of State American Board of
Allopathic on Medical Education Medical Boards and Medical Specialties
(MD) (undergraduate); National Board of
Accreditation Council Medical Examiners
for Graduate Medical (U.S. Medical
Education (graduate) Licensing Exam)
Physicians: American State medical boards National Board American
Osteopathic Osteopathic of Osteopathic Osteopathic
(DO) Association Medical Examiners Association Specialty
(Comprehensive Certifying Boards
Osteopathic Licensure
Examination)
Nursing: State boards of State boards of National Council None
Licensed nursing; National nursing of State Boards of
practical League of Nursing Nursing (National
nurses Accrediting Council Licensure
Commission Examination for
(voluntary) Practical Nurses)
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Nursing: State boards of State boards of National Council American Nurses
Registered nursing; Commission nursing of State Boards of Credentialing Center
nurses (RNs) on Collegiate Nursing (National
Nursing Education Council Licensure
(voluntary); Examination for
National League of Registered Nurses)
Nursing Accrediting
Commission
(voluntary)
Nursing: State boards of State boards of None American Nurses
Advanced nursing; Commission nursing Credentialing Center;
practice RNs on Collegiate American Academy
Nursing Education of Nurse Practitioners;
(voluntary); American Association
National League of of Critical-Care
Nursing Accrediting Nurses Certification
Commission Corporation
(voluntary)
Physician Accreditation Review State PA or medical National Commission National Commission
assistants Commission on boards on Certification of on Certification of
(PAs) Education for the Physician Assistants Physician Assistants
Physician Assistant (PA National
Certifying Exam)
Psychology American State boards of Association of Association Board
Psychological psychology State and Provincial of Professional
Association Psychology Boards Psychology
Commission on (Examination for
Accreditation Professional Practice
in Psychology)
165
continued
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TABLE 3-1 Continued
166
Certification
Workforce Licensure (Voluntary
Sector Accreditation Licensure Examination Credentialing)
Social work Council on Social State boards of social Association of National Association
Work Education work, behavioral Social Work Boards of Social Workers
health professionals (bachelor’s, master’s,
advanced generalist,
and clinical social
work licensure
examinations)
Marriage Commission on State boards of Association of None
and family Accreditation for MFT, counseling, or Marriage and Family
therapists Marriage and Family behavioral health Therapy Regulatory
(MFTs) Therapy Education professionals Boards (AMFTRB
Examination in
Marriage and Family
Therapy)
Counselors Council for the State boards of National Board for National Board for
Accreditation of counseling, or Certified Counselors Certified Counselors;
Counseling and behavioral health (National Counselor Commission on
Related Educational professionals Examination, National Rehabilitation
Programs; Council Clinical Mental Counselor
on Rehabilitation Health Counseling Certification
Education Examination,
Examination for
Master’s Addiction
Counseling);
Commission on
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Rehabilitation
Counselor
Certification (Certified
Rehabilitation
Counselor
Examination)
Pharmacists Accreditation State boards of National Association Board of Pharmacy
Council for Pharmacy pharmacy of Boards of Specialties;
Education; American Pharmacy Commission for
Society of Health (North American Certification in
System Pharmacists Pharmacist Licensure Geriatric Pharmacy
(residency programs) Examination,
Multistate Pharmacy
Jurisprudence
Examination); state
boards of pharmacy
(may have separate
state jurisprudence
examination)
Occupational Accreditation Council State boards of National Board National Board
therapists for Occupational occupational therapy for Certification in for Certification
Therapy Education Occupational Therapy in Occupational
(NBCOT Certification Therapy, American
Examination) Occupational Therapy
Association
167
continued
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TABLE 3-1 Continued
168
Certification
Workforce Licensure (Voluntary
Sector Accreditation Licensure Examination Credentialing)
Direct care State boards State boards Evaluation developed None
workers, of nursing or of nursing or by state regulatory
departments of public departments of public body; some states
certified
health; Medicare- or health use National Council
nurse
Medicaid-qualified of State Boards of
assistants
nursing homes Nursing program
must follow federal (National Nurse Aide
requirements for Assessment Program)
minimum training
Medicare- or
Medicaid-qualified
nursing homes
must follow federal
requirements for
evaluation
Home health State boards of Some states do not Evaluation None
aides nursing, departments credential home requirements
of public health; health aides; where established by state
Medicare- or credentialing exists, it regulatory body
Medicaid-qualified is regulated by state
Medicare- or
home health agencies boards of nursing or
Medicaid-qualified
must follow federal departments of public
home health agencies
requirements for health
must follow federal
minimum training
requirements for
evaluation
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Personal and Most states do not Most states do not Most states do not National Association
home care regulate personal credential personal require evaluation for Home Care and
aides and home care aide or home care aides; or examination of Hospice (Home Care
training programs federal legislation personal or home Aide Certification);
requires states to care aides Direct Care Alliance
establish personnel (Personal Care and
qualifications for Support Credential);
Medicaid-funded CertifiedCare (Basic
personal care Caregiving, Advanced
services, but does Health and Safety,
not establish specific and Alzheimer’s-
standards Dementia Specialist
Certification)
SOURCES: 42 C.F.R. Parts 483 and 484, State Medicaid Manual (Chapter 4, Section 4480, paragraph E).
169
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