WORKFORCE NEEDS IN
Veterinary
Medicine
Committee to Assess the Current and
Future Workforce Needs in Veterinary Medicine
Board on Agriculture and Natural Resources
Board on Higher Education and Workforce
Division on Earth and Life Studies
Policy and Global Affairs Division
NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL
OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES
THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS
Washington, D.C.
THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS 500 Fifth Street, NW Washington, DC 20001
NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competences and with regard for appropriate balance.
This study was funded by Association of American Veterinary Medical Colleges, the American Veterinary Medical Association, the American Animal Hospital Association, Bayer Animal Health, and the Burroughs Welcome Fund under Award No. 1006607. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the organizations or agencies that provided support for the project.
International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-309-25744-2
International Standard Book Number-10: 0-309-25744-1
Library of Congress Control Number: 2013949213
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Copyright 2013 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Suggested Citation: National Research Council. 2011. Workforce Needs in Veterinary Medicine.
Printed in the United States of America.
THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES
Advisers to the Nation on Science, Engineering, and Medicine
The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Ralph J. Cicerone is president of the National Academy of Sciences.
The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government. The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. C. D. Mote, Jr., is president of the National Academy of Engineering.
The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the responsibility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal government and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of medical care, research, and education. Dr. Harvey V. Fineberg is president of the Institute of Medicine.
The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy’s purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Ralph J. Cicerone and Dr. C. D. Mote, Jr., are chair and vice chair, respectively, of the National Research Council.
COMMITTEE TO ASSESS THE CURRENT AND FUTURE WORKFORCE NEEDS IN VETERINARY MEDICINE
ALAN M. KELLY, Chair, University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine, Philadelphia (Emeritus)
SHEILA W. ALLEN, University of Georgia, Athens
VAL R. BEASLEY, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (Emeritus)
BONNIE BUNTAIN, University of Calgary Veterinary Medicine, Alberta, Canada
HENRY E. CHILDERS, Cranston Animal Hospital, Rhode Island
GARY COCKERELL, Cockerell Alliances, Grand Junction, Colorado
HAROLD DAVIS, Amgen, Covington, Georgia (retired)
JAMES G. FOX, (through February 2008), Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge
MALCOLM GETZ, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee
TRACEY S. MCNAMARA, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona, California
GAY Y. MILLER, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
BENNIE I. OSBURN, University of California, Davis (Emeritus)
MARK V. PAULY, Wharton School of University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia
FRED W. QUIMBY, The Rockefeller University, New York (retired)
WILLIE M. REED, (through February 2008), Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana
JOHN A. SHADDUCK, (through October 2007), Shadduck Consulting LLC, Denton, Texas
MICHAEL A. STOTO, (through March 2008), Georgetown University, Washington, DC
STEPHEN F. SUTHERLAND, Pfizer Animal Health, Kalamazoo, Michigan
Staff
ROBIN A. SCHOEN, Director, Board on Agriculture and Natural Resources
PETER HENDERSON, Director Board on Higher Education and Workforce
JIM VOYTUK, Senior Program Officer, Board on Higher Education and Workforce
KAREN L. IMHOF, Administrative Coordinator, Board on Agriculture and Natural Resources
KARA MURPHY, Program Assistant, Board on Higher Education and Workforce
BOARD ON AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES
NORMAN R. SCOTT, Chair, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York (Emeritus)
PEGGY F. BARLETT, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
HAROLD L. BERGMAN, University of Wyoming, Laramie
RICHARD A. DIXON, University of North Texas, Denton
GARY F. HARTNELL, Monsanto Company, St. Louis, Missouri
GENE HUGOSON, University of Minnesota, St. Paul
MOLLY M. JAHN, University of Wisconsin-Madison
ROBBIN S. JOHNSON, Cargill Foundation, Wayzata, Minnesota
A.G. KAWAMURA, Solutions from the Land, Washington, DC
JULIA L. KORNEGAY, North Carolina State University, Raleigh
PHILIP E. NELSON, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana
CHARLES W. RICE, Kansas State University, Manhattan
ROGER A. SEDJO, Resources for the Future, Washington, DC
KATHLEEN SEGERSON, University of Connecticut, Storrs
MERCEDES VAZQUEZ-AÑON, Novus International, Inc., St. Charles, Missouri
Staff
ROBIN A. SCHOEN, Director
CAMILLA YANDOC ABLES, Program Officer
KAREN L. IMHOF, Administrative Coordinator
KARA N. LANEY, Program Officer
JANET M. MULLIGAN, Senior Program Associate for Research
KATHLEEN REIMER, Senior Program Assistant
EVONNE P.Y. TANG, Senior Program Officer
PEGGY TSAI, Program Officer
BOARD ON HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE
WILLIAM E. KIRWAN, Chair, University System of Maryland, Adelphi
F. KING ALEXANDER, California State University, Long Beach
SUSAN K. AVERY, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
JEAN-LOU CHAMEAU, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena
CARLOS CASTILLO-CHAVEZ, Arizona State University, Tempe
RITA COLWELL, University of Maryland, College Park and the Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore
PETER EWELL, National Center for Higher Education Management Systems, Boulder, Colorado
SYLVIA HURTADO, University of California, Los Angeles
WILLIAM KELLEY, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia
EARL LEWIS, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
PAULA STEPHAN, Georgia State University Andrew Young School of Policy Studies, Atlanta
Staff
PETER HENDERSON, Director
GAIL GREENFIELD, Senior Program Officer
SABRINA HALL, Program Associate
JIM VOYTUK, Senior Program Officer
Preface
In 2007, the American Veterinary Medical Association, the Association of American Veterinary Medical Colleges, the American Animal Hospital Association, Bayer Animal Health, and the Burroughs Welcome Fund asked the National Research Council (NRC) to conduct a comprehensive study of the current and future workforce needs in veterinary medicine. The request was motivated by concerns about how well the veterinary profession was presently meeting its public responsibilities and, in terms of human resources and facilities, how well it could adjust to the complex challenges facing society in the 21st century.
Many of the concerns about the profession came into focus following the outbreak of West Nile fever in 1999: despite the spread of a zoonotic disease, human and veterinary public health agencies acted independently and did not communicate with one another. Subsequent outbreaks of SARS, monkeypox, bovine spongiform encephalopathy, highly pathogenic avian influenza, H1N1 influenza, and a variety of food safety and environmental issues heightened public concerns. They also raised further questions about the directions of veterinary medicine and the capacity of public health services the profession provides both in the United States and abroad. After September 11, 2001, concern about the vulnerability of the food supply, including the American livestock and poultry industries, drew attention to the declining presence of veterinarians serving the animal industries across the nation.
These and other demographic, economic, political, and environmental developments of the 21st century will profoundly change society and the services the veterinary profession must provide in order to remain relevant to the public. Responsibilities will increasingly involve global issues with greater emphasis focused on the interface of human, animal, and ecosystem health. To meet these needs, there are doubts that the present supply of veterinarians are adequate in biomedical research, industry, academia, companion animal practice, food animal medicine, public health, and wildlife health. This report attempts to anticipate some of the needs and measures that are essential for the profession to fulfill given its changing roles in the 21st century.
The study was undertaken at a time when the nation experienced a major economic downturn, which made deciphering the long-term trends in demand
for veterinary services very challenging. Some estimates (the number of livestock being raised, for example) will always be in flux due to economic or industry cycles, but in the long term, the number of animals is less important for the profession than the evolution in the care and services needed for those animals.
Under the direction of the NRC Board on Agriculture and Natural Resources and Board on Higher Education and Workforce, a committee was impaneled to address the issues provided in the Statement of Task. The committee was representative of the breadth of interest of the veterinary profession, and first met in April 2007 to consider the large undertaking the study commissioned. Over the next three years, the committee met on six occasions and participated in numerous conference calls to discuss ways of obtaining the needed information, review manuscripts, and revise the report. As would be expected from a committee with such diverse backgrounds, there were distinct and at times conflicting points of view. Nevertheless, committee members were always willing to learn from each other and in the end came to a consensus on the issues posed by the charge.
Throughout the study the committee was very ably supported by the staff of the National Academies and is indebted to Jim Voytuk, Janet Mulligan, and Kara Murphy for their expert assistance. The committee is especially grateful to Robin Schoen, Director of the Board of Agriculture and Natural Resources, for her encouragement, advice, and for keeping the committee focused on their charge.
Alan M. Kelly, Chair Committee to Assess the Current and Future Workforce Needs in Veterinary Medicine
Acknowledgments
This report has been reviewed in draft form by persons chosen for their diverse perspectives and technical expertise in accordance with procedures approved by the National Research Council Report Review Committee. The purpose of the independent review is to provide candid and critical comments that will assist the institution in making its published report as sound as possible and to ensure that the report meets institutional standards of objectivity, evidence, and responsiveness to the study charge. The review comments and draft manuscript remain confidential to protect the integrity of the deliberative process. We wish to thank the following individuals for their review of the report:
L. Garry Adams, Texas A&M University
Burt S. Barnow, George Washington University
Stephen W. Barthold, University of California, Davis
Alicia L. Carriquiry, Iowa State University
Norman F. Cheville, Iowa State University (Emeritus)
Linda C. Cork, Stanford University (Emeritus)
Arthur L. Lage, Harvard Medical School
Joan M. Lakoski, University of Pittsburgh
Thomas R. Lenz, Pfizer Animal Health
Timothy C. McCarthy, Surgical Specialty Clinical for Animals
James D. McKean, Iowa State University
David E. Swayne, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service
Margaret A. Wild, U.S. Department of Interior, National Park Service
Although the reviewers listed above have provided many constructive comments and suggestions, they were not asked to endorse the conclusions or recommendations, nor did they see the final draft of the report before its release. The review of the report was overseen by Frederick A. Murphy, University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston, and George E. Seidel, Jr., Colorado State University. Appointed by the National Research Council, they were responsible for making certain that an independent examination of the report was carried out in accordance with institutional procedures and that all review comments were carefully considered. Responsibility for the final content of the report rests with the authoring committee and the institution.
Contents
Companion-Animal Veterinarians
Lifestyle Benefits of Companion-Animal Medicine
Demand for Companion-Animal Veterinary Services
Future Supply of Companion-Animal Veterinarians
Meeting Future Workforce Demands
4 FOOD-ANIMAL VETERINARY MEDICINE
Industry Consolidation: Changing Demand for Veterinary Services
The Supply of Food-Animal Veterinarians
6 VETERINARIANS IN PUBLIC PRACTICE
Federal Agency Employers of Veterinarians
Veterinarians in State Government
Salaries of Public Practice Veterinarians
Future Supply of Public Practice Veterinarians
Addressing the Risk of Gaps in the Public Veterinary Workforce
7 VETERINARIANS IN WILDLIFE AND ECOSYSTEM HEALTH
Roles of Veterinarians in Wildlife and Ecosystem Health
The Future Supply of Veterinarians for Jobs in Wildlife and Ecosystem Health
Urbanization in the Developing World
Sustainable Intensification of Food Animal Production
The Impact of Infectious Disease on Food Security
The Importance of a Global Veterinary Structure
9 ACADEMIC VETERINARY MEDICINE
Funding for Veterinarian Education
The Evolving Veterinary Curriculum
New Concepts in Veterinary Education
The Role of Veterinary Faculty
Post-DVM Training and Education
Research in Academic Veterinary Medicine
10 AN ECONOMIC PERSPECTIVE ON THE VETERINARY PROFESSION
The Rate of Return of a DVM Degree
Increasing the Rate of Return of a Veterinary Education
11 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The State of the Veterinary Profession: Another Defining Moment in its History
List of Tables, Figures and Boxes
TABLES
S-1 Employed U.S. Veterinarians in 2010
S-2 Veterinarians in the Federal Government
1-1 Number (2010) and Earnings (2009) of Veterinarians Employed in the United States
2-1 Companion-Animal Full-Time Equivalents in 2006
2-2 Predicted DVM Full-Time Equivalents Needed in 2016 Based on Committee Estimates
2-3 An Estimate of Veterinarians Employed in 2008 Expected to be Working in 2016
2-4 Projected Number of Graduates of Accredited Colleges of Veterinary Medicine 2008-2016
2-5 Projected Career Paths for Graduates 2008-2016
2-6 Estimated Number of 2016 Companion-Animal Full-Time Equivalents from New Graduates
3-1 Horse Population by Activity
3-2 Equine Practices Devoted to Horses
3-3 American Association of Equine Practitioners Membership Attrition Rates by Years in Practice
4-1 Number of Farms Producing Pigs, 1994-2006
4-2 Changes in the Size Structure of U.S. Dairy Farms, 2000-2006
4-3 Changes in the Size and Location of U.S. Dairy Farms, 1994-2006
4-5 Size Distribution of U.S. Beef Farms
4-6 Use of Veterinary Services by Herd Size in Different Sectors of Beef Industry
4-8 Starting Salaries and Mean Debt for New Graduates, 1989-2011
5-1 Number of Companies that Responded to the Committee Questionnaire, by Industry Sector
5-5 Veterinarians in the Human Health Division of Company A
5-7 American College of Laboratory Animal Medicine Diplomates by Employment Sector, 2007
5-8 American College of Veterinary Pathology Diplomates by Employment Sector, 2007
5-10 Number of Active American College of Veterinary Pathology Members, Retirees, and New Diplomates
6-1 Veterinarians in the U.S. Government in 2008 and 2010
6-2 2009 Average Annual Salaries of Federal Employees
6-3 Reported Mean Salary Levels for Federal Veterinarians
7-2 Examples of University-based Wildlife Programs
8-1 Past and Projected Trends of Consumption of Livestock Products
9-2 Specialty Boards Recognized by the American Veterinary Medical Association
9-3 Funding for Veterinary Research
9-4 National Institute of Health Funding to Veterinary Colleges, 2011
10-1 Estimated Average Return for Obtaining a DVM
C-1 Food-Animal Workforce, 2001-2007, by State
C-2a Food-Animal-Exclusive Veterinarians: Mean Ages and Percentage Over Age 50, by State
C-2b Food-Animal-Exclusive Veterinarians: Mean Ages and Percentage Over Age 60, by State
C-3a Food-Animal-Predominant Veterinarians Over Age 50, by State
C-3b Food-Animal-Predominant Veterinarians Over Age 60, by State
FIGURES
S-1 Student debt and mean starting salary for new DVM graduates
2-1 1997-2009 Associate mean income by practice sector
2-2 Numbers of pets in American households
2-3 Average annual expenditure per pet-owning household
2-4 Impact of veterinary technicians and assistants on DVM practice revenue
3-1 American Quarter Horse Association registrations, 1995-2008
3-2 Number of Thoroughbred races in the United States and Canada/Puerto Rico, 1998-2009
3-3 Registered Thoroughbred stallions, 2000-2008
3-4 Thoroughbred mares bred, 2000-2008
4-1 The value of livestock products relative to corn from 2000-2012
4-2 Number of hog operations, 1984-2008, in thousands
4-3 New members of American Association of Swine Veterinarians, 1966-2006
4-4 Number and average size of dairy farms in the United States in thousands, 1970-2006
4-5 Dashboard analysis tool: How many dairy vets?
4-6 Recruitment to the American Association of Bovine Practitioners 1975-2005
4-7 Number of all U.S. cattle and beef-cow operations, 1998-2008
4-8 United States sheep and lamb population, 1998-2009
4-9 U.S. sheep and goat operations in 2007 and 2008
4-10 Changes in the composition of the food animal workforce
4-11 Age Groups within food-animal-exclusive practice and 2007
4-12 Age Groups within food-animal-predominant practice and 2007
4-13 Age Groups within mixed-food-animal practice and 2007
4-14 Career selection of veterinary graduates entering food-animal practice
4-15 2009 median incomes of practice owners and associates by category
10-1 Mean incomes in small-animal practice
10-2 Mean DVM income (in 2006 dollars) in private practice, 1965-2007
10-3 Mean starting DVM salaries (in 2006 dollars)
10-4 Positions taken immediately after earning DVM, by percentage of DVM respondents
10-5 Median career earnings in the health profession
10-6 New DVM graduates by year in the United States
11-1 Student debt and mean starting salary for new DVM graduates
C-1 Food-animal concentrations in counties that have no veterinarians
C-3 Distribution of the 1,011 food-animal-exclusive veterinarians in the United States, 2007
C-4 Distribution of the 4,200 mixed-food-animal veterinarians in the United States, 2007
C-5 Distribution of the 3,861 food-animal-predominant veterinarians in the United States, 2007
C-6a Distribution of egg-laying industry in the United States, 2007
C-6b Distribution of broiler industry in the United States, 2007
C-7 Changes in the U.S. hog and pig inventory, 1992-1997
C-8 The changing pork industry in Iowa and 2002
C-9 Milk-cow population, change in inventory, 2002-2007
C-10 Beef-cows inventory, 2007
C-11a Meat-goat and other goat inventory
C-11b Dairy-goat inventory, 2007
C-12a Distribution of food-animal-exclusive veterinarians over age 50
C-12b Distribution of food-animal-exclusive veterinarians over age 60
C-13a Distribution of food-animal-predominant veterinarians over age 50
C-13b Distribution of food-animal-predominant veterinarians over age 60
C-14a Distribution of mixed-food-animal veterinarians over age 50
C-14b Distribution of mixed-food-animal veterinarians over age 60
BOXES
2-2 Calculation of Companion-Animal, Full-Time Equivalent Veterinarians
4-1 Changes in the American Veterinary Medical Association Membership Data
7-1 Excerpts from the Executive Summary of One Health - A New Professional Imperative
7-2 The Manhattan Principles on “One World, One Health”
7-3 Defining the Role of the Wildlife Veterinarian
7-4 Cross-Sectorial Approach to Emerging Infectious Diseases
7-5 Knowledge and Career Competencies in Wildlife and Ecosystem Health
8-1 Rinderpest Eradication: A Success Story
9-1 Standards for Accreditation from the American Veterinary Medical Association
9-2 Increasing Number of Master’s Programs
10-1 Possible Reasons for Differences in the Earnings of Male and Female DVMs
Acronyms
AABP | American Association of Bovine Practitioners |
AAEP | American Association of Equine Practitioners |
AASV | American Association of Swine Veterinarians |
AAVC | American Association of Veterinary Clinicians |
AAVMC | Association of American Veterinary Medical Colleges |
AAWV | American Association of Wildlife Veterinarians |
AAZV | American Association of Zoo Veterinarians |
ACLAM | American College of Laboratory Animal Medicine |
ACPV | American College of Poultry Veterinarians |
ACVP | American College of Veterinary Pathologists |
AHC | American Horse Council |
AHI | Animal Health Institute |
ASLAP | American Society of Laboratory Animal Practitioners |
APHIS | Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (U.S. Department of Agriculture) |
AVMA | American Veterinary Medical Association |
BSE | bovine spongiform encephalopathy |
CDC | U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |
CPDF | Central Personnel Data File (Office of Personnel Management) |
CRO | Contract Research Organization |
DHS | U.S. Department of Homeland Security |
DOI | U.S. Department of the Interior |
DVM | Doctor of Veterinary Medicine |
ECFVG | Educational Commission for Foreign Veterinary Graduates |
EPA | U.S. Environmental Protection Agency |
FAD | foreign-animal disease |
FAO | Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |
FDA | U.S. Food and Drug Administration |
FMD | foot-and-mouth disease |
FSIS | Food Safety and Inspection Service (U.S. Department of Agriculture) |
FSVMC | Food Supply Veterinary Medicine Coalition |
FTE | full-time equivalent |
FWS | U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (U.S. Department of the Interior) |
GAO | Government Accountability Office |
GCP | good clinical practice |
GLP | good laboratory practice |
HHS | U.S. Department of Health and Human Services |
HPAI | highly pathogenic avian influenza |
H1N1 | influenza A (H1N1) 2009 (“swine flu”) |
IAAAM | International Association for Aquatic Animal Medicine |
LA | large-animal |
LAE | large-animal exclusive |
LAP | large-animal predominant |
MPH | Master of Public Health |
NCRR | National Center for Research Resources (National Institutes of Health) |
NGO | non-governmental organization |
NIFA | National Institute of Food and Agriculture (U.S. Department of Agriculture) |
NIH | National Institutes of Health |
NPS | National Park Service |
NRC | National Research Council |
NWHC | National Wildlife Health Center (U.S. Geological Survey) |
NWRA | National Wildlife Rehabilitators Association |
OSHA | Occupational Safety and Health Administration (U.S. Department of Labor) |
SARS | severe acute respiratory syndrome |
SETAC | Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry |
STP | Society of Toxicologic Pathology |
T-MAC | Talent Management Advisory Council |
USAID | U.S. Agency for International Development |
USDA | U.S. Department of Agriculture |
USGS | U.S. Geological Survey |
VMCAS | Veterinary Medical College Application Service |
VMD | Veterinariae Medicinae Doctoris |
VMO | Veterinarian Medical Officer |
WCS FVP | Wildlife Conservation Society’s Field Veterinary Program |
WDA | Wildlife Disease Association |
WHO | World Health Organization |