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Committee on the Sustainable Development of Algal Biofuels
Board on Agriculture and Natural Resources
Division on Earth and Life Studies
Board on Energy and Environmental Systems
Division on Engineering and Physical Sciences
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THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS 500 Fifth Street, NW Washington, DC 20001
NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the
National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy
of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of
the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competences and with regard
for appropriate balance.
This study was supported by Contract/Grant No. DE-DT0001899 between the National Academy of
Sciences and the Department of Energy. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations
expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the
organizations or agencies that provided support for the project.
International Standard Book Number 13: 978-0-309-26032-9
International Standard Book Number 10: 0-309-26032-9
Additional copies of this report are available for sale from the National Academies Press, 500 Fifth
Street, NW, Keck 360, Washington, DC 20001; (800) 624-6242 or (202) 334-3313; http://www.nap.edu/.
Cover: Design by Anne Rogers. Photo courtesy of Sammy Boussiba, J. Blaustein Institute for Desert
Research, Sde-Boker.
Copyright 2012 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America
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The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished
scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and
technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the authority of the charter granted to it
by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal govern-
ment on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Ralph J. Cicerone is president of the National Academy
of Sciences.
The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the National
Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its ad-
ministration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the
responsibility for advising the federal government. The National Academy of Engineering also spon-
sors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and
recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. Charles M. Vest is president of the National
Academy of Engineering.
The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to secure the
services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters pertain-
ing to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the responsibility given to the National Acad-
emy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal government and, upon its
own initiative, to identify issues of medical care, research, and education. Dr. Harvey V. Fineberg is
president of the Institute of Medicine.
The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to as-
sociate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy's purposes of furthering
knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with general policies
determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the Na-
tional Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the
government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered
jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Ralph J. Cicerone and Dr. Charles M. Vest
are chair and vice chair, respectively, of the National Research Council.
www.national-academies.org
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COMMITTEE ON THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF ALGAL BIOFUELS
JENNIE C. HUNTER-CEVERA, Chair, Hunter and Associates, Ellicott City, Maryland
SAMMY BOUSSIBA, J. Blaustein Institute for Desert Research, Sde-Boker
JOEL L. CUELLO, The University of Arizona, Tucson
CLIFFORD S. DUKE, Ecological Society of America, Washington, DC
REBECCA A. EFROYMSON, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tennessee
SUSAN S. GOLDEN, University of California, San Diego
JENNIFER HOLMGREN, Lanzatech, Roselle, Illinois
DONALD L. JOHNSON, Grain-Processing Corporation (retired), Muscatine, Iowa
MARK E. JONES, The Dow Chemical Company, Midland, Michigan
VAL H. SMITH, The University of Kansas, Lawrence
CAI STEGER, Natural Resources Defense Council, New York
GREGORY N. STEPHANAPOULOS, Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Massachusetts
LARRY P. WALKER, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York
ERIC WILLIAMS, Rochester Institute of Technology, New York
PAUL V. ZIMBA, Texas A&M University, Corpus Christi
Staff
EVONNE P.Y. TANG, Study Codirector
K. JOHN HOLMES, Study Codirector
RUTH S. ARIETI, Research Associate
KATHLEEN REIMER, Senior Program Assistant
ROBIN A. SCHOEN, Director
JAMES ZUCCHETTO, Director
v
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BOARD ON AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES
NORMAN R. SCOTT, Chair, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York (Emeritus)
PEGGY F. BARLETT, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
HAROLD L. BERGMAN, University of Wyoming, Laramie
RICHARD A. DIXON, Samuel Roberts Noble Foundation, Ardmore, Oklahoma
DANIEL M. DOOLEY, University of California, Oakland
JOAN H. EISEMANN, North Carolina State University, Raleigh
GARY F. HARTNELL, Monsanto Company, St. Louis, Missouri
GENE HUGOSON, Global Initiatives for Food Systems Leadership, St. Paul, Minnesota
MOLLY M. JAHN, University of Wisconsin-Madison
ROBBIN S. JOHNSON, Cargill Foundation, Wayzata, Minnesota
A.G. KAWAMURA, Solutions from the Land, Washington, DC
JULIA L. KORNEGAY, North Carolina State University, Raleigh
KIRK C. KLASING, University of California, Davis
VICTOR L. LECHTENBERG, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana
PHILIP E. NELSON, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana
KEITH PITTS, Marrone Bio Innovations, Davis, California
CHARLES W. RICE, Kansas State University, Manhattan
HAL SALWASSER, Oregon State University, Corvallis
ROGER A. SEDJO, Resources for the Future, Washington, DC
KATHLEEN SEGERSON, University of Connecticut, Storrs
MERCEDES VAZQUEZ-AÑON, Novus International, Inc., St. Charles, Missouri
Staff
ROBIN A. SCHOEN, Director
CAMILLA YANDOC ABLES, Program Officer
RUTH S. ARIETI, Research Associate
KAREN L. IMHOF, Administrative Coordinator
KARA N. LANEY, Program Officer
JANET M. MULLIGAN, Senior Program Associate for Research
KATHLEEN REIMER, Senior Program Assistant
EVONNE P.Y. TANG, Senior Program Officer
PEGGY TSAI, Program Officer
vi
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BOARD ON ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS
ANDREW BROWN, JR., Chair, Delphi Corporation, Troy, Michigan
WILLIAM F. BANHOLZER, The Dow Chemical Company, Midland, Michigan
MARILYN BROWN, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta
WILLIAM CAVANAUGH III, Progress Energy (retired), Raleigh, North Carolina
PAUL DeCOTIS, Long Island Power Authority, Albany, New York
CHRISTINE EHLIG-ECONOMIDES, Texas A&M University, College Station
SHERRI GOODMAN, CNA, Alexandria, Virginia
NARAIN HINGORANI, Independent Consultant, Los Altos Hills, California
ROBERT HUGGETT, Independent Consultant, Seaford, Virginia
DEBBIE NIEMEIER, University of California, Davis
DANIEL NOCERA, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge
MICHAEL OPPENHEIMER, Princeton University, New Jersey
DAN REICHER, Stanford University, California
BERNARD ROBERTSON, Daimler-Chrysler (retired), Bloomfield Hills, Michigan
GARY ROGERS, FEV, Inc, Auburn Hills, Michigan
ALISON SILVERSTEIN, Consultant, Pflugerville, Texas
MARK THIEMENS, University of California, San Diego
RICHARD WHITE, Oppenheimer & Company, New York City
Staff
JAMES ZUCCHETTO, Director
DANA CAINES, Financial Associate
ALAN CRANE, Senior Program Officer
K. JOHN HOLMES, Senior Program Officer
LANITA JONES, Administrative Coordinator
ALICE WILLIAMS, Senior Program Assistant
JONATHAN YANGER, Senior Project Assistant
vii
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Preface
T
he desire to develop energy sources that can provide greater environmental and secu-
rity benefits has spurred research and investments in the development of alternatives
to petroleum, the dominant source of liquid transportation fuels. Because of its high
biomass (and oil productivity in some cases), algae and cyanobacteria (commonly referred
to as blue-green algae) frequently have been considered a promising renewable feedstock
for fuel production. We all were taught that petroleum and other fossil fuels formed on this
planet from plant remains that were compressed for millions of years at high temperatures.
It seems fitting that scientists would choose to study some of the most primitive life forms
to develop large-scale biofuel replacements for such fossil fuels. Algae have been grown
under a variety of conditions for the production of lipids and high-value products for sev-
eral decades. Two factors that influenced the consideration of algal biofuel production in
the past were the cost of a barrel of oil and the ability to cultivate algae and process them
into transportation fuel at a reasonable cost. The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) had a
robust program to develop biofuels from algae from 1978 to 1996, when it was concluded
that algal biofuel would not be cost competitive with petroleum soon. Fast forward to 2012,
and with advances in genetics and engineering, we are back to the future in considering
whether algae can be an economic and sustainable alternative source of liquid transporta-
tion fuels. Could it be that use of algae to produce biofuels is the answer to becoming less
dependent on foreign oil?
At the request of DOE, the National Research Council (NRC) appointed a committee of
15 experts with diverse backgrounds and experience to examine the sustainability of algal
biofuels. The committee reviewed many scientific papers and government and industry
reports, and listened first hand to company representatives, academic experts, and govern-
ment agency program managers who deal with production of algal biofuels. The committee
also met three times and held regularly scheduled conference calls to deliberate and reach
agreement as to how to best address the charge from DOE to identify potential sustainability
concerns, mitigate environmental concerns, and identify indicators of sustainability and
metrics that could be used to monitor progress as the technology advances on several fronts.
ix
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xPREFACE
In its consideration of the task, the committee examined the algal biofuel supply chain
from the characteristics of the species to the methods for cultivation and processing into
fuels. It separated the potential pathways for deployment into four basic scenarios and
used those scenarios to help assess the resource needs and environmental concerns result-
ing from the location and design of large-scale production. The outcome of the current
knowledge available through literature and discussion by the committee is this report on
sustainable development of algal biofuels. This report does not address economic analyses
or comparative life-cycle analyses. However, it provides a framework for assessing sustain-
ability as the DOE continues to invest in algal biofuel research and development.
I thank the committee members and NRC staff for the very stimulating and thought-
provoking dialogue and for their many contributions to the writing of this report.
Jennie C. Hunter-Cevera
Chair, Committee on Sustainable
Development of Algal Biofuels
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Acknowledgments
T
his report has been reviewed in draft form by persons chosen for their diverse per-
spectives and technical expertise in accordance with procedures approved by the
National Research Council's Report Review Committee. The purpose of this inde-
pendent review is to provide candid and critical comments that will assist the institution
in making its published report as sound as possible and to ensure that the report meets
institutional standards of objectivity, evidence, and responsiveness to the study charge. The
review comments and draft manuscript remain confidential to protect the integrity of the
deliberative process. We wish to thank the following for their review of this report:
Brenda Little, Naval Research Laboratory
James R. Katzer, Exxon Mobil Research and Engineering Company (retired)
Qiang Hu, Arizona State University
Paul DeCotis, Long Island Power Authority
Andres Clarens, University of Virginia
Paul Roessler, Algenol, LLC
Amha Belay, Earthrise Nutritional, LLC
LaReesa Wolfenbarger, University of Nebraska, Omaha
Jason Hill, University of Minnesota
Tryg Lundquist, California Polytechnic State Institute
Christopher R. Somerville, University of California, Berkeley, and Energy Biosciences
Institute
Robert Haselkorn, University of Chicago
Barry Solomon, Michigan Technology University
Although the reviewers listed above have provided many constructive comments and
suggestions, they were not asked to endorse the conclusions or recommendations, nor did
they see the final draft of the report before its release. The review of this report was overseen
xi
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xiiACKNOWLEDGMENTS
by coordinator, George M. Hornberger, appointed by the Division of Earth and Life Stud-
ies, and monitor, Mark R. Cullen, appointed by the NRC's Report Review Committee. The
coordinator and monitor were responsible for making certain that an independent exami-
nation of this report was carried out in accordance with institutional procedures and that
all review comments were carefully considered. Responsibility for the final content of this
report rests entirely with the author committee and the institution.
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Contents
SUMMARY1
1 INTRODUCTION11
Interest in Algal Biofuels, 11
Sustainable Development of Biofuels, 13
Tools and Methodologies for Assessing Sustainable Development of
Algal Biofuels, 17
Study Scope and Approach, 22
Structure of Report, 23
References, 23
2 OVERVIEW OF ALGAL BIOFUEL SUPPLY CHAIN 27
Algal Feedstocks, 27
Cultivation, 41
Processing Algal Biomass into Fuels, 58
Conclusions, 64
References, 66
3 PATHWAYS FOR ALGAL BIOFUEL PRODUCTION 77
Features of Biofuel Pathways, 78
Reference PathwayRaceway Pond Producing Drop-in Hydrocarbon, 80
Alternative Pathway #1Raceway Pond Producing Drop-in Hydrocarbon
and Coproducts, 83
Alternative Pathway #2Raceway Pond Producing FAME, 86
Alternative Pathway #3Photobioreactors with Direct Synthesis of Ethanol, 88
Alternative Pathway #4Whole-Cell Processing, 92
Other Potential Pathways, 95
xiii
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xivCONTENTS
Summary, 96
References, 96
4 NATURAL RESOURCE USE 99
Water, 100
Nutrients, 110
Land, 117
Energy, 126
Conclusions, 131
References, 133
5 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS 139
Water Quality, 140
Land-Use Change, 147
Greenhouse-Gas Emissions, 151
Local Climate, 154
Air Quality, 154
Species Invasiveness and Aquatic Biodiversity, 159
Terrestrial Biodiversity, 164
Environmental Effects of Genetically Engineered Organisms, 168
Waste Products, 172
Pathogens and Toxins, 174
Mosquito-Borne Diseases, 177
Conclusions, 178
References, 180
6A FRAMEWORK TO ASSESS SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF
ALGAL BIOFUELS 191
Summary of Resource Use and Environmental Effects of Different
Algal Biofuel Production Pathways, 192
Tools for Assessing Overall Sustainability, 194
Framework for Integrated Assessment, 199
Opportunities for Algal Biofuels to Improve Sustainability, 203
References, 204
APPENDIXES
A Biographical Sketches of Committee Members 209
B Statement of Task 215
C Presentations to the Committee 217
DGlossary 221
E Select Acronyms and Abbreviations 223
F Conversion Factors 225
G Economics of Coproduct Production from Large-Scale Algal Biofuel Systems 227
