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SUPPLEMENTAL
NUTRITION
ASSISTANCE
PROGRAM
Examining the Evidence to Define Benefit Adequacy
Committee on Examination of the Adequacy of Food Resources and
SNAP Allotments
Food and Nutrition Board
Committee on National Statistics
Julie A. Caswell and Ann L. Yaktine, Editors
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THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS 500 Fifth Street, NW Washington, DC 20001
NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Govern-
ing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the
councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineer-
ing, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for
the report were chosen for their special competences and with regard for appropri-
ate balance.
This study was supported by Contract No. USDA-AG-3198-G-11-0011, between
the National Academy of Sciences and the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Food
and Nutrition Service. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations
expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect
the view of the organizations or agencies that provided support for this project.
International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-309-26294-1
International Standard Book Number-10: 0-309-26294-1
Additional copies of this report are available from the National Academies Press,
500 Fifth Street, NW, Room 360, Washington, DC 20001; (800) 624-6242 or (202)
334-3313; http://www.nap.edu.
For more information about the Institute of Medicine, visit the IOM home page
at: www.iom.edu.
Copyright 2013 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America
The serpent has been a symbol of long life, healing, and knowledge among almost
all cultures and religions since the beginning of recorded history. The serpent
a
dopted as a logotype by the Institute of Medicine is a relief carving from ancient
Greece, now held by the Staatliche Museen in Berlin.
Suggested citation: IOM (Institute of Medicine) and NRC (National Research Coun-
cil). 2013. Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program: Examining the evidence to
define benefit adequacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society
of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to
the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare.
Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Acad-
emy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific
and technical matters. Dr. Ralph J. Cicerone is president of the National Academy
of Sciences.
The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter
of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding
e
ngineers. It is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members,
sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the
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ing programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research,
and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. Charles M. Vest is presi-
dent of the National Academy of Engineering.
The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of
Sciences to secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in
the examination of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Insti-
tute acts under the responsibility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its
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Fineberg is president of the Institute of Medicine.
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of the National Research Council.
www.national-academies.org
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COMMITTEE ON EXAMINATION OF THE ADEQUACY
OF FOOD RESOURCES AND SNAP ALLOTMENTS
JULIE A. CASWELL (Chair), Professor, Department of Resource Economics,
University of Massachusetts Amherst
SARA N. BLEICH, Assistant Professor, Department of Health Policy and
Management, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health,
Baltimore, Maryland
NOEL CHAVEZ, Associate Professor, School of Public Health, University
of Illinois at Chicago
JAMIE DOLLAHITE, Associate Professor, Division of Nutritional
Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York
PHILIP GLEASON, Senior Fellow, Mathematica Policy Research, Geneva,
New York
BARBARA A. LARAIA, Associate Professor, School of Public Health,
University of California, Berkeley
SHEILA MAMMEN, Professor, Department of Resource Economics,
University of Massachusetts Amherst
MARY K. MUTH, Director, Food and Nutrition Policy Research Program,
RTI International, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
BONNY O’NEIL, Retired, USDA Food and Nutrition Service,
Alexandria, Virginia
DIANE W. SCHANZENBACH, Associate Professor, School of Education
and Social Policy, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois
JAMES P. ZILIAK, Professor and Carol Martin Gatton Endowed Chair in
Microeconomics, Department of Economics, University of Kentucky
IOM Staff
ANN L. YAKTINE, Study Director
JULIA HOGLUND, Research Associate
ANTON BANDY, Financial Officer
GERALDINE KENNEDO, Administrative Assistant
LINDA D. MEYERS, Director, Food and Nutrition Board
GOOLOO S. WUNDERLICH, Senior Program Officer (Committee on
National Statistics)
v
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Reviewers
This report has been reviewed in draft form by individuals chosen
for their diverse perspectives and technical expertise, in accordance with
procedures approved by the National Research Council’s Report Review
Committee. The purpose of this independent review is to provide candid
and critical comments that will assist the institution in making its published
report as sound as possible and to ensure that the report meets institutional
standards for objectivity, evidence, and responsiveness to the study charge.
The review comments and draft manuscript remain confidential to protect
the integrity of the deliberative process. We wish to thank the following
individuals for their review of this report:
MARIANNE P. BITLER, University of California, Irvine
GEORGE BRALEY, Retired, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Oakton,
Virginia
GEORGE DAVIS, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University,
Blacksburg
EDWARD FRONGILLO, University of South Carolina, Columbia
HILARY HOYNES, University of California, Davis
HELEN H. JENSEN, Iowa State University, Ames
JACOB KLERMAN, Abt Associates, Inc., Cambridge, Massachusetts
DARREN LUBOTSKY, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
SUZANNE P. MURPHY, University of Hawaii at Manoa
HILARY K. SELIGMAN, University of California, San Francisco
VALERIE TARASUK, University of Toronto, Ontario
vii
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viii REVIEWERS
Although the reviewers listed above have provided many constructive
comments and suggestions, they were not asked to endorse the report’s con-
clusions or recommendations, nor did they see the final draft of the report
before its release. The review of this report was overseen by NANCY E.
ADLER, University of California, San Francisco, and JOHANNA DWYER,
Office of Disease Prevention, National Institutes of Health. Appointed by
the National Research Council and Institute of Medicine, they were respon-
sible for making certain that an independent examination of this report was
carried out in accordance with institutional procedures and that all review
comments were carefully considered. Responsibility for the final content of
this report rests entirely with the authoring committee and the institution.
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Preface
The Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) touches the
lives of millions of people in the United States in good and particularly in
bad economic times. Over the last decade participation in the program
has increased from less than 20 million to 46 million in 2012 in the wake
of the post-2008 recession. As administered by the U.S. Department of
Agriculture’s Food and Nutrition Service (USDA-FNS), SNAP is intended
to supplement the ability of individuals and households to purchase food
for consumption at home with a benefit allotment that is delivered to them
most commonly in the form of Electronic Benefit Cards that they can spend
in food stores. With one in seven people in the United States currently
receiving SNAP benefits, an assessment of the science and evidence base
for defining adequate allotments is important to the well-being of these
participants, as well as to the functioning of the program.
Two intertwined aspects of SNAP allotments affect the definition of an
adequate benefit that supports the opportunity for participants to attain
the program goals of food security and access to a healthy diet. First, a
SNAP allotment may be more or less adequate for any given participant or
household, depending on their circumstances. Does a particular participant
have sufficient time to shop for and prepare nutritious meals, particularly
from basic ingredients? How are the time and cost entailed in preparing
meals affected by store availability, transportation, and the prices of foods
in the participant’s shopping area? How does a participant’s nutrition
knowledge and budgeting skills affect the definition of adequacy? Second,
the program’s formula for calculating the dollar amount of the SNAP
allot ent itself directly affects adequacy. For example, does the formula
m
ix
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x PREFACE
account realistically for participants’ ability to devote their own income to
food purchases?
The circumstances in which foods are purchased and prepared and
the food budget, including the SNAP benefit, are intertwined because they
both are constraints on the opportunity of a SNAP individual or household
to attain the outcomes of food security and access to a healthy diet. The
definition of adequacy of SNAP allotments must weigh the importance of
both aspects in affecting these outcomes. The committee members’ reasoned
assessment about the evidence on these two aspects resulted in its focus on
defining adequacy based on individual, household, and environmental fac-
tors, as well as program factors; instituting systems to monitor the program
outcomes of food security and access to a healthy diet over time, as well as
to facilitate future adjustments to the definition of adequacy; and conduct-
ing research on the impacts on adequacy of nutrition knowledge and buying
skills and access to retail outlets.
The day-to-day diets of millions of people in the United States are
supported by the SNAP program; its impact is particularly prominent in
periods of economic downturn. The committee offers its recommendations
for defining and monitoring SNAP benefit allotment adequacy based on
its review and analysis of a broad range of evidence, with the goal of pro-
viding USDA-FNS with a road map to establish an objective definition of
the adequacy of SNAP allotments and to assist with identification of data
requirements to support that effort. Ultimately this effort is aimed at pro-
viding SNAP participants with greater opportunities to become more food
secure and to have access to a healthy diet.
I am deeply appreciative of the dedication and effort of the 10 com-
mittee members who worked together over a short period of time from
January to December 2012 to evaluate the evidence on the multiple factors
that may be important in defining the adequacy of SNAP allotments. We
r
eceived outstanding support in our work from Ann Yaktine, study direc-
tor. I thank her for her knowledge, skill, and tireless care devoted to this
project. As research associate, Julia Hoglund provided excellent scientific
support to the project. Geraldine Kennedo served as administrative assistant
with fficiency and warmth. I also appreciate the consultation provided
e
by ooloo Wunderlich, senior program officer with the Committee on
G
National Statistics. Finally, I thank Linda Meyers, director of the Food and
Nutrition Board of the Institute of Medicine, for her wisdom in guiding
the project.
Julie A. Caswell, Chair
Committee on Examination of the Adequacy
of Food Resources and SNAP Allotments
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Contents
SUMMARY 1
1 INTRODUCTION AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 13
Overview of the Program, 14
The Committee’s Task, 16
Approach to the Task, 17
The Framework and Its Components, 17
Organization of the Report, 24
References, 25
2 HISTORY, BACKGROUND, AND GOALS OF THE
SUPPLEMENTAL NUTRITION ASSISTANCE PROGRAM 27
Milestones in the History of the Supplemental Nutrition
Assistance Program, 27
SNAP Benefit Formula and Eligibility, 33
Definition of the SNAP Allotment, 37
Trends in Program Participation and Costs, 44
Trends in Food Insecurity and Poverty, 47
Summary, 51
References, 52
3 FOOD SECURITY AND ACCESS TO A HEALTHY DIET
IN LOW-INCOME POPULATIONS 57
Food Production, Availability, and Consumption at the
Population Level, 57
xi
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xii CONTENTS
Food Purchasing Patterns and Dietary Intake Among
Low-Income Households and SNAP Participants, 58
Access to a Healthy Diet, 67
Food Insecurity, 73
Data and Analytical Challenges to Assessing the Adequacy
of SNAP Allotments, 85
Findings and Conclusions, 87
References, 89
4 INDIVIDUAL, HOUSEHOLD, AND ENVIRONMENTAL
F
ACTORS AFFECTING FOOD CHOICES AND ACCESS 97
Household Production Theory as an Organizing Framework, 98
Individual and Household Factors, 99
Environmental Factors, 113
Data and Analytical Challenges, 135
Summary of Findings and Conclusions, 136
References, 138
5 IMPACT OF PROGRAM DESIGN ON ALLOTMENT
ADEQUACY 147
Evidence on the Components of the SNAP Benefit Formula, 147
Impact of Restrictions and Incentives on the Purchasing Power
of SNAP Benefits, 161
Summary of Findings and Conclusions, 166
References, 168
6 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 175
Conclusions, 176
Recommendations, 180
Other Research Considerations, 184
Summary, 185
APPENDIXES
A ACRONYMS, ABBREVIATIONS, AND TERMS 187
B OPEN SESSION WITH SPONSORS 193
C WORKSHOP AGENDA 195
D APPROACH TO LITERATURE REVIEW 199
E QUESTIONS RELATED TO THE STATEMENT OF TASK 205
F QUESTIONS ON THE CORE FOOD SECURITY MODULE 209
G KEY RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE DIETARY
GUIDELINES FOR AMERICANS 213
H BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF COMMITTEE MEMBERS 217
