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CHAPTER 3
LITERATURE REVIEW AND EVALUATION
GENERAL EVALUATION SPECIFIC REVIEW
A surprisingly large number of books, guidance manuals, Books
technical reports, journal articles, and conference or work-
shop proceedings have been published on environmentally The Use of Vegetation in Civil Engineering Practice.
sensitive slope-protection and erosion-control measures. 1990. Written by N. J. Coppin and I. Richards. Describes the
Many of these references are devoted in full or in part to tech- use and engineering function of vegetation in a number of
niques that are applicable to streambank and channel protec- engineering applications, including erosion control and bank
tion. The main limitation of the existing technical literature protection. The first book to set out in a comprehensive man-
is not so much its paucity as its abundance. In some cases, ner the ways in which vegetation modifies physical soil prop-
regional specificity and lack of ready availability constrain erties and the functional role that vegetation plays in slope
usefulness. Many articles appear in obscure publications of stabilization, water erosion control, watercourse and shore-
line protection, wind erosion control, and control of runoff in
limited distribution and accessibility. Perhaps most impor-
small catchments. Published by Butterworths: Sevenoaks,
tant, the quality of design guidance varies widely. Some tech-
Kent (UK).
niques are documented by anecdotal case studies with very
Water Bioengineering Techniques for Watercourse Bank
little data and only a few photographs, while other techniques
and Shoreline Protection. 1994. Written by H. M. Schiechtl
have been subjected to controlled testing in hydraulic labo-
and R. Stern. A comprehensive compendium of countermea-
ratories. Similarly, detailed analytical design approaches sures and design guidelines. Includes chapters on water bio-
have been developed for some techniques, but others con- engineering systems (including longitudinal and transverse
tinue to be designed by rules of thumb or individual judg- structures) and on selection, care, and maintenance of vege-
ment. As noted below in the section describing DOT survey tation along waterways. Published by Blackwell Science,
results, qualitative information is often more abundant than London.
quantitative data. Biotechnical and Soil Bioengineering Slope Stabilization.
Some important examples of the technical literature on 1996. Written by D. H. Gray and R. B. Sotir. Descriptions
environmentally sensitive channel- and bank-protection and guidelines of biostabilization measures. Includes a chap-
measures are listed and discussed briefly below. This ter on selection and design of biotechnical channel lining sys-
resource base has been augmented more recently by techni- tems. Published by John Wiley and Sons, New York.
cal notes and related publications that are now available on Waterway Bank Protection: A Guide to Erosion Assess-
the World Wide Web. The review that follows is not intended ment and Management. 1999. Written by R. P. C. Morgan,
to be exhaustive, but it is illustrative of key information A. J. Collins, and M. J. Hann. This is an encyclopedic look
sources that are for the most part readily available. The at bank-protection measures and contains a logical selection
review is limited to books, guidance manuals or handbooks, algorithm. A bibliography (in MS Access or Excel) is
agency technical reports, and websites. included on diskette. Its main short-coming is that the entire
Readers should be aware that "gray literature" (reports, work is targeted at conditions found in Great Britain. A copy
websites, technical notes, proceedings papers, brochures and can usually be obtained via interlibrary loan at a university
other documents not subjected to independent peer review) library. Published by R& D Publication 11, The Stationary
is usually of lower quality than peer reviewed journal papers. Office, Rio House, Waterside Drive, Aztec West, Almonds-
A complete list of all documents, including technical jour- bury, Bristol, BS32 4UD, U. K. (pp105)
nal papers, used in preparing the technique guidelines and
special topics is included in the comprehensive bibliography. Agency Guidance Manuals and Handbooks
The accompanying CD also includes this list of documents,
under References, and has the added feature of providing Streambank Protection Guidelines for Landowners and
links to .pdf files containing the full text of many of the Local Governments. 1983. Written by M. P. Keown. Envi-
documents. ronmental Laboratory, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways
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Experiment Station. Succinct review of the nature and causes Integrated Streambank Protection Guidelines. 2003.
of streambank erosion and failure; essential elements of a Issued by the Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife.
plan of action; stream-rerouting, channel modification, and Provides advice for selecting and designing protection tech-
bank-protection measures. Available from NTIS, U.S. niques that protect or restore aquatic and riparian habitats.
Department of Commerce, Springfield, VA. #ADA193023. Advocates integration of natural river processes in the selec-
Stream Habitat Improvement Handbook. 1992. Issued by tion and design process. Maintains that bank-protection
the USDA Forest Service, Tech Publ. R8-TP 16. Primarily a measures should be selected to address site- and reach-based
compendium of in-stream structure designs to correct or conditions to avoid habitat impacts. Suggests consideration
improve habitat deficiencies. of methods other than riprap armoring, such as roughening
"Streambank and Shoreline Protection." 1996. Chapter 16 of a bank line, directing flow away from an eroding bank,
the Engineering Field Handbook, U.S. Department of Agricul- revegetation, floodplain management, maintaining riparian
ture. The companion chapter to Chapter 18: Soil Bioengineer- corridors, restoring oxbows/wetlands, relocating at-risk
ing for Upland Slope Protection. This chapter describes the use infrastructures, and managing meander belts.
of vegetative plantings, soil bioengineering, and structural sys-
tems used either alone or in combination with one another for
protecting streambanks and shorelines. Guidelines and design Agency Technical Reports
considerations are presented for the following treatments: (1)
Streambank Erosion Control and Demonstration, Interim
soil bioengineering measures: live staking, live fascines, fiber
Report. 1981. Report issued by the U.S. Army Corps of Engi-
rolls, branchpacking, vegetated geogrids, and brushmattress,
neers. A massive, 8-volume report detailing the results of
(2) vegetative/structural measures: tree revetments, willow
numerous streambank-erosion control trials around the coun-
post plantings, log/rootwad revetments, live crib walls, vege-
try. Contains the results of both conventional and alternative
tated riprap (joint planting), and vegetated gabion mattresses.
treatments. Dated but rich source of information that repre-
Bridge Scour and Stream Instability Countermeasures.
sents the state of the art of streambank protection at the time
1997. Written by P. F. Lagasse et al. Issued by the U.S.DOT.
of publication.
HEC-23. Primarily a compendium of hydraulic techniques
Bioengineering for Streambank Erosion Control: Report
(namely, river training structures and armoring countermea-
1, Guidelines. 1997. Written by H. Allen and J. R. Leech.
sures). Includes a useful matrix of countermeasures that can
Technical Report EL-97-8. Issued by U.S. Army Engineer
be adopted to evaluate their functional applications and suit-
Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
ability for different river conditions.
Design of Roadside Channels with Flexible Linings. 1998.
Guidelines for Stream and Wetland Protection in Ken-
Written by Y. H. Chen and G. K. Cotton. HEC-15/FHWA-
tucky. 1997. Issued by the Kentucky Division of Water.
1P-87-7. Prepared for the Federal Highway Administration.
Description of a variety of environmentally sensitive mea-
Contains information on Manning coefficient and allowable
sures for repairing streambank erosion and restoring aquatic
tractive stress for a variety of lining systems, including riprap,
habitat. A printed copy of this document can be ordered free,
vegetation, and various rolled erosion control products.
courtesy of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and
Determination of Resistance Due to Shrubs and Woody
the Kentucky Division of Water. Contact: Kentucky Division
Vegetation. 2000. Written by G. E. Freeman, W. H. Rahmeyer,
of Water, 14 Reilly Road, Frankfort, KY, 40601.
and R. R. Copeland. Technical report ERDC/CHL TR-00-25
Stream Corridor Restoration: Principles, Processes, and
prepared for the Engineer Research and Development Center,
Practices. 1998. Federal Interagency Stream Restoration
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Results of flume studies
Working Group. A comprehensive, cooperative effort by
conducted to determine hydraulic resistance of flexible plants
15 federal agencies of the U.S. government to address
that deform with turbulent flow. Study considered the effects
stream degradation problems and outline possible solutions.
on channel resistance for the variables of plant type, plant
The August 2001 revision of the 1998 document is avail-
geometry, plant density, plant flexibility, and submerged and
able online at http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/technical/stream_
partially submerged conditions. Regression equations were
restoration/ (last accessed May 2, 2005).
developed for determining the Manning roughness coefficient.
Streambank Investigation and Stabilization Handbook.
1998. U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Cen-
ter, Vicksburg, MS. Comprehensive compilation of research Websites
and techniques for streambank/erosion control applications
related to planning, engineering, contracting, construction, There are a number of websites that contain useful guide-
and maintenance. Includes extensive collection of figures, lines and information about streambank-protection techniques,
tables, and color photos. Provides technical design guide- including techniques that can be classified as environmentally
lines for a variety of streambank-protection measures. Also sensitive channel- and streambank-protection measures. Most
available in CD-ROM with browser-like navigation features of the sites have been posted by federal or state agencies.
from Veri-Tech, Inc. at www.veritechinc.com. A number of sites that describe case studies or applications of
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such measures have been posted by private consultants. Some Guidelines for Stream and Wetland Protection. Depart-
of the sites that have useful and relevant information are listed ment of Environmental Protection. Kentucky Division of
and briefly reviewed below. Water.
http://www.water.ky.gov/ (general website accessed
EMRRP Technical Notes. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, November 17, 2004; however, due to technical issues, this
Engineer Research and Development Center, Environmental manual was lost and they are working on putting it back on the
Laboratory, web)
http://el.erdc.usace.army.mil/emrrp/tnotes.html (last Provides an index to a 52-page manual that discusses
accessed May 2, 2005) stream behavior, stream types, restoration of streams,
A series of short illustrated notes on stream restoration that streambank erosion, riparian zones, and wetlands. Individual
allows users to access, save, and print documents in Adobe pages from the guide can be downloaded as PDF Acrobat
Acrobat (PDF) format. A thumbnail summary at the begin-
files. The guide includes 59 photographs to help illustrate the
ning of each note provides information on relative cost,
main points of discussion. Seven appendices include
complexity, and benefit of each measure. The following tech-
overviews of hydro-geomorphic wetland functions, sources
nical notes are particularly relevant and useful:
for obtaining native plants, a list of consultants, and a com-
EMRRP-SR-01 Glossary of Stream Feb 2000 prehensive stream restoration bibliography. The information
Restoration Terms provided is applicable across state lines.
EMRRP-SR-04 Coir Geotextile Roll and Feb 2000
Wetland Plants for Stream Restoration Library. Greene County New York
Streambank Erosion Soil and Water Conservation District, Stream Restoration
Control Program.
EMRRP-SR-06 Habitat Requirements Feb 2000 http://www.gcswcd.com/stream/library/ (last accessed
for Freshwater Fishes November 17, 2004)
EMRRP-SR-07 Resistance Due to May 2000 Site contains downloadable documents such as spread-
Vegetation sheets, typical drawings, construction specifications and
EMRRP-SR-08 Determining Drag Feb 2000 other tools for stream restoration managers. The stream
Coefficients and Area restoration construction specifications have been used on dis-
for Vegetation trict projects ranging in cost from $10K to $700K. The fol-
EMRRP-SR-09 Reconnection of Floodplains May 2000 lowing documents with stream restoration and vegetative
with Incised Channels specifications can be downloaded from the site:
EMRRP-SR-11 Boulder Clusters Feb 2000 Stream Restoration Specifications (typical drawings have
EMRRP-SR-12 Irrigation Systems for Feb 2000 not yet been added):
Establishing Vegetation
EMRRP-SR-13 Streambank Enhancements May 2000
with Large Woody Debris · SR-01: Rock vanes
EMRRP-SR-21 Rootwad Composites for May 2000 · SR-02: W-weirs
Streambank Control and Fish · SR-03: Cross vanes
Habitat Improvement · SR-04: Root-wads
EMRRP-SR-23 Brush Mattresses for May 2000 · SR-05: (Reserved)
Streambank Erosion · SR-06: (Reserved)
Control · SR-07: Stream channel excavation
EMRRP-SR-24 Design Recommendations Apr 2000 · SR-08: Rock riprap
for Riparian Corridors
and Vegetated Buffer Strips Vegetation Specifications (addresses implementation of
EMRRP-SR-28 Units and Conversions for May 2001 vegetative components of stream restoration):
Stream Restoration Projects
EMRRP-SR-29 Stability Thresholds for May 2001
· VS-01: Live fascines
Stream Restoration
· VS-02: Sod mats
Materials
· VS-03: Live stakes/posts
EMRRP-SR-31 Live and Inert Fascine May 2001
· VS-04: Live materials/transplants
Streambank Erosion
Control · VS-05: Seeding and mulching
EMRRP-SR-32 Impacts of Stabilization May 2001
Measures Environmental Management Program. Texas Trans-
EMRRP-SR-33 Plant Material Selection May 2001 portation Institute. Texas A&M University System. College
and Acquisition Station, TX.
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http://tti.tamu.edu/enviro_mgmt/projects (last accessed NebGuide. Cooperative Extension, Institute of Agriculture
November 17, 2004) and Natural Resources, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE.
Describes several environmentally oriented research proj- http://www.ianr.unl.edu/pubs/soil/g1307.htm (last accessed
ects, including one entitled, "Regional Applications for November 17, 2004)
Biotechnical Methods of Streambank Protection in Texas," The NebGuide describes bioengineering techniques for
which involved identifying bioengineering and biotechnical hillslope-, streambank-, and lakeshore erosion control. Tips
streambank stabilization technologies appropriate to the cli- for a successful bioengineering installation and demonstra-
matic and resource regions of Texas. tion project are described.
Soil Bioengineering Home. Washington State DOT. The Cross Vane, W-Weir and J-Hook Structures.
Engineering and Environmental Programs. Roadside and D.L. Rosgen. Wildland Hydrology Inc., Pagosa Springs, CO.
Site Development. Olympia, WA. http://www.wildlandhydrology.com/assets/cross-vane.pdf
http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/eesc/design/roadside/sb.htm (last accessed November 17, 2004)
(last accessed November 17, 2004) The descriptions, design specifications, placement loca-
Not oriented to streambank protection per se, but website tions, spacing and various applications of Cross-Vane,
has many useful features, including case histories of soil bio- W-Weir and J-Hook Vane structures are presented. Empiri-
engineering projects with photos, several hundred references cal relations for minimum rock size based on bankfull shear
for soil bioengineering and vegetative stabilization, links to stress are presented. Drawings for each structure are pro-
on-line publications and restoration websites, and design vided that display appropriate use of footers (foundation
information including typical drawings, specification exam- rocks), cross-section shape, profile shape, appropriate chan-
ples, and cost examples. nel locations, angles, slopes, spacings, and elevations.
