National Academies Press: OpenBook

Car-Sharing: Where and How It Succeeds (2005)

Chapter: Front Matter

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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2005. Car-Sharing: Where and How It Succeeds. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13559.
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2005. Car-Sharing: Where and How It Succeeds. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13559.
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2005. Car-Sharing: Where and How It Succeeds. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13559.
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2005. Car-Sharing: Where and How It Succeeds. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13559.
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2005. Car-Sharing: Where and How It Succeeds. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13559.
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2005. Car-Sharing: Where and How It Succeeds. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13559.
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2005. Car-Sharing: Where and How It Succeeds. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13559.
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T R A N S P O R T A T I O N R E S E A R C H B O A R D WASHINGTON, D.C. 2005 www.TRB.org T R A N S I T C O O P E R A T I V E R E S E A R C H P R O G R A M TCRP REPORT 108 Research Sponsored by the Federal Transit Administration in Cooperation with the Transit Development Corporation SUBJECT AREAS Planning and Administration • Public Transit Car-Sharing: Where and How It Succeeds ADAM MILLARD-BALL GAIL MURRAY JESSICA TER SCHURE CHRISTINE FOX Nelson\Nygaard Consulting Associates San Francisco, CA and JON BURKHARDT Westat Rockville, MD

TRANSIT COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAM The nation’s growth and the need to meet mobility, environmental, and energy objectives place demands on public transit systems. Current systems, some of which are old and in need of upgrading, must expand service area, increase service frequency, and improve efficiency to serve these demands. Research is necessary to solve operating problems, to adapt appropriate new technologies from other industries, and to introduce innovations into the transit industry. The Transit Cooperative Research Program (TCRP) serves as one of the principal means by which the transit industry can develop innovative near-term solutions to meet demands placed on it. The need for TCRP was originally identified in TRB Special Report 213—Research for Public Transit: New Directions, published in 1987 and based on a study sponsored by the Urban Mass Transportation Administration—now the Federal Transit Admin- istration (FTA). A report by the American Public Transportation Association (APTA), Transportation 2000, also recognized the need for local, problem-solving research. TCRP, modeled after the longstanding and successful National Cooperative Highway Research Program, undertakes research and other technical activities in response to the needs of transit service providers. The scope of TCRP includes a variety of transit research fields including plan- ning, service configuration, equipment, facilities, operations, human resources, maintenance, policy, and administrative practices. TCRP was established under FTA sponsorship in July 1992. Proposed by the U.S. Department of Transportation, TCRP was authorized as part of the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991 (ISTEA). On May 13, 1992, a memorandum agreement outlining TCRP operating procedures was executed by the three cooperating organizations: FTA, The National Academies, acting through the Transportation Research Board (TRB); and the Transit Development Corporation, Inc. (TDC), a nonprofit educational and research organization established by APTA. TDC is responsible for forming the independent governing board, designated as the TCRP Oversight and Project Selection (TOPS) Committee. Research problem statements for TCRP are solicited periodically but may be submitted to TRB by anyone at any time. It is the responsibility of the TOPS Committee to formulate the research program by identifying the highest priority projects. As part of the evaluation, the TOPS Committee defines funding levels and expected products. Once selected, each project is assigned to an expert panel, appointed by the Transportation Research Board. The panels prepare project statements (requests for proposals), select contractors, and provide technical guidance and counsel throughout the life of the project. The process for developing research problem statements and selecting research agencies has been used by TRB in managing cooperative research programs since 1962. As in other TRB activ- ities, TCRP project panels serve voluntarily without compensation. Because research cannot have the desired impact if products fail to reach the intended audience, special emphasis is placed on disseminating TCRP results to the intended end users of the research: transit agencies, service providers, and suppliers. TRB provides a series of research reports, syntheses of transit practice, and other supporting material developed by TCRP research. APTA will arrange for workshops, training aids, field visits, and other activities to ensure that results are implemented by urban and rural transit industry practitioners. The TCRP provides a forum where transit agencies can cooperatively address common operational problems. The TCRP results support and complement other ongoing transit research and training programs. TCRP REPORT 108 Project B-26 ISSN 1073-4872 ISBN 0-309-08838-0 Library of Congress Control Number 2005933942 © 2005 Transportation Research Board Price $41.00 NOTICE The project that is the subject of this report was a part of the Transit Cooperative Research Program conducted by the Transportation Research Board with the approval of the Governing Board of the National Research Council. Such approval reflects the Governing Board’s judgment that the project concerned is appropriate with respect to both the purposes and resources of the National Research Council. The members of the technical advisory panel selected to monitor this project and to review this report were chosen for recognized scholarly competence and with due consideration for the balance of disciplines appropriate to the project. The opinions and conclusions expressed or implied are those of the research agency that performed the research, and while they have been accepted as appropriate by the technical panel, they are not necessarily those of the Transportation Research Board, the National Research Council, the Transit Development Corporation, or the Federal Transit Administration of the U.S. Department of Transportation. Each report is reviewed and accepted for publication by the technical panel according to procedures established and monitored by the Transportation Research Board Executive Committee and the Governing Board of the National Research Council. Published reports of the TRANSIT COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAM are available from: Transportation Research Board Business Office 500 Fifth Street, NW Washington, DC 20001 and can be ordered through the Internet at http://www.national-academies.org/trb/bookstore Printed in the United States of America Special Notice The Transportation Research Board of The National Academies, the National Research Council, the Transit Development Corporation, and the Federal Transit Administration (sponsor of the Transit Cooperative Research Program) do not endorse products or manufacturers. Trade or manufacturers’ names appear herein solely because they are considered essential to the clarity and completeness of the project reporting.

The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished schol- ars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. On the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and techni- cal matters. Dr. Ralph J. Cicerone is president of the National Academy of Sciences. The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the National Acad- emy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government. The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior achieve- ments of engineers. Dr. William A. Wulf is president of the National Academy of Engineering. The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the responsibility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal government and, on its own initiative, to identify issues of medical care, research, and education. Dr. Harvey V. Fineberg is president of the Institute of Medicine. The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy’s purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with general policies determined by the Acad- emy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both the Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Ralph J. Cicerone and Dr. William A. Wulf are chair and vice chair, respectively, of the National Research Council. The Transportation Research Board is a division of the National Research Council, which serves the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering. The Board’s mission is to promote innovation and progress in transportation through research. In an objective and interdisciplinary setting, the Board facilitates the sharing of information on transportation practice and policy by researchers and practitioners; stimulates research and offers research management services that promote technical excellence; provides expert advice on transportation policy and programs; and disseminates research results broadly and encourages their implementation. The Board’s varied activities annually engage more than 5,000 engineers, scientists, and other transportation researchers and practitioners from the public and private sectors and academia, all of whom contribute their expertise in the public interest. The program is supported by state transportation departments, federal agencies including the component administrations of the U.S. Department of Transportation, and other organizations and individuals interested in the development of transportation. www.TRB.org www.national-academies.org

COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAMS STAFF FOR TCRP REPORT 108 ROBERT J. REILLY, Director, Cooperative Research Programs CHRISTOPHER W. JENKS, TCRP Manager DIANNE S. SCHWAGER, Senior Program Officer EILEEN P. DELANEY, Managing Editor NATALIE BARNES, Editor PROJECT PANEL B-26 Field of Service Configuration LORA B. BYALA, Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority, Washington, DC (Chair) MARK CHASE, Zipcar, Cambridge, MA CHARLES C. EUCHNER, New Haven, CT FRANZ GIMMLER, Arlington, VA LUANN HAMILTON, Chicago DOT, Chicago, IL JANE LAPPIN, U.S.DOT, Cambridge, MA WILLIAM T. ROACH, King County Metro Transit, Seattle, WA TIM VOGEL, Flexcar, Washington, DC CONRAD WAGNER, WAGNER, Switzerland WILLIAM B. MENCZER, FTA Liaison CHRISTOPHER V. FORINASH, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Liaison PETER SHAW, TRB Liaison AUTHOR ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The research reported herein was performed under TCRP Proj- ect B-26 by Nelson\Nygaard Consulting Associates and Westat. Nelson\Nygaard was the contractor for this study. The work under- taken at Westat was under a subcontract with Nelson\Nygaard. Adam Millard-Ball, Principal, Nelson\Nygaard, was the principal investigator. Gail Murray, Principal Associate, Nelson\Nygaard, was the co-principal investigator. The other primary authors of the report were Jon Burkhardt, Senior Study Director, Westat, and Jes- sica ter Schure, Associate Project Manager, Nelson\Nygaard. The GIS analysis and geographic market analysis were led by Christine Fox at Nelson\Nygaard, while Nina Creedman at Nelson\Nygaard provided research support. The online surveys were administered by Karen Burkhardt. The work would not have been possible without the considerable support received from many car-sharing operators. They encour- aged their members and partners to complete the on-line surveys, provided contact details for partner interviews, participated in the Operator’s Workshop, and reviewed research drafts. Thanks also go to the participating partners, car-sharing members, the TCRP B-26 panel, and many others who are too numerous to mention.

FOREWORD By Dianne S. Schwager Staff Officer Transportation Research Board TCRP Report 108: Car-Sharing: Where and How It Succeeds will be of interest to individuals, organizations, and communities who are interested in knowing more about car-sharing and to those who may want to introduce car-sharing as a new mobility alter- native. The report is a substantive resource with considerable information and useful tools for the development and implementation of car-sharing services. Communities face increasing traffic and parking congestion as well as a need to improve air quality. One way to address these problems is to find alternatives to private automobile ownership. Car-sharing is an innovative mobility option that allows indi- viduals to pay for and use automobiles—on an as-needed basis—through membership programs. In recent years, a number of European and U.S. car-sharing organizations have experienced rapid growth in membership and geographical coverage. However, little research has been performed on the benefits and feasibility of car-sharing. The goal of TCRP Project B-26 was to provide guidance to assist transit agencies, government offi- cials, and other interested parties in developing successful car-sharing services in tran- sit and other settings. TCRP Report 108 presents the research team’s findings on the • Current and potential roles of car-sharing in enhancing mobility as part of the transportation system; • Characteristics of car-sharing members and neighborhoods where car-sharing has been established; • Environmental, economic, and social impacts of car-sharing; • Ways in which partner organizations have tried to promote car-sharing; • Barriers to car-sharing and ways to mitigate these barriers; and • Procurement methods and evaluation techniques for achieving car-sharing goals. Appendices A through E of TCRP Report 108 are included with the report on CRP-CD-60. The appendices include an annotated bibliography; a list of partner orga- nizations surveyed and interviewed; survey instruments; and sample documents such as Requests for Proposals (RFPs) and zoning ordinances related to car-sharing. Appendix E was designed as a resource for introducing organizations to car-sharing and encour- aging partnerships to initiate car-sharing programs. The appendix includes five stand- alone documents directed to local governments, transit agencies, employers and busi- nesses, developers, and universities, respectively. Each document can be printed out in color and disseminated as an information resource and marketing tool on car-sharing. TCRP Report 108 and its appendices provide useful information and tools for those interested in initiating car-sharing programs.

ES-1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1-1 CHAPTER 1 Introduction 1.1 Introduction, 1-1 1.2 Research Approach, 1-2 1.3 Report Structure, 1-3 References, 1-5 2-1 CHAPTER 2 State of the Practice 2.1 What is Car-Sharing?, 2-1 2.2 A Brief History, 2-5 2.3 Models of Car-Sharing, 2-9 2.4 Relationship to Other Modes, 2-15 2.5 Current Practice, 2-18 2.6 Market Development, 2-27 References, 2-32 3-1 CHAPTER 3 Market Analysis 3.1 Demographic Market Segments Attracted to Car-Sharing, 3-2 3.2 Geographic Markets, 3-26 3.3 Growth Potential, 3-41 References, 3-43 4-1 CHAPTER 4 Impacts of Car-Sharing 4.1 Introduction, 4-1 4.2 Vehicle Ownership, 4-4 4.3 Travel Behavior Changes and Related Impacts, 4-13 4.4 Transportation Costs, 4-31 4.5 A Proposed Standard Methodology, 4-33 4.6 Conclusions, 4-35 References, 4-36 5-1 CHAPTER 5 The Role of Partners 5.1 What are Partner Organizations?, 5-1 5.2 Which Organizations are Involved?, 5-2 5.3 Summary of Survey Results, 5-3 5.4 Contributions of Partner Organizations, 5-7 5.5 Local Government, 5-8 5.6 Transit Agencies, 5-29 5.7 Employers and Businesses, 5-38 5.8 Developers, 5-43 5.9 Universities, 5-48 5.10 Conclusion, 5-55 References, 5-55 6-1 CHAPTER 6 Factors for Success 6.1 Overcoming Barriers, 6-1 6.2 Factors for Success, 6-19 6.3 Conclusion, 6-27 References, 6-28 7-1 CHAPTER 7 Procurement and Monitoring 7.1 Introduction, 7-1 7.2 Procuring Car-Sharing, 7-1 7.3 Performance Measures and Evaluation, 7-8 7.4 Recommended Approach, 7-19 7.5 Conclusion, 7-20 References, 7-21 8-1 CHAPTER 8 Conclusion References, 8-15 CONTENTS

CRP-CD-60 APPENDIX A Car-Sharing Annotated Bibliography APPENDIX B Geographic Market Analysis APPENDIX C Data Collection Instruments APPENDIX D Sample Documents APPENDIX E Partner Profiles

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TRB’s Transit Cooperative Research Program (TCRP) Report 108: Car-Sharing--Where and How It Succeeds examines development and implementation of car-sharing services. Issues addressed in the report include the roles of car-sharing in enhancing mobility as part of the transportation system; the characteristics of car-sharing members and neighborhoods where car-sharing has been established; and the environmental, economic, and social impacts of car-sharing. The report also focuses on car-sharing promotional efforts, barriers to car-sharing and ways to mitigate these barriers, and procurement methods and evaluation techniques for achieving car-sharing goals.

Appendices A through E of TCRP Report 108 are included with the report on CRP-CD-60 that is packaged with the report. The appendices include an annotated bibliography; a list of partner organizations surveyed and interviewed; survey instruments; and sample documents such as Requests for Proposals (RFPs) and zoning ordinances related to car-sharing. Appendix E was designed as a resource for introducing organizations to car-sharing and encouraging partnerships to initiate car-sharing programs.

Links to the download site for the CRP-CD-60 and to instructions on burning an .ISO CD-ROM are below.

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