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Consideration of Environmental Factors in Transportation Systems Planning (2005)

Chapter: Chapter 4 - Tools and Methods for Considering Environmental Factors

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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 4 - Tools and Methods for Considering Environmental Factors." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2005. Consideration of Environmental Factors in Transportation Systems Planning. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13864.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 4 - Tools and Methods for Considering Environmental Factors." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2005. Consideration of Environmental Factors in Transportation Systems Planning. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13864.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 4 - Tools and Methods for Considering Environmental Factors." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2005. Consideration of Environmental Factors in Transportation Systems Planning. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13864.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 4 - Tools and Methods for Considering Environmental Factors." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2005. Consideration of Environmental Factors in Transportation Systems Planning. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13864.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 4 - Tools and Methods for Considering Environmental Factors." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2005. Consideration of Environmental Factors in Transportation Systems Planning. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13864.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 4 - Tools and Methods for Considering Environmental Factors." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2005. Consideration of Environmental Factors in Transportation Systems Planning. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13864.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 4 - Tools and Methods for Considering Environmental Factors." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2005. Consideration of Environmental Factors in Transportation Systems Planning. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13864.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 4 - Tools and Methods for Considering Environmental Factors." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2005. Consideration of Environmental Factors in Transportation Systems Planning. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13864.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 4 - Tools and Methods for Considering Environmental Factors." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2005. Consideration of Environmental Factors in Transportation Systems Planning. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13864.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 4 - Tools and Methods for Considering Environmental Factors." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2005. Consideration of Environmental Factors in Transportation Systems Planning. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13864.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 4 - Tools and Methods for Considering Environmental Factors." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2005. Consideration of Environmental Factors in Transportation Systems Planning. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13864.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 4 - Tools and Methods for Considering Environmental Factors." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2005. Consideration of Environmental Factors in Transportation Systems Planning. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13864.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 4 - Tools and Methods for Considering Environmental Factors." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2005. Consideration of Environmental Factors in Transportation Systems Planning. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13864.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 4 - Tools and Methods for Considering Environmental Factors." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2005. Consideration of Environmental Factors in Transportation Systems Planning. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13864.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 4 - Tools and Methods for Considering Environmental Factors." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2005. Consideration of Environmental Factors in Transportation Systems Planning. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13864.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 4 - Tools and Methods for Considering Environmental Factors." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2005. Consideration of Environmental Factors in Transportation Systems Planning. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13864.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 4 - Tools and Methods for Considering Environmental Factors." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2005. Consideration of Environmental Factors in Transportation Systems Planning. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13864.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 4 - Tools and Methods for Considering Environmental Factors." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2005. Consideration of Environmental Factors in Transportation Systems Planning. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13864.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 4 - Tools and Methods for Considering Environmental Factors." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2005. Consideration of Environmental Factors in Transportation Systems Planning. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13864.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 4 - Tools and Methods for Considering Environmental Factors." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2005. Consideration of Environmental Factors in Transportation Systems Planning. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13864.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 4 - Tools and Methods for Considering Environmental Factors." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2005. Consideration of Environmental Factors in Transportation Systems Planning. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13864.
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CHAPTER 4 TOOLS AND METHODS FOR CONSIDERING ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS INTRODUCTION As noted in Chapter 3, identifying the location and sever- ity of potential environmental problems is one of the key challenges facing efforts to consider environmental factors in transportation systems planning. However, rapid advances in computer technology and database management capabilities have led to new tools and methods being available to plan- ners and engineers. This chapter examines tools either being used or being considered for use. The first section discusses the results of the survey and case studies as they pertain to tools and methods used to consider the environment in plan- ning. Next, recent and ongoing research is reviewed to discuss emerging tools for addressing the environment in systems planning. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the methods and tools being used in strategic environ- mental assessments (SEAs) overseas. COMMONLY USED TOOLS AND METHODS The results of the DOT and MPO surveys indicate that the most commonly used tools for considering environmental factors in transportation planning are • Data trend analysis, • Geographic information systems (GIS) and overlay mapping, • Socioeconomic/community impact assessment methods, • Public or expert surveys, • Focus groups, and • Environmental impact models (specifically, air quality impact models). The case studies provide a detailed look at typical or evolving tools for environmental analysis in transportation systems planning. Some of the more notable approaches are described below. Cape Cod Commission During the 1990s, the Cape Cod Commission developed a methodology for examining the environmental capacity lim- its of selected geographic areas of Cape Cod (this formed the 72 basis for the updated Regional Policy Plan). Two studies of environmentally sensitive areas, the Outer Cape Capacity Study and the Monomoy Capacity Study concluded that both parts of Cape Cod were severely constrained by a lack of available transportation infrastructure and water supply. Pro- jected build-out of developable land was projected to create a more serious situation. Management options identified in the studies included the identification and protection of envi- ronmentally sensitive areas such as future well sites; poten- tial zoning changes and land acquisition; transit and travel demand management strategies; and the purchase or ease- ments of sensitive resource areas to protect habitat and open space. One aspect of the Outer Cape Capacity Study that was directly aimed at bringing environmental considerations into transportation planning early in the process was the use of an environmental sensitivity index. The intent of this index was to identify the amount and proximity of environmental resources to critical transportation facilities. The index was a sum of weighted scores assigned to four environmental resources—wetlands/surface water bodies, rare species habi- tat, rare plant habitat, and critical upland areas. The index was applied to Route 6, the major highway serving the length of Cape Cod. A 100-meter band on each side of Route 6 was established as a required boundary. A score for each resource was given on the basis of the distance from the centerline of the road. A score of 100 was assigned if the centerline passed directly through the resource; the score decreased linearly with distance in the bandwidth. The indices for each of the four resource areas were then averaged to determine the envi- ronmental sensitivity of the surrounding environment for Route 6. Figure 16 shows the locations along Route 6 having varying degrees of environmental sensitivity. Wider bands indicate greater sensitivity. Florida Department of Transportation FDOT’s efficient transportation decision-making (ETDM) process is one of the most advanced in the United States, especially when considering the level of technical support that has been provided to make the ETDM process successful. As noted in Chapter 3, the foundation of the ETDM process is the Environmental Screening Tool. This Internet-

73 based GIS application provides several key capabilities to the process. • Data Input—The Environmental Screening Tool allows those responsible for transportation studies or projects (i.e., FDOT or the MPOs) to input and update informa- tion about the proposed actions. The primary data that are input relate to environmental resource information and project planning information. Environmental resource information is provided by the responsible environmental agencies. • Standardized Analyses—Standardized analyses have been developed by environmental resource agencies and are automatically performed by the Environmental Screening Tool. For example, the tool compares the location of proposed projects with known locations of environmentally sensitive resources. Where possible, quantitative information is provided to the user of the Figure 16. Environmental sensitivity index, Cape Cod.

74 tool (e.g., how many acres of wetland could possibly be affected?). Data can be displayed in tabular form or in various graphical forms. The environmental resource agency representative to the ETDM process is notified when new data is received from a project sponsor. The agency is then given 45 days to conduct any direct, sec- ondary, or cumulative impact analyses on the resource for which it is responsible. • Summary of Comments—The Environmental Screen- ing Tool collects the comments from ETDM partici- pants and provides a summary of all agency comments and recommendations. In particular, agency comments associated with key issues are highlighted, especially those relating to the Purpose and Need Statement, the degree of effect of the proposed action, project scoping recommendations (including recommendations for additional technical studies), and a running summary of comments received at public meetings during the project development process. • Read-Only Public Access—The general public is granted general access to only some components of the database. Accessible information includes such things as project description, summary impact graphics, and previously submitted comments. As configured, the Environmental Screening Tool will not allow public comments to be directly entered into the system. Comments must be submitted to an ETDM coordinator who acts as a gatekeeper for the information that is placed in the database. The Environmental Screening Tool is used in both the sys- tem planning and programming processes to expedite the exchange of information concerning potential transportation investments or specific projects. Figure 17 shows where the screening tool fits into both the planning process and the pro- gramming decision process. Typical planning summary reports include • Project description, • Purpose and Need Statement, • Agency comments, • GIS mapping, • Secondary and cumulative impacts evaluations, • Public involvement comments, and • Preliminary project concept based on agency and pub- lic input. Programming summary reports include the following information: • Project description and logical termini, • Purpose and Need Statement, Figure 17. FDOT screening tool in planning and programming. Source: Florida Department of Transportation, 2002 (77).

• Class of action determination, • Agency comments, • Comments from affected community, • Preliminary project concept, • Required technical studies to achieve NEPA compli- ance and project permit, • Reasonable alternatives for further study, • Dismissed alternatives (including reasons for dis- missal), and • Dispute resolution issues. As shown, the summary reports provide a comprehensive overview of the relevant information concerning possible environmental impacts. FDOT is developing agency operating agreements that out- line the responsibilities of those who will participate in the process. In particular, these agreements relate to the types of information that will be provided by each participant, the reviews that will be conducted, and the steps that will be taken by signatory agencies to undertake required environmental analyses. Some resource agencies are still uncertain about participating in this process because of their concern about 75 giving up legislatively mandated review powers. Trial runs of the system, however, have been so successful that it seems likely that all resource agencies will eventually participate. Approximately $1 million has been spent on the system to date. FDOT will be working with MPOs over the next sev- eral years to put in place the technology and staff training that will be necessary to operate the system in the regions. The initial FDOT assessment of the ETDM process is that it permits the identification of critical environmental issues early in the process; can narrow the scope of project plans, specifications, and estimates; eliminates the involvement of agencies that do not have to be involved in the process; main- tains a continuous record of the information provided by key participants in the process; establishes a basis for permitting; and provides up-to-date information to the public. The down- side is that additional staff work needs to occur earlier in the process and a substantial investment in technology is needed to keep the process running. However, FDOT officials strongly believe that the positive long-term benefits of this process will far outweigh the short-term costs. Figure 18 shows some of the Environmental Screening Tool screens available on the system. Figure 18. Using the FDOT Environmental Screening Tool. a Identifying the Wetlands Inventory

76 Figure 18. (Continued) Using the FDOT Environmental Screening Tool. c Focusing on Wetlands at Particular Site b Identifying Wetlands by Type

77 d Wetlands by Type in Selected Area e Project Record Figure 18. (Continued) Using the FDOT Environmental Screening Tool.

78 f Summary of Impact: Acres of Wetlands Affected g Purpose and Need Statement Figure 18. (Continued) Using the FDOT Environmental Screening Tool.

Maryland Department of Transportation MDOT uses various approaches to better integrate envi- ronmental concerns into its planning and decision-making activities, including • Secondary and Cumulative Effects Analysis (SCEA)— MDOT has developed procedures for considering sec- ondary and cumulative effects of proposed projects in compliance with the NEPA process and Council of Environmental Quality (CEQ) regulations. They have worked closely with local agencies in developing a methodology based on an expert panel review of land- use data to determine what these effects will likely be in major transportation corridors (84). • Storm Water Management—The SHA’s stormwater management program is one of the first and most com- prehensive efforts of any highway agency in the coun- try. To prevent the adverse effects of storm water runoff, the state has developed 14 performance stan- dards for development sites. • Erosion and Sediment Control—To protect the Chesa- peake Bay, Maryland has enacted sediment control requirements for all construction projects. The SHA’s sediment control program has been adopted by many DOTs. • Stream Restoration—The SHA engages in watershed planning with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, local jurisdictions, and MPOs on a project-by-project basis. Detailed technical analyses are performed to support watershed planning. In the last decade, there has been a strong national emphasis on restoring impacted or degraded streams using natural channel design. The SHA has used this technique extensively. • Parkland and Forest Conservation—The SHA has worked closely with conservation agencies and groups to develop procedures for environmentally sensitive design and construction. As part of the design process, for example, consideration is given to saving trees des- ignated as “specimen” or “significant.” Road align- ments have been shifted to avoid such trees in several cases. • Cultural Resources Program—The SHA has a staff of professional architectural historians to ensure that his- torical resources are considered during the planning and design process for proposed highway projects. The SHA is developing a preservation plan for historic high- way bridges to ensure the continued effective use of his- toric bridges. • Archaeological Resource Protection—Similar to cul- tural resources, the SHA employs professional archae- ologists to ensure that archaeological resources are considered during the planning and deign process of proposed highway projects. Working in close coordina- tion with architectural historians, SHA’s archaeologists 79 perform assessments and field studies for several hun- dred projects each year ranging in size and scope from minor traffic management and control studies to large capacity improvement projects. From 1995 to 1999 for example, SHA archaeologists performed 1,750 assessments. • Aesthetics—The SHA is involved in several beautifica- tion initiatives. A wildflower program was introduced in 1991 when the SHA adopted a reduced mowing pol- icy to encourage the growth of native wildflowers. The SHA also has initiated an extensive urban highway reconstruction program called Streetscapes. Projects under this program are conducted in partnership with local communities and include enhanced amenities as sidewalks, landscaping, drainage improvement, and traffic management. • Wetlands—For each highway project in project devel- opment, the SHA develops an extensive inventory of natural resources within the study corridor including all wetlands and waterways. The SHA attempts to select the roadway alternative having the least effect on these resources. While in the past it was common to see 10 or more wetland acres affected by a typical highway proj- ect, in the last decade, several projects have had less than 1 or 2 wetland acres affected. Minnesota Department of Transportation Although Mn/DOT has developed one of the most com- prehensive processes for considering environmental factors in systems planning, this process relies on more traditional analysis tools to identify problem areas. As noted by Mn/DOT officials, the types of tools used are specific to the types of environmental issues being faced. For example, environmental justice analyses are based on census data that relates transportation services provided to different popula- tion groups. For the natural environment, a GIS called MnModel divides the state into 20-acre squares, with 27 lay- ers of information associated with each square. Mn/DOT officials believe this model has strong potential for identify- ing archaeological and historic sites, sensitive soils, slopes, and water resources that would be critical for the types envi- ronmental systems planning they envision. Pima County (Tucson), Arizona One of the most extensive examples of identifying sensi- tive ecosystem and human habitats before developing a com- prehensive plan is found in Tucson. The Sonoran Desert Conservation Plan is a strategy adopted by Pima County to preserve critically sensitive areas of the desert, of which Pima County occupies six million acres, in the face of expected substantial growth (85). With an estimated 7 to 10 square miles of desert lost to urbanization every year, the

80 plan was undertaken to precede the efforts to update the county’s comprehensive plan so that important strategies could be incorporated into the investment and policy direc- tions that would result from this latter effort. As noted in the draft plan, “The original purpose of the conservation plan is to logically plan for continued commu- nity growth and expansion without significant adverse reg- ulatory consequences from enforcement of the Federal Endangered Species Act.” In other words, what could the county do to avoid federal regulatory constraints on the future growth in the region? However, as the plan was being developed, local officials found that understanding the sen- sitive ecosystem of the desert and the public interest in pro- viding protection of this resource for future generations resulted in the plan becoming “a form of growth manage- ment plan that will guide future urban growth and expansion by ecosystem-based planning guidelines.” Local officials expect that the principles and strategies espoused in this conservation plan will carry strong weight in the delibera- tions associated with updating the county’s more general comprehensive plan. The Pima County Board of Supervisors is spearheading this effort, coordinating with 12 government land manage- ment agencies and a 74-person steering committee. Steering committee members represent a wide range of interests, from environmental advocates to development interests. Five critical areas were identified for detailed assessment. • Ranch conservation lands were intended to preserve sufficient land to support ranching. As noted in the plan, “ranching is a significant land use that has served to pro- tect our natural open space, and it continues to be an important traditional industry that has shaped the rural landscape.” • Cultural and historic resources are an important element of the Sonoran Desert. Although only 12% of the tar- geted land area had been surveyed by the publication of the plan, over 4,000 archaeological and historic sites had been catalogued. The plan identified the most criti- cal parts of the desert that should be targeted for historic preservation. • Mountain parks have been one of the most important natural resources in the Pima County Region. Since 1998, when the conservation plan was first proposed, over 135,000 acres of Bureau of Land Management land has been conserved. The plan identifies potential loca- tions for further conservation efforts. • Riparian (or water) resources are considered the most threatened and vulnerable by the conservation plan. The threat includes not only contamination and draw-downs of surface waters, but also the lowering of groundwater levels. The plan identifies opportunities where riparian systems can be enhanced and preserved not only to pro- vide water, but also to secure future recreational and park lands. • Critical and sensitive habitats and biological corridors identified in the plan supported 39 species that needed protection. The key to the analysis was the importance of interconnectivity of the habitats that supported these species. The multispecies conservation plan has become a very important point of departure for the development of the county’s comprehensive plan and, in particular, for identifying the areas where develop- ment should be avoided. With a determination of the acreage necessary to stabilize endangered species, along with targeted historic and cultural reserves, Pima County planners are able to identify environ- mentally sensitive lands (ESLs) that will be protected from development pressures. In addition, guidelines have been developed that provide road designers with strategies to min- imize impacts to the environment along designated environ- mentally sensitive roadways (ESRs). Figure 19 illustrates the approach that was taken by Pima County planning staff in conducting the resource analysis for the Sonoran Desert. San Francisco Bay Area The Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) has an active program of initiatives and planning efforts aimed at providing environmentally sustainable development and transportation system performance in the region. Some of the MTC’s more innovative efforts include the following: • Addressing Equity in Transportation Planning and Ser- vice Provision—Many of the programs in the regional transportation plan (RTP) focus on equitable access to transportation services for people with low incomes or who are elderly or disabled. The RTP is subject to an environmental justice (EJ) analysis to assess the distrib- utive impacts of the plan. Equity analysis for the RTP includes an explicit evaluation of the benefits and bur- dens of the transportation plan on minority and low- income communities. Other MTC efforts on this topic include the development of transportation solutions for those transitioning from Welfare to Work, the Trans- portation for Livable Communities Fund that helps re- vitalize some of the region’s most disadvantaged com- munities, the Low-Income Flexible Transportation Program, and other efforts to improve the availability and affordability of transportation options. As part of its equity review, the RTP defines a Lifeline Transit Net- work, including transit routes, service levels, and costs. The system addresses both spatial and temporal service gaps in providing low-income and minority populations with access to major services at a reasonable level of ser- vice. The MTC also performs project-level EJ analysis. • Corridor-Level Planning—MTC has identified 16 multimodal corridors in the Bay Area that are the most

traveled routes on the region’s rail, highway, and bridge networks. These 16 corridors are the focus of many planning activities. For each corridor, manage- ment objectives are defined for improving the levels of transportation service on all modes, and associated environmental impacts are assessed. For example, management objectives for the Golden Gate Corridor include the following: – Minimize travel times for HOV and transit in entire corridor; – Develop ramp metering for US–101 to balance access for local and through trips; – Expand commute period transit options in corridor, and – Develop bicycle and pedestrian access to existing and future rail and ferry facilities. • Major Investment Studies—MTC has adopted the pol- icy of subjecting all major projects in the transportation improvement plan (TIP) to a major investment study (MIS), including an analysis of the environmental impacts of the proposed projects. These studies allow the agency to begin addressing environmental consid- erations at a broader level and at an earlier stage in planning relative to when project-level NEPA consid- erations are made. 81 Washington State Department of Transportation WSDOT officials are undertaking several initiatives designed to integrate environmental considerations into agency operations. These include • Environmental Benefit/Cost Assessment System— WSDOT has been particularly concerned about inter- nalizing the externalities of transportation decisions and is developing an approach for environmental benefit/ cost assessment. This system is expected to improve transportation project delivery by enabling agency offi- cials to identify the most cost-effective actions to meet environmental compliance (86). • ISO-Compliant Environmental Management System — WSDOT is developing a multimodal environmental management system (EMS) that will comply with ISO 140001. The EMS is expected to embrace all of WSDOT’s program functions and will be equipped to evaluate environmental attributes and impacts of all transportation modes including the ferry system. • The Environmental Work Bench—WSDOT is develop- ing a GIS-based tool called the Environmental Work Bench for use by planners and environmental staff. The Resource Distribution Potential Threats and Stressors Level of Threat Existing Management Gaps in Conservation Management Additional Conservation Measures Protected Sites and Landscapes Figure 19. Resource analysis methodology for the Sonoran Desert Conservation Plan. Source: Pima County, 2000 (85).

82 Environmental Work Bench is being used on a limited basis to identify and detect environmental issues early in the planning process. This system is being defined as an early environmental detection program for identifying “red flag” environmental concerns at the statewide high- way systems level. The analyses performed by this sys- tem will also provide important information to regional transportation planners. MPO officials are expecting to incorporate this approach into their planning processes, especially those relating to the environmental assess- ment of regional plans as required by state law. • Performance Measurement Quarterly Reporting— Although neither targets nor standards have been estab- lished for the WSDOT’s environmental goals, DOT staff uses a performance measurement quarterly report to assess and publicly report on how well the system is performing. Wisconsin Department of Transportation The System-Plan Environmental Evaluation (SEE) required by Wisconsin state law and implemented by a state administrative rule is one of the most demanding of such legal mandates in the United States. As seen in Chapter 3, the rule that has implemented the law was very specific in the types of impacts that were to be part of an SEE analysis. There was little doubt among WisDOT officials about the type of information that was necessary for the SEE analysis, but it was not clear what types of tools and what level of sophistication would be needed to satisfy legal requirements. The first step in the SEE approach was to develop a screen- ing tool to determine whether an SEE was necessary. For the most recent plan evaluated with an SEE, the Wisconsin State Highway Plan, the types of environmental criteria considered for each of the system alternatives included: air quality, energy consumption, sensitive land and water resources, indirect land-use impacts, economic development conse- quences, and community and neighborhood impacts. For each of the impact categories, the SEE analysis provided a description of the types of mitigation that were likely to be implemented for the different projects and impacts being considered. In each case, WisDOT experience with each mit- igation strategy was highlighted. Figure 20 shows the screen- ing tool used to determine whether an SEE is necessary. Because of the mandate to conduct SEEs, WisDOT pre- pared a reference manual that outlined the tools and methods that were appropriate for the level of analysis that was to occur in systems planning. Unlike other states, WisDOT has a fairly sophisticated statewide modeling capability. Freight flow projections are based on national databases and a statewide model allows WisDOT officials to forecast traffic volumes. In addition, GIS data for agricultural land, endan- gered resources, and water resources have been an important component of the SEE. The key approaches and concepts recommended in the WisDOT reference manual are described below: • Key Concepts – System-level impacts should consider cumulative impacts that build upon one another, secondary impacts that occur after the immediate influence of a project or program, complementary effects that occur when the impacts of one group of actions reinforce the effects of another set of actions, and mitigating effects that can be undertaken to offset the effects of another set of actions. – Impact assessment at the systems level should include a comparative assessment of the following three factors: type of action category, scale of action, and location. – The types of impacts that potentially should be reported include direct, indirect, and secondary impacts. – Proposed Methods for Identified Impact Categories – Traffic congestion is a direct transportation effect that must be addressed in an SEE. Two approaches are feasible depending on the existence of a statewide traffic network model. 1. Recent traffic volume counts can be adjusted based on assumed population growth rates to estimate future traffic volumes, or extrapolate future vol- umes from historical data. Increased traffic conges- tion then can be estimated by identifying congested facilities where additional volumes would likely occur, growth areas that could overwhelm existing facilities, and induced travel that could shift devel- opment patterns and/or generate additional traffic. 2. A statewide traffic model can be used to predict future traffic volumes on selected network links, thus providing such information as changes in vol- umes, levels of service, or hours of delay. – General energy impacts will be influenced by land- use patterns, mode shifts, induced travel, and speed/ congestion changes. System plans should be com- pared with a determination of whether smaller, greater, or approximately equal changes of these dimensions will occur. If model outputs are available that produce VMT and average speed estimates, these outputs can be used with fuel mileage rates to esti- mate energy consumption. – Air quality impacts should be considered in light of land-use patterns, mode shifts, induced travel, conges- tion reduction, and location of travel growth (e.g., in a nonattainment area). VMT-based analysis would use pollutant emission factors from air quality models to estimate the total emissions generated based on travel volumes, VMT, and travel speeds. In nonattainment areas, the regional travel demand model could be used to produce estimates of emissions directly.

83 Figure 20. Wisconsin’s Systems-Plan Environmental Evaluation Screening Tool.

84 Figure 20. (Continued). Wisconsin’s Systems-Plan Environmental Evaluation Screening Tool. Source: Cambridge Systematics, Inc., 1994 (87).

– A general assessment of land-use impacts would include both the direct and indirect effects of trans- portation improvements. Direct impacts that should be considered in an SEE include the cumulative effect of acquisition of agricultural land for system needs and the cumulative effect of land acquisition for other land uses that may not be replaceable. These direct impacts would depend on the type of action being considered, scale of application, and location. Simi- larly, indirect land-use impacts would be influenced by these characteristics. – Economic effects should consider the overall level of investment, the source of funds, the cost of doing business such as shipping costs, construction-related employment, and longer-term operating and mainte- nance jobs. Once again, the type of facility, scale of application, and location will influence the eventual economic effect of plan investment. – Community impacts will be directly influenced by the type of investment being considered and the charac- teristics of the neighboring community. The number and significance of the potential impacts for each alternative’s elements should be explained in narra- tive form. With respect to noise impacts, the plan alternatives should be ranked in order of their poten- tial noise impacts. – System plans should be compared based on their over- all potential effect on large system scale natural areas and ecosystems. This includes both sensitive land areas as well as water resources. At the system plan- ning level, in most cases, only general conclusions can be made about potential impacts in this category. – An evaluation matrix should be used to present the overall results of the comparative analysis. This matrix most likely would be in narrative form. The impacts considered, and the manner in which they were analyzed, included traffic congestion, direct and indirect land-use, economic development, and community and neigh- borhood impacts. Traffic Congestion Impacts • Air quality—The latest MOBILE model emission factors were multiplied by VMT for each alternative to arrive at an estimate of total emissions. The analysis showed that implementation of the recommended plan would result in emission levels that were 14% lower than in 2000. • Energy consumption—Miles per gallon data for 1997 were applied to 2020 annual VMT classified by various levels of congestion and by functional classi- fication in both urban and rural areas. Fuel consump- tion under the recommended plan was slightly less than the base case. 85 Direct Land-Use Impacts • Sensitive land—The types of sensitive land identified were agricultural land, habitat fragmentation, and endangered resources. The effect on agricultural land was estimated as the number of acres taken to build highways. The number of lane-miles added and poten- tial new bypasses constructed were used as a surrogate for habitat fragmentation. The effect on endangered resources was measured by using National Heritage Inventory data to determine how many sites were within one mile of a potential highway improvement. This analysis showed that the recommended plan could affect endangered resources about 700 times compared to 250 times for the base case. • Sensitive water—The two types of water quality impacts reported were construction-related erosion/runoff and postconstruction storm water runoff. The measures used for construction-related water issues included the num- ber of lane-miles added, the number of bridges replaced, the number of new bridges constructed, and the number of wetlands affected. The evaluation showed that the rec- ommended plan would require two-and-one-half times as many lane miles as the base case, the replacement of 337 bridges over water, and the construction of 217 new bridges over water (in comparison, the base case would replace 45 fewer bridges and would construct 76 new bridges). The recommended plan would also convert 900 to 1,100 acres of wetlands. Postconstruction storm water runoff was measured with the additional new lane-miles variable, thus indicating a two-and-one-half times impact over the base case. Indirect Land-Use Impacts Indirect land-use impacts reflect the potential of new transportation capacity to either induce new development or alter the existing pattern of development. As noted in the report, quantifying this effect, especially at the systems level, is very difficult. The recommended plan includes quantitative, comparative statements on potential sec- ondary land-use impacts by citing miles of new roads by location and type, and by identifying general impacts that may occur. Table 13 shows the qualitative information that was presented in the plan to illustrate the different types of land-use impacts that may occur by location and type of road investment. Economic Development Impacts The discussion on economic development impacts was very general, with linkages between improvements to mobility and subsequent enhancement of economic activity

86 highlighted. For example, this section made statements such as • “Recommended improvements are intended to enhance both mobility between Wisconsin communities and linkages to major destinations in neighboring states.” • “The plan’s recommended improvements to the Cor- ridors 2020 system would better enable tourists trav- eling on those routes to experience a more enjoyable trip to and from Wisconsin tourism destination points than would improvements recommended in the base case.” TABLE 13 Indirect land-use impacts described in Wisconsin State Highway Plan Source: Wisconsin Department of Transportation, 2000 (88).

• “The recommended improvements in SHP 2020 would reduce transportation costs for businesses in the state, making them more competitive with out-of-state busi- nesses, as well as potentially attracting new business to the state.” Community and Neighborhood Impacts The approach to this impact category was similar to that used in the economic development impact category—general statements were provided on the potential positive and neg- ative relationships between transportation investment and community/neighborhood integrity. In addition, this cate- gory introduced archaeological and historical site analysis as a community impact issue. This was measured by the num- ber of such sites that would potentially be affected by each alternative. For example, the recommended plan was deter- mined to have a potential of affecting a total of 835 archaeo- logical and 576 historical sites (compared to 430 and 372, respectively, for the base case). SUMMARY OF LITERATURE AND CASE STUDIES Numerous books have been written on the different approaches that can be used for assessing the effect of change on the natural and human environment. Two excel- lent sources, for example, are Dale and English (89) and Jensen and Bourgeron (90). However, only recently has there been a concerted effort in the transportation field to develop a comprehensive package of tools and methods for conducting environmental assessment. Individual tools have been developed for all of the impact categories of interest to transportation planners and engineers. However, there are very few publications that provide an overview of all the possible tools and methods that might be appropriate for a given situation. A resource guide on assessing the social and economic impacts of transportation projects was recently completed as a product of NCHRP Project 25-19. This guide, Evaluation of Methods, Tools, and Techniques to Assess the Social and Eco- nomic Effects of Transportation Projects, describes the analy- sis methods and tools that could be used to assess the social and economic effects of a transportation project. It also pre- sents the results of a survey of state DOTs and MPOs that characterized the level of use of these methods, tools, and techniques. Key findings of this study included the following: • A wide range of methods and tools are available for assessing social and economic impacts. Examples include – GIS and spatial-statistical analysis for environmental justice analysis; 87 – Resident or neighborhood surveys for studies on neighborhood cohesion; – Risk models for analyzing the settlement of displaced populations; – Regression models, spatial interaction and entropy- maximizing models, Markov models, and simulation models for modeling pedestrian movement; – Photomontage techniques for visual impact assess- ment involving the superimposition of images of transportation system changes onto an existing street scene; – Noise prediction models such as STAMINA, the FHA’s noise prediction software; and – Simulation models to estimate economic develop- ment impacts of transportation investments. • Neighborhood surveys are one of the most promising approaches for estimating the social effects of trans- portation projects, allowing planners to deduce the attributes of neighborhoods that are valued by residents in order to consider these attributes when formulating transportation system changes and mitigating their neg- ative impacts. • Although many of the methods, tools, and techniques in use have been applied to study current circumstances, few have been applied to predict the effect of a planned change. • Methods, tools, and techniques for estimating economic effects are substantially more advanced than is gener- ally true for techniques to measure social effects. • State DOTs, in general, are much more likely to con- duct social and economic impact analyses with their own staff than are MPOs. MPOs are more likely to engage the services of consultants for this type of assessment. The results of the literature review and case studies indi- cate that GIS is becoming a standard tool for environmental assessment in transportation planning. This tool is particu- larly useful for spatial analysis of equity issues. For example, the Toledo Metropolitan Area Council of Governments (TMACOG), Bay Area Metropolitan Transportation Com- mission (MTC), Delaware Regional Valley Planning Coun- cil, LA Southern Californian Association of Governments, North Carolina DOT, Georgia DOT, and the U.S. Army all use GIS to incorporate equity issues into planning (see, for example, 72, 91, 92, 93, and 94). In addition, several agencies are using GIS as a tool to cat- alogue environmental resources and evaluate the effect of var- ious project, corridor, or plan alternatives on environmental resources. Agencies such as the Oregon DOT and Caltrans are developing GIS capabilities for “fatal flaw” and scenario analyses. Mn/DOT has initiated the development of a GIS to track and analyze the effects of proposed alternatives on the state’s archeological resources and, as described in the previ- ous section, FDOT has developed a GIS for environmental

88 assessments applicable at the planning and project develop- ment levels. GIS is particularly useful for visualizing the impacts of various alternatives on multiple environmental resources (e.g., wetlands and archeological resources). These types of analyses can be conducted at the plan, program, or project levels of decision making. EMERGING ANALYSIS AND DATA COLLECTION TECHNOLOGIES One of the most comprehensive research efforts on data and technologies for incorporating environmental factors in transportation decision making was recently completed as NCHRP Project 25-22: Technologies to Improve Consid- eration of Environmental Concerns in Transportation Decisions. The 21 technologies highlighted by this research project were categorized into five broad headings as follows: 1. Geospatial database technologies, 2. Remote sensing technologies, 3. Transportation impact modeling technologies, 4. Decision science technologies, and 5. Visualization/simulation technologies. Geospatial Database Technologies Geospatial database technologies refer broadly to GIS and interactive databases, including Internet- and intranet- enabled technologies. These technologies provide structured and systematic tools for collecting, storing, analyzing, and disseminating information about spatially defined areas as they effect, or are affected by, transportation activities. While there are numerous potential applications of these tools, the research evaluated a representative sample of those that could be readily implemented with existing hardware and software, including electronic field data collection technolo- gies, collaborative planning and design tools, documenting and processing management tools, and facility information management systems. Electronic field data collection technologies are portable computer devices (e.g., laptops, palmtops, or handheld devices) used to collect and compile electronic inventories of geographic feature data such as wildlife habitats, wetlands, land use, historic sites, and physical features. They are capa- ble of displaying image, vector, and tabular data. They allow user-defined updates to map layers and linked attributes. The high-end products support real time, full duplex, wireless connections to GIS databases and enable immediate synchronization of environmental data into the centralized database, eliminating data integrity and resource issues asso- ciated with manual field processes. The low-end products require data to be transferred into the database after field activity. Data import software such as GPS receivers, laser range finders, and digital cameras can be linked to data collection tools and used to import data directly into a database. For example, a GPS receiver can be used to map exact coordinates of a wetland, plant commu- nity, or some other resource; a laser range finder can be used to measure the exact distance between two points and auto- matically upload the information into correct database fields; and a digital camera can be used to collect digital data of resources and then the data can be uploaded into a database. Collaborative planning and design tools refer to a combi- nation of computer-aided design and engineering and other GIS tools. These tools allow stakeholders to collaborate in a workshop setting to refine a project design or resolve specific design/construction related issues. Multiple sets of data relat- ing to such things as problem identification (accident sites, congested areas, geometric deficiencies, etc.), existing con- ditions (facility location, soil types, etc.), constraints and impacts (historic resources, parks, wetlands, etc.) and various other data are displayed on large screens in a group setting allowing stakeholders to engage in collaborative alternatives analysis at the planning or project level. Document and process management tools include elec- tronic reporting; web GIS; and multimedia and administra- tive record, document, and outcome tracking software. A multimedia administrative record is a permanent and easy- to-navigate electronic file that provides a record of the deci- sion process and includes all official documents necessary to explain and record important decisions. These tools make use of electronic publishing and database features to communicate project information through electronic and online documents; record key steps in the project develop- ment process; and track project outcomes, mitigation, and completion of required documents. Examples of applications include virtual environmental assessments and environmen- tal impact statements as well as other planning documents designed as easy-to-use multimedia products that are visu- ally interesting, engaging, and informative. Facility information management systems (FIMS) are a comprehensive transportation and environmental inventory containing the entire set of environmental (e.g., thematic) data that comprise, support, effect, or are impacted by trans- portation systems. In addition to transportation infrastructure (e.g., travelways, pavements, bridges, and terminals), the inventory data includes travel and commodity movements as well as other natural and cultural feature information neces- sary to the transportation facilities’ life-cycle functions. The data contained in FIMS ranges from historical to current to near real-time conditions. FIMS can be thought of as a one- stop data warehouse containing or providing access to all information used throughout the planning, project develop- ment, and systems operations phases. In addition to contain- ing all in-house transportation and environmental feature data, FIMS must also provide access to data warehouses con- taining natural, constructed, and other social environmental data maintained by other agencies.

Remote Sensing Remote sensing provides digital information on land and earth features that can be combined with spectral analysis and GIS modeling to create a powerful screening tool for transportation corridor or regional evaluation. Remote sens- ing can quickly and cost-effectively categorize and quantify land cover types (wetlands, crop lands, forested lands, etc.). When combined with topographic, environmental constraint, geological, and planimetric information, this data also can be used for quantitative description and evaluation of plan or project alternatives. Combining remote sensing and GIS capabilities offers the ability to present plan or project sce- narios in a three-dimensional environment, providing deci- sion makers and the public with a clear picture of potential impacts. Examples of remote sensing technologies discussed in the NCHRP 25-22 report include (1) terrestrial and airborne lidar, (2) digital aerial photography and photogram- metry, (3) radar imaging and mapping and ground- penetrating radar; and (4) multispectral and hyper-spectral satellite and airborne imaging. Transportation Impact Modeling Tools/Technologies Transportation impact modeling tools/technologies refer to the numerous models used to evaluate potential environ- mental effects of transportation projects such as air quality, noise, water quality, and biological resources. Illustrative models include biological resource models such as Wetland Environmental Tools (WET) for planning and ranking of wetland areas and Habitat Evaluation Procedures (HEP) for habitat-based impact assessment and resource management in both terrestrial and aquatic environments. Examples of water resources models include the Stormwater Management Model (SWMM), a computer simulation model for the analysis of quality and quantity problems with urban runoff; the Bridge Scour Data Management System (BSDMS); and the Cornell Mixing Zone Expert System known as CORMIX, a model used for the analysis, prediction, and design of aqueous toxic or conventional pollutant discharge into diverse water bodies. Air quality models include the U.S. Environmental Pro- tection Agency (EPA) MOBILE models that calculate gram per vehicle-mile emissions of carbon monoxide (CO), oxides of nitrogen (Nox), and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) on a vehicle fleet basis. Another model, CAL3QHC, uses MOBILE outputs to calculate emission concentrations at specific locations and other state-specific models that have the same function as the EPA models but include stricter vehicle emission control factors. Noise impact models include the Integrated Noise Model, the approved Federal Aviation Administration noise model used to calculate noise exposure in the vicinity of civilian air- 89 ports, FHA’s Traffic Noise Model used for roadway noise prediction, and the Federal Transit Administration’s FTANOISE model, a spreadsheet program for the assessment of rail noise exposure based on various train and track types. The NCHRP 25-22 report discussed three emerging tech- niques for impact modeling. These are gap analysis, inte- grated modeling, and expert systems. Gap analysis organizes baseline data on existing features according to user specifications, but provides no interpretation. Gap analysis is the use of GIS in a structured way to determine the nature and location of potential impacts on the built, natural, or social environment. Most commonly, the user specifies buffers around sensitive natural resources or other features as a first step in identifying constraints related to a given project. Gap analysis is a screening tool that precedes quantitative and other analyses through the use of models and other tools. Exam- ples of potential uses and scales range from local or regional land-use analysis to statewide natural resources analysis. Integrated modeling (where interactions among impact areas are modeled) could include some impact areas and interactions (e.g., land use and water quality, land use and air quality, vari- ous plant and wildlife species). Integrated models generate high-level predictive model output using single, integrated, or multiple model systems. Integrated models recognize the inter- dependence of resources and that modeling each impact inde- pendently may not accurately represent the natural ecology of the relationships among the different resources. Although integrated models could be developed and used for some impact areas, some of the most visible examples are those being used to analyze the interaction between changes in transportation infrastructure and changes in land use. Exam- ples include land-use forecasting models that incorporate transportation system impacts (e.g., EPA’s INDEXEPA); transportation models such as TRANSIMS that incorporate land-use impacts; and multimodal systems that seek to address both topics and others (e.g., econometrics) in a single model or models (e.g., Metroscope or Urbanism). Multimodal sys- tems for transportation and land-use attempt to address trans- portation and land-use interactions in a single comprehensive model or through multiple models used as an iterative system. In addition to connecting traditional land-use and trans- portation models, tools in this category also integrate economic considerations such as land prices and other real estate conditions. These models take the innovations of the individual models and combine them into even more com- prehensive representations of reality. Expert systems generally consist of a set of rules and user- supplied data that interact through an inference engine, an expert, or knowledge-based system able to derive or deduce new facts or data from existing facts and conditions. Expert systems have become widely available, allowing users to define the database and rule base without using artificial intelligence programming languages. Less often, individual organizations will create their own expert systems for specific purposes.

90 Decision Science Technologies Decision analysis tools can help transportation agency staff define problems, manage expectations, identify an appropri- ate range of alternatives, clarify information needs, identify and quantify uncertainties and their impacts on a decision, avoid decision traps in evaluating alternatives, and ensure meaningful involvement of stakeholders. The application of decision science methodologies is advantageous for technical analysis as well as public outreach processes and generally assists in creating a credible and auditable decision process. Examples of these technologies include multiple-attribute utility analysis, prioritization, risk analysis, and optimization. Multiple-attribute utility analysis methods are used to eval- uate and select alternatives based upon multiple attributes or criteria. This approach allows for the management of multiple objectives, the quantification of objectives, and the illustration of trade-offs. This approach is typically applied when multiple stakeholders concerned about multiple issues are required to select one alternative. The Toledo Metropolitan Area Council of Governments (TMACOG), as described in Chapter 3, uses a formal application of a multiple-attribute framework for selecting among various plan alternatives (or project clusters). Prioritization methods rank competing alternatives based upon objective criteria and specified constraints. This method is primarily used to prioritize multiple activities or projects and to illustrate explicitly that the maximum benefit is being derived from the investment. Risk analysis is an approach designed to determine how risk contributes to decision success and how to manage that risk. An example of an application of this technology is deciding when to proceed with a project to minimize the cost, risk, and uncertainty related to a parallel project. Optimization methods involve the development of an opti- mal system solution based on the comparison of multiple variables. This technology may be applied to determine traf- fic-timing elements at a complex intersection. Visualization/Simulation Technologies Computer-based simulation creates a 3-D, motion-based visual environment. This 3-D environment relies on three spa- tial axes (corresponding to the dimensions of length, height, and width) to create a spatial scene. The image is visually cre- ated in a computer graphic format, including the capability of incorporating motion as part of the scene generation. Other senses (particularly sound) are beginning to be synchronized to such simulations. Four-dimensional simulation adds the variable of time to 3-D simulation. The time variable permits heuristic examination of spatial change. Real-time analysis provides insights for traffic management, safety analysis, environmental change, construction management, and master planning (e.g., short range versus long range). Applications for design of transportation alignments in a “virtual reality” setting incorporating a full set of environmental constraints are the next likely steps in the evolution of this technology. Time-based visual simulation is not as advanced as 3-D sim- ulation and, consequently, it is less common. Another important completed research effort on environ- mental information management was NCHRP Project 25-23: Environmental Information Management and Decision Sup- port System for Transportation (95). The project was respond- ing to the need of state DOTs and MPOs to manage environ- mental information in support of the decision-making process. The resulting guidebook develops the concept and implemen- tation approach for an EIM&DSS that complies with ISO 14001 and has multiple applications and uses within an agency. The environmental information management and decision support system (EIM&DSS) is designed to provide decision makers involved with the planning, programming, project development, operations, and maintenance of any mode of transportation with information and analytical capabilities. Already existing decision support systems within state DOTs and MPOs may be considered functional building blocks of an EIM&DSS and could interface with the DSS. For exam- ple, the standard four-step transportation model (rail, air, bus, and waterborne traffic simulation models; management sys- tems; noise, water pollution, land use, contaminant fate, and transport impact models; and economic development mod- els) could each be part of a broader environmental manage- ment system. Washington State DOT has begun to develop an ISO-compliant environmental management system. Some active research projects sponsored by the National Cooperative Highway Research Program are looking at developing analysis tools/technologies for considering envi- ronmental factors in transportation systems planning. The results of these research activities could provide important analysis capability to the consideration of environmental fac- tors in transportation planning. Examples of these projects are discussed below. • Predicting Short-Term and Long-Term Air Quality Effects of Traffic-Flow Improvement Projects (NCHRP Project 25-21)—The objective of this research is to develop and demonstrate, in case study applications, a methodology to predict the short-term and long-term effects of corridor level, traffic-flow improvement projects on CO, VOCs, NOx, and particulate emissions (PM). The methodology will evaluate the magnitude, scale (such as regionwide, corridor, or local), and duration of the effects for various representative urbanized areas. • Effective Methods for Environmental Justice Assessment (NCHRP Project 8-41) —The objective of this research is to identify and develop processes, procedures, and techniques for integrating environmental justice consid- erations in transportation systems planning and decision making at the statewide, regional, and metropolitan lev- els. The research will improve the analytical capabilities of states, MPOs, and their planning partners. The research will build on existing community-impact assessment methods and will focus largely on the adaptation and

extension of these methods to environmental justice analyses employed at the systems, corridor, and project levels of transportation planning and development. TOOLS AND METHODS FOR CONSIDERING ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS This chapter has examined tools and methods that can be used to consider environmental factors in systems planning. Depending upon the type of environmental factor of concern, various tools are available that will enable transportation agencies to consider the potential environmental implica- tions of transportation investments. As was shown in the Florida ETDM case, such tools can be quite sophisticated and comprehensive. But as shown in other case studies, sim- pler tools are being used as well. Such a range of capability was found in a recent survey of 11 strategic environmental assessments (SEAs) that covered the diverse topics of road, rail, waste management, electricity sup- ply, gas development, underground infrastructure, an ecological district, and a political program (96). In addition, various coun- tries were represented in the survey, including Germany, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, New Zealand, and China. Table 14 shows various methods used for such assessments. As indicated by the survey undertaken for this project, very few agencies considered inadequate analysis tools and 91 methods as a substantial constraint in their efforts to con- sider environmental factors in transportation planning. Where agencies have determined a need for new or differ- ent tools, resources have usually been allocated to their development. Examples include Caltrans, FDOT, and ODOT initiatives to develop GIS to catalogue their envi- ronmental resources and analyze the effects of various plan and project alternatives on these resources. Other notable examples are WSDOT’s development of an environmental benefit-cost analysis tool, and the San Francisco Bay Area MTC’s development of GIS capabilities for environmental justice analysis. In this regard, the dissemination of practi- cal applications of emerging tools could be useful to agencies that have identified analytical needs and are iden- tifying options for developing or acquiring capabilities to meet these needs. Beyond agency needs, there also could be value in broadly disseminating useful applications of emerging methodolo- gies to showcase how tools and methods could be integrated into existing planning processes. For example, the use of integrated models, especially land use–transportation mod- els, could find a role in agencies that have begun to see a need for promoting land-use decisions that also provide efficient transportation but that have not yet articulated analysis needs to support this effort. Another possible example is the dissemination of GIS applications for inventorying and conducting systems-level Phase/Category Method Checklists Case comparison Literature survey Model mapping Consultation of experts Screening, scoping, definition of objectives Formal procedures Impacts prediction • Screening • Scenario development • Computer modeling • Geographic information systems • Project EIA as case study Use of baseline data Impact analysis Uncontroversial aggregation • Index methods • Monetary methods • Natural methods Presentation of information • Textual descriptions • Impact matrices • Consistency analysis Information analysis Further aggregation Scenarios Sensitivity analysis Showing points of view Decision analysis Geographic methods Dealing with uncertainty Postponing decisions TABLE 14 Strategic environmental assessment (SEA) methods Source: National Cooperative Highway Research Program, 2003 (95).

92 environmental assessments. A major prerequisite for moving environmental considerations early into the planning process is knowing where sensitive environmental resource areas are located. GIS platforms are ideally suited to providing this type of information. It is not surprising that those states that have progressed the furthest in systems-level environmental assessment have been those that made early investment in GIS technologies. However, as also was seen in some of these cases, such as in Florida and Wisconsin, determining possible impacts at such broad scales of application often relies on subjective expertise. Tools and methods do not always have to result in quantita- tive output. For example, Table 15 offers different, noncom- puterized approaches to providing important information in the early stages of the planning and decision-making processes. Given the range in tools and methods that can be used in environmental analysis, a regular synthesis on such methods and tools, as well as their practical applications, would be very helpful in ensuring that transportation agencies have the best capability for addressing different environmental issues. Forums for sharing DOT and MPO experiences with the use of various methods and tools would also be useful in this regard. Category Tool Use Strengths Weaknesses Restoration/ replacement costs Assigns economic cost to environmental damages Estimates costs directly related to damaged resource Some resources irreplaceable; ignores loss of use before replacement Economic Measures Travel costs Assigns economic value to resource based on visitation Works well when distance to site is key for estimating benefits Trips often have multiple objectives; confuses payment with value Health Relates ecosystem quality to the performance of key indicators Provides useful summary measures to gauge impacts of changes over time Hard to link cause and effect in ecological relationships; choice of indicators may be controversial Integrity Focuses on synergistic and system relationships Recognizes systemwide characteristics of complex ecosystems Definitions can vary greatly across experts; human versus nonhuman factors problematic Resilience Assesses the long-term viability of a resource Captures threats to future environmental quality based on past events and ecosystem response Difficult to measure; translation into comparable policy terms can be controversial Ecological Relationships Carrying capacity Relates fundamental qualities of ecosystem value to productivity Tracks key threats to future resource use and availability Relation of productivity to value may be contested; choice of impact baseline difficult Attitudinal and opinion surveys Gathers information about ecological understanding and support for policies Viewed as egalitarian and democratic; can be closely targeted to issues or market Subject to strategic and motivational biases; may encourage superficial responses Constructed preferences Elicits values used in making decisions about environmental choices Attempts to reflect actual decision processes and the key tradeoffs of stakeholders Responses may be difficult to integrate into cost/benefit framework Image Assesses affective and psychological reactions to scenarios or events Incorporates perceptions and beliefs associated with a proposed action Stimulus-response characteristics tough to anticipate; high geographic variability in responses Narrative and effect Elicits concerns of stakeholders through dialogue and conversation Can yield compelling stories; methods grounded in familiar feelings and emotions Subject to bias via small- sample selection; coding of responses problematic Expressed Preference Surveys Referenda Asks individuals to vote for or against a specific proposed action Provides familiar method for gauging opinions of diverse stakeholders Knowledge level of participants can vary widely; responses sensitive to framing of questions Focus groups Elicits responses to proposed action through informal small group discussions Inexpensive; directly targets question of concern; uses insights from diverse populations Sessions can be dominated by one point of view; values remain implicit; and conflicts difficult to address Small-group Input Advisory committees Develops broad perspective on an issue; involves interested and knowledgeable representatives Allows for open discussion; can increase trust in agency and empower local citizens Objectives and powers of committee may be unclear; diversity of viewpoints easily suppressed TABLE 15 Tools for identifying environmental values Source: Adapted from DHV Environmental and Infrastructure BV, undated (96).

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TRB’s National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP) Report 541: Consideration of Environmental Factors in Transportation Systems Planning examines processes, procedures, and methods for integrating environmental factors in transportation systems planning and decision making at the statewide, regional, and metropolitan levels. The appendixes to NCHRP Report 541 have been published as NCHRP Web-Only Document 77.

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