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ACRP
AIRPORT
COOPERATIVE
RESEARCH
PROGRAM
REPORT 4
Sponsored by
the Federal
Aviation
Administration
Ground Access to
Major Airports by
Public Transportation
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ACRP OVERSIGHT COMMITTEE* TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD 2008 EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE*
CHAIR OFFICERS
James Wilding CHAIR: Debra L. Miller, Secretary, Kansas DOT, Topeka
Independent Consultant VICE CHAIR: Adib K. Kanafani, Cahill Professor of Civil Engineering, University of California, Berkeley
EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR: Robert E. Skinner, Jr., Transportation Research Board
VICE CHAIR
Jeff Hamiel MEMBERS
MinneapolisSt. Paul
Metropolitan Airports Commission J. Barry Barker, Executive Director, Transit Authority of River City, Louisville, KY
Allen D. Biehler, Secretary, Pennsylvania DOT, Harrisburg
MEMBERS John D. Bowe, President, Americas Region, APL Limited, Oakland, CA
Larry L. Brown, Sr., Executive Director, Mississippi DOT, Jackson
James Crites
DallasFort Worth International Airport
Deborah H. Butler, Executive Vice President, Planning, and CIO, Norfolk Southern Corporation,
Richard de Neufville Norfolk, VA
Massachusetts Institute of Technology William A.V. Clark, Professor, Department of Geography, University of California, Los Angeles
Kevin C. Dolliole David S. Ekern, Commissioner, Virginia DOT, Richmond
UCG Associates Nicholas J. Garber, Henry L. Kinnier Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Virginia,
John K. Duval Charlottesville
Beverly Municipal Airport Jeffrey W. Hamiel, Executive Director, Metropolitan Airports Commission, Minneapolis, MN
Angela Gittens
HNTB Corporation Edward A. (Ned) Helme, President, Center for Clean Air Policy, Washington, DC
Steve Grossman Will Kempton, Director, California DOT, Sacramento
Oakland International Airport Susan Martinovich, Director, Nevada DOT, Carson City
Tom Jensen Michael D. Meyer, Professor, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of
National Safe Skies Alliance Technology, Atlanta
Catherine M. Lang Michael R. Morris, Director of Transportation, North Central Texas Council of Governments, Arlington
Federal Aviation Administration
Neil J. Pedersen, Administrator, Maryland State Highway Administration, Baltimore
Gina Marie Lindsey
Los Angeles World Airports Pete K. Rahn, Director, Missouri DOT, Jefferson City
Carolyn Motz Sandra Rosenbloom, Professor of Planning, University of Arizona, Tucson
Hagerstown Regional Airport Tracy L. Rosser, Vice President, Corporate Traffic, Wal-Mart Stores, Inc., Bentonville, AR
Richard Tucker Rosa Clausell Rountree, Executive Director, Georgia State Road and Tollway Authority, Atlanta
Huntsville International Airport Henry G. (Gerry) Schwartz, Jr., Chairman (retired), Jacobs/Sverdrup Civil, Inc., St. Louis, MO
C. Michael Walton, Ernest H. Cockrell Centennial Chair in Engineering, University of Texas, Austin
EX OFFICIO MEMBERS Linda S. Watson, CEO, LYNXCentral Florida Regional Transportation Authority, Orlando
Sabrina Johnson Steve Williams, Chairman and CEO, Maverick Transportation, Inc., Little Rock, AR
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Richard Marchi EX OFFICIO MEMBERS
Airports Council International--North America
Laura McKee Thad Allen (Adm., U.S. Coast Guard), Commandant, U.S. Coast Guard, Washington, DC
Air Transport Association of America Joseph H. Boardman, Federal Railroad Administrator, U.S.DOT
Henry Ogrodzinski Rebecca M. Brewster, President and COO, American Transportation Research Institute, Smyrna, GA
National Association of State Aviation Officials Paul R. Brubaker, Research and Innovative Technology Administrator, U.S.DOT
Melissa Sabatine George Bugliarello, Chancellor, Polytechnic University of New York, Brooklyn, and Foreign Secretary,
American Association of Airport Executives
Robert E. Skinner, Jr.
National Academy of Engineering, Washington, DC
Transportation Research Board Sean T. Connaughton, Maritime Administrator, U.S.DOT
LeRoy Gishi, Chief, Division of Transportation, Bureau of Indian Affairs, U.S. Department of the
SECRETARY Interior, Washington, DC
Edward R. Hamberger, President and CEO, Association of American Railroads, Washington, DC
Christopher W. Jenks
Transportation Research Board
John H. Hill, Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administrator, U.S.DOT
John C. Horsley, Executive Director, American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials, Washington, DC
Carl T. Johnson, Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administrator, U.S.DOT
J. Edward Johnson, Director, Applied Science Directorate, National Aeronautics and Space
Administration, John C. Stennis Space Center, MS
William W. Millar, President, American Public Transportation Association, Washington, DC
Nicole R. Nason, National Highway Traffic Safety Administrator, U.S.DOT
James Ray, Acting Administrator, Federal Highway Administrator, U.S.DOT
James S. Simpson, Federal Transit Administrator, U.S.DOT
Robert A. Sturgell, Acting Administrator, Federal Aviation Administration, U.S.DOT
Robert L. Van Antwerp (Lt. Gen., U.S. Army), Chief of Engineers and Commanding General,
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Washington, DC
*Membership as of January 2008. *Membership as of May 2008.
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AIRPORT COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAM
ACRP REPORT 4
Ground Access to
Major Airports by
Public Transportation
Matthew A. Coogan
White River Junction, VT
IN ASSOCIATION WITH
MarketSense Consulting LLC
Boston, MA
Jacobs Consultancy
Burlingame, CA
Subject Areas
Aviation
Research sponsored by the Federal Aviation Administration
TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD
WASHINGTON, D.C.
2008
www.TRB.org
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AIRPORT COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAM ACRP REPORT 4
Airports are vital national resources. They serve a key role in trans- Project 11-02/Task 2
portation of people and goods and in regional, national, and inter- ISSN 1935-0902
national commerce. They are where the nation's aviation system ISBN 978-0-309-09941-7
connects with other modes of transportation and where federal respon- Library of Congress Control Number 2008929051
sibility for managing and regulating air traffic operations intersects
with the role of state and local governments that own and operate most © 2008 Transportation Research Board
airports. Research is necessary to solve common operating problems,
to adapt appropriate new technologies from other industries, and to
introduce innovations into the airport industry. The Airport Coopera- COPYRIGHT PERMISSION
tive Research Program (ACRP) serves as one of the principal means by
Authors herein are responsible for the authenticity of their materials and for obtaining
which the airport industry can develop innovative near-term solutions
written permissions from publishers or persons who own the copyright to any previously
to meet demands placed on it. published or copyrighted material used herein.
The need for ACRP was identified in TRB Special Report 272: Airport
Research Needs: Cooperative Solutions in 2003, based on a study spon- Cooperative Research Programs (CRP) grants permission to reproduce material in this
publication for classroom and not-for-profit purposes. Permission is given with the
sored by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). The ACRP carries understanding that none of the material will be used to imply TRB or FAA endorsement
out applied research on problems that are shared by airport operating of a particular product, method, or practice. It is expected that those reproducing the
agencies and are not being adequately addressed by existing federal material in this document for educational and not-for-profit uses will give appropriate
research programs. It is modeled after the successful National Coopera- acknowledgment of the source of any reprinted or reproduced material. For other uses of
tive Highway Research Program and Transit Cooperative Research Pro- the material, request permission from CRP.
gram. The ACRP undertakes research and other technical activities in a
variety of airport subject areas, including design, construction, mainte-
nance, operations, safety, security, policy, planning, human resources, NOTICE
and administration. The ACRP provides a forum where airport opera-
tors can cooperatively address common operational problems. The project that is the subject of this report was a part of the Airport Cooperative Research
Program conducted by the Transportation Research Board with the approval of the
The ACRP was authorized in December 2003 as part of the Vision Governing Board of the National Research Council. Such approval reflects the Governing
100-Century of Aviation Reauthorization Act. The primary partici- Board's judgment that the project concerned is appropriate with respect to both the
pants in the ACRP are (1) an independent governing board, the ACRP purposes and resources of the National Research Council.
Oversight Committee (AOC), appointed by the Secretary of the U.S. The members of the technical advisory panel selected to monitor this project and to review
Department of Transportation with representation from airport oper- this report were chosen for recognized scholarly competence and with due consideration
ating agencies, other stakeholders, and relevant industry organizations for the balance of disciplines appropriate to the project. The opinions and conclusions
such as the Airports Council International-North America (ACI-NA), expressed or implied are those of the research agency that performed the research, and
the American Association of Airport Executives (AAAE), the National while they have been accepted as appropriate by the technical panel, they are not
Association of State Aviation Officials (NASAO), and the Air Transport necessarily those of the Transportation Research Board, the National Research Council, or
the Federal Aviation Administration of the U.S. Department of Transportation.
Association (ATA) as vital links to the airport community; (2) the TRB
as program manager and secretariat for the governing board; and Each report is reviewed and accepted for publication by the technical panel according to
(3) the FAA as program sponsor. In October 2005, the FAA executed a procedures established and monitored by the Transportation Research Board Executive
Committee and the Governing Board of the National Research Council.
contract with the National Academies formally initiating the program.
The ACRP benefits from the cooperation and participation of airport The Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, the National Research
professionals, air carriers, shippers, state and local government officials, Council, and the Federal Aviation Administration (sponsor of the Airport Cooperative
Research Program) do not endorse products or manufacturers. Trade or manufacturers'
equipment and service suppliers, other airport users, and research orga- names appear herein solely because they are considered essential to the clarity and
nizations. Each of these participants has different interests and respon- completeness of the project reporting.
sibilities, and each is an integral part of this cooperative research effort.
Research problem statements for the ACRP are solicited periodically
but may be submitted to the TRB by anyone at any time. It is the
responsibility of the AOC to formulate the research program by iden-
tifying the highest priority projects and defining funding levels and
expected products.
Once selected, each ACRP project is assigned to an expert panel,
appointed by the TRB. Panels include experienced practitioners and
research specialists; heavy emphasis is placed on including airport pro-
fessionals, the intended users of the research products. The panels pre-
pare project statements (requests for proposals), select contractors, and
provide technical guidance and counsel throughout the life of the
project. The process for developing research problem statements and Published reports of the
selecting research agencies has been used by TRB in managing cooper- AIRPORT COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAM
ative research programs since 1962. As in other TRB activities, ACRP
are available from:
project panels serve voluntarily without compensation.
Primary emphasis is placed on disseminating ACRP results to the Transportation Research Board
Business Office
intended end-users of the research: airport operating agencies, service 500 Fifth Street, NW
providers, and suppliers. The ACRP produces a series of research Washington, DC 20001
reports for use by airport operators, local agencies, the FAA, and other
interested parties, and industry associations may arrange for work- and can be ordered through the Internet at
shops, training aids, field visits, and other activities to ensure that http://www.national-academies.org/trb/bookstore
results are implemented by airport-industry practitioners. Printed in the United States of America
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COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAMS
CRP STAFF FOR ACRP REPORT 4
Christopher W. Jenks, Director, Cooperative Research Programs
Crawford F. Jencks, Deputy Director, Cooperative Research Programs
Dianne S. Schwager, Senior Program Officer
Eileen P. Delaney, Director of Publications
Natalie Barnes, Editor
ACRP PROJECT 11-02/TASK 2 PANEL
Field of Special Projects
Gene Hauck, SuperShuttle International, Scottsdale, AZ
Joseph H. Hills, Tampa, FL
Simone C. Johnson, Maryland Aviation Administration, BWI Airport, MD
Alfred LaGasse, International Taxicab and Livery Association, Kensington, MD
Ray A. Mundy, University of MissouriSt. Louis, St. Louis, MO
Michael Welch, JetBlue Airways, Hanover, MA
Patrick Sullivan, FAA Liaison
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FOREWORD
By Dianne S. Schwager
Staff Officer
Transportation Research Board
ACRP Report 4: Ground Access to Major Airports by Public Transportation provides tools
and information to assist airport managers in improving ground access to large airports.
The dramatic increases in air travel, congestion near airports, and interest in improving
access to airports make this research report very timely. This research project builds upon
and updates the results of two previous research projects undertaken within the Transit
Cooperative Research Program, which produced TCRP Report 62: Improving Public Trans-
portation Access to Large Airports (2000) and TCRP Report 83: Strategies for Improving Public
Transportation Access to Large Airports (2002).
ACRP Report 4: Ground Access to Major Airports by Public Transportation provides a
wealth of information about the current status of public transportation services and their
use at large airports in the United States and around the world. Chapter 1 summarizes for
airport managers the key elements in the creation of a six-step market-based strategy for
improving the quality of public mode services at U.S. airports. This strategy focuses on the
needs of the air traveler who uses airport ground access services. This traveler makes deci-
sions that are affected by the amount of baggage being carried, the sense of apprehension
about the reliability of the trip and arriving on time, the total trip costs, and a lack of knowl-
edge about the non-home end of the trip. The market-based strategy was designed to
support the development of public transportation services unique to the needs of the air-
port and to the users of the airport.
The balance of the report addresses the context for public transportation to major air-
ports; explores the attributes of successful airport ground access systems; presents an
airport-by-airport summary of air traveler ground access mode share by public transporta-
tion services (i.e., rail, bus, and shared-ride vans) for major U.S., European, and Asian air-
ports (modes excluded from this review include hotel and rental car vans, limousines, and
charter buses); discusses integrated baggage and airline ticketing strategies; applies market
research to planning public transportation services to airports; reviews strategies for
improving airport landside ground transportation services, including addressing institu-
tional challenges for implementing these strategies and identifying potential funding
sources; describes ways to improve the public transportation mode share for airport
employees; examines new and evolving information technology to bring airport ground
access information and ticketing options to the traveler; and identifies opportunities for
further research that tie back to the six-step process described in Chapter 1.
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CONTENTS
1 Summary
15 Chapter 1 Six Steps in a Market-Based Strategy for Improving
Airport Ground Access
16 Step 1: Establish the Public Policy Goals for Airport Ground Access
16 Define the Stakeholders and Get Them to the Table
16 Coordinate with the Regional Planning Process
18 Best Practices in the United States: Establishing the Process
18 Step 2: Undertake the Program of Data Gathering and System Monitoring
18 Data Collection for the Airport Ground Access Survey
20 Data Collection to Monitor the Performance of the System
21 Best Practices in the United States: Continuing Survey Programs
21 Step 3: Interpret the Markets and Their Relationship to Candidate Modes
21 Geographic Scale of the Airport Ground Access Markets
22 Density and Market Support Associated with Specific Modes
24 The Need for a Composite Approach
24 Best Practices in the United States: Examples of Market Types
at U.S. Airports
25 Step 4: Design a Program of Services and Strategies for Airport Ground Access
25 Lessons Learned from Successful Systems
27 Summary: Designing to Deal with Revealed Attributes
28 Best Practices in the United States: Service Based on Markets
29 Step 5: Manage the Airport to Encourage Higher Occupancy Vehicle Use
29 Encouraging the Use of High-Occupancy Service
30 Learning from Recent U.S. Airport Designs
31 Considering Regulations to Encourage Higher Occupancy
Mode Strategies
31 Best Practices in the United States: Management and Amenity
31 Step 6: Present Information about Ground Access Services to the Traveler
32 Building a Ground Transportation Information Strategy
32 Best Practices: Traveler Information
32 Conclusion
34 Chapter 2 The Context for Public Transportation
to Major Airports
34 Understanding the Scale of Airport Ground Access
35 U.S. Airports and Their Public Mode Share
35 The Scale of the Public Mode Volumes at These Airports
36 What Has Happened over the Last Decade?
39 How Have the Transit-Oriented Airports "Bounced Back"
from the Decrease in Air Traffic?
41 Will the Pattern of Air Travel Continue to Grow?
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41 Understanding the Trips That Use Airports
41 Trip Purpose: Why Do Airline Passengers Travel?
44 National Patterns of Access to Airports and Terminals
45 Daily Public Mode Volumes to Airports
46 "Typical" Public Mode Volumes for Large U.S. Airports
46 Public Mode Volumes for 27 U.S. Airports
46 Implications for Choice of Ground Access Mode
48 Why Are Airports Concerned with Ground Access by Public Modes?
48 Ground Access Issues and the Regional Planning Process
50 Environmental Approvals in Europe
51 What's Next?
52 Chapter 3 Attributes of Successful Ground Access Systems
52 Understanding Successful Airport Ground Access Systems
53 Does Airport Size Explain Ridership?
54 Does Distance from Downtown Explain Ridership?
54 Does the Quality of the Airport Connection Explain Ridership?
55 Does Line-Haul Speed Explain High Ridership?
58 Is Higher Speed or Directness of Service More Important?
61 The Implications of Dedicated Premium Service
62 Service Attributes of Proposed Projects
62 Berlin Brandenburg Airport
63 Paris Charles de Gaulle Airport
63 Chicago Midway and O'Hare Airports
64 New York JFK Airport
64 Summing It Up
65 Desired Attributes of Rail Service to U.S. Airports
65 Desired Attributes of Van and Bus Service to U.S. Airports
67 What's Next?
68 Chapter 4 Public Transportation Market Share by Airport
68 Part 1: Best Practices at U.S. Airports
69 Tier 1
70 San Francisco (23% Market Share)
71 New York JFK (19% Market Share)
71 Boston (18% Market Share)
73 Reagan Washington National (17% Market Share)
73 Oakland (15% Market Share)
74 New Orleans (15% Market Share)
75 Newark (14% Market Share)
75 Atlanta (14% Market Share)
76 Denver (14% Market Share)
77 Los Angeles (13% Market Share)
78 Baltimore/Washington (12% Market Share)
79 Chicago O'Hare (12% Market Share)
80 Las Vegas (12% Market Share)
80 Tier 2
81 Orlando (11% Market Share)
81 Seattle (11% Market Share)
82 Portland (10% Market Share)
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82 Chicago Midway (9% Market Share)
83 Phoenix (9% Market Share)
83 San Diego (9% Market Share)
84 Indianapolis (9% Market Share)
84 Washington Dulles (8% Market Share)
85 New York LaGuardia (8% Market Share)
86 Philadelphia (7% Market Share)
87 Tampa (7% Market Share)
87 Dallas/Fort Worth (6% Market Share)
88 St. Louis (6% Market Share)
88 Cleveland (6% Market Share)
89 Other Airports of Interest
89 Part 2: Best Practices at European and Asian Airports
91 Oslo (64% Market Share)
92 Hong Kong (63% Market Share)
93 Narita (59% Market Share)
94 Shanghai (51% Market Share)
94 Zurich (47% Market Share)
95 Vienna (41% Market Share)
96 London Stansted (40% Market Share)
97 Paris Charles de Gaulle (40% Market Share)
98 Amsterdam (37% Market Share)
99 Copenhagen (37% Market Share)
99 Munich (36% Market Share)
100 London Heathrow (36% Market Share)
101 Stockholm (34% Market Share)
102 Frankfurt (33% Market Share)
103 London Gatwick (31% Market Share)
103 Geneva (28% Market Share)
104 Brussels (26% Market Share)
105 Paris Orly (26% Market Share)
105 Düsseldorf (22% Market Share)
107 Chapter 5 Integrated Baggage and Ticketing Strategies
107 Part 1: Baggage Strategies for Local Originating Passengers
108 The Importance of Baggage-Handling Strategies
109 A Case Study in Baggage Check-in at a Downtown Terminal
112 Status of Other Downtown Check-in Terminals
117 Near-Airport Check-in Locations
119 Lessons Learned: Off-Site Airport Check-in Centers
119 Summary
119 Part 2: Integration of Ticketing and Baggage with Longer Distance Systems
120 Integration with National Systems: The GAO Study
122 Why Integrate an Airport with Longer Distance Ground Services?
125 Part 3: Evolving Strategies for Integrated Ticketing and Baggage
126 Las Vegas Strategies for Integration of Modal Services
127 Los Angeles International Airport to Union Station
128 Newark Liberty International Airport Rail Station: A Case Study
131 Lessons Learned: Integration with National Systems
132 Documentation of Examples of Integrated Services
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135 Chapter 6 Applying Market Research to Airport Ground Access
135 The Role of Market Research
135 Characteristics of the Airport Ground Access Market
136 Geographic Distribution of Ground Access Trips
136 Demographic Characteristics of Air Travelers
138 Airport Ground Access Market Research
138 Step 1: Decide What Information to Collect
139 Step 2: Select a Data Collection Method
141 Step 3: Determine the Sampling Frame and Sampling Method
142 Step 4: Develop the Questionnaire
142 Step 5: Summarize and Analyze the Results
143 Use of Market Research Information
143 Air Traveler Trip-End Densities Associated with Ground
Transportation Markets
145 The Importance of Primary Ground Transportation Markets
145 The Geography of Public Ground Transportation to Airports
147 A Hierarchy of Markets for Public Ground Transportation Services
148 Influence of Geography and Demographics on Ground
Transportation Markets
148 Variation by Demographic Segment: Total Airport Markets
149 Variation by Demographic Segment: Washington, D.C.
151 Applying the Four Market Segments: Looking for the Factor of Familiarity
152 Conclusion
153 Chapter 7 Managing the Airport Landside System
153 The Need to Manage Services
154 Airport Ground Transportation Management Strategies
154 Airport Fees
154 Measures to Encourage Use of Public Transportation
156 Automated Traffic Monitoring and Management Programs
157 Business Arrangements at Airports to Improve Service to the Traveling Public
157 Open Access
158 Exclusive and Semi-Exclusive Concessions Agreements
158 Balancing Supply and Demand
159 Third-Party Management Contracts
159 Regulatory Considerations for the Introduction of New Services
159 Challenges of Introducing New Services
160 Competition and Enforcement
161 Factors Governing Airport Financial Operations
161 Authorizing Legislation
161 Bond Indenture
162 Airline Agreement
163 Concession Agreements
163 Sources of Funding
164 Federal Funding and Financial Oversight of Airports
and Airport Access Projects
167 Environmental Implications of Federal Funding
for Airport Access Projects
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168 Chapter 8 Improving Public Transportation Mode Share
for Employees
168 The Objective and the Challenge
168 Factors that Influence Employee Use of Public Transportation
169 Transit Service Characteristics
171 Employee Characteristics
173 Key Considerations for Improving Employee Public Transportation
Mode Share
173 Comparative Travel Time of Transit and Automobile
173 Comparative Comfort of Transit and Automobile
174 Extent and Adequacy of the Transit Service Area
174 Proximity and Accessibility of Transit Service at Both Trip Ends
174 Availability, Cost, and Convenience of Parking at the Work Site
175 Extent and Adequacy of Transit Service Hours
176 Perceived Safety of Transit, Particularly at Night
176 Airport Employee Market Segments
176 Flight Crew
176 Non-Flight Crew
177 Chapter 9 Getting Ground Access Information to the Traveler
177 Getting Information about Ground Access
178 How U.S. Airport Websites Cover Ground Access
178 Ground Access Information on the San Francisco Airport Website
181 Ground Access Information on the Portland (Oregon) Airport Website
182 Ground Access Information on the Boston Airport Website
183 Ground Access Information on the New York JFK Airport Website
185 Ground Access Information on the Atlanta Airport Website
186 How European and Asian Airport Websites Cover Ground Access
186 Ground Access Information on the Amsterdam Airport Website
188 Ground Access Planning on the Narita Airport Website
190 Ground Access Information on the London Heathrow Airport Website
191 Ground Access Information on the Zurich Airport Website
192 The Baltimore/Washington International Airport Prototype Ground
Access Module
193 Passenger Information Provided by the Airport
193 Passenger Information Provided by Other Agencies
195 Conclusions
196 Chapter 10 Further Research
196 Step 1: Establish the Public Policy Goals for Airport Ground Access
196 Step 2: Undertake the Program for Data Gathering and System Monitoring
197 Step 3: Understand the Markets Revealed and Their Relationship
to Candidate Solutions
197 Step 4: Design a Program of Services and Strategies for Airport Ground Access
197 Step 5: Manage the Airport to Encourage Higher Occupancy
198 Step 6: Present the Ground Access Services to the Traveler
199 References
201 Appendix Abbreviations and Acronyms
