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TCRP
TRANSIT
COOPERATIVE
RESEARCH
REPORT 86 PROGRAM
V O L U M E 1 2
SPONSORED BY THE FTA
TRANSPORTATION SECURITY
NCHRP
NATIONAL
COOPERATIVE
HIGHWAY RESEARCH
PROGRAM
REPORT 525
V O L U M E 1 2
Making
Transportation
Tunnels Safe and
Secure
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TCRP OVERSIGHT AND PROJECT TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD 2006 EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE*
SELECTION COMMITTEE*
CHAIR OFFICERS
David A. Lee
Connecticut Transit CHAIR: Michael D. Meyer, Professor, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of
Technology, Atlanta
MEMBERS VICE CHAIR: Linda S. Watson, Executive Director, LYNX--Central Florida Regional Transportation
Ann August Authority, Orlando
Santee Wateree Regional Transportation Authority
EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR: Robert E. Skinner, Jr., Transportation Research Board
Linda J. Bohlinger
HNTB Corp.
Robert I. Brownstein MEMBERS
PB Consult, Inc. Michael W. Behrens, Executive Director, Texas DOT, Austin
Peter Cannito
Allen D. Biehler, Secretary, Pennsylvania DOT, Harrisburg
Metropolitan Transportation Authority--Metro
North Railroad John D. Bowe, Regional President, APL Americas, Oakland, CA
Gregory Cook Larry L. Brown, Sr., Executive Director, Mississippi DOT, Jackson
Ann Arbor Transportation Authority Deborah H. Butler, Vice President, Customer Service, Norfolk Southern Corporation and Subsidiaries,
Nathaniel P. Ford Atlanta, GA
San Francisco MUNI Anne P. Canby, President, Surface Transportation Policy Project, Washington, DC
Ronald L. Freeland Douglas G. Duncan, President and CEO, FedEx Freight, Memphis, TN
Booz Allen Hamilton, Inc.
Nicholas J. Garber, Henry L. Kinnier Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Virginia,
Fred M. Gilliam
Capital Metropolitan Transportation Authority Charlottesville
Kim R. Green Angela Gittens, Vice President, Airport Business Services, HNTB Corporation, Miami, FL
GFI GENFARE Genevieve Giuliano, Professor and Senior Associate Dean of Research and Technology, School of Policy,
Jill A. Hough Planning, and Development, and Director, METRANS National Center for Metropolitan
North Dakota State University Transportation Research, University of Southern California, Los Angeles
John Inglish Susan Hanson, Landry University Professor of Geography, Graduate School of Geography, Clark
Utah Transit Authority
University, Worcester, MA
Jeanne W. Krieg
Eastern Contra Costa Transit Authority James R. Hertwig, President, CSX Intermodal, Jacksonville, FL
Celia G. Kupersmith Gloria J. Jeff, General Manager, City of Los Angeles DOT, Los Angeles, CA
Golden Gate Bridge, Highway and Transportation Adib K. Kanafani, Cahill Professor of Civil Engineering, University of California, Berkeley
District Harold E. Linnenkohl, Commissioner, Georgia DOT, Atlanta
Clarence W. Marsella Sue McNeil, Professor, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark
Denver Regional Transportation District Debra L. Miller, Secretary, Kansas DOT, Topeka
Faye L. M. Moore Michael R. Morris, Director of Transportation, North Central Texas Council of Governments, Arlington
Southeastern Pennsylvania Transportation
Authority Carol A. Murray, Commissioner, New Hampshire DOT, Concord
Stephanie L. Pinson John R. Njord, Executive Director, Utah DOT, Salt Lake City
Gilbert Tweed Associates, Inc. Pete K. Rahn, Director, Missouri DOT, Jefferson City
Robert H. Prince, Jr. Sandra Rosenbloom, Professor of Planning, University of Arizona, Tucson
DMJM+Harris Henry Gerard Schwartz, Jr., Senior Professor, Washington University, St. Louis, MO
Jeffrey M. Rosenberg Michael S. Townes, President and CEO, Hampton Roads Transit, Hampton, VA
Amalgamated Transit Union C. Michael Walton, Ernest H. Cockrell Centennial Chair in Engineering, University of Texas, Austin
Michael Scanlon
San Mateo County Transit District
Beverly Scott EX OFFICIO MEMBERS
Sacramento Regional Transit District Thad Allen (Adm., U.S. Coast Guard), Commandant, U.S. Coast Guard, Washington, DC
James S. Simpson Thomas J. Barrett (Vice Adm., U.S. Coast Guard, ret.), Pipeline and Hazardous Materials
FTA
Frank Tobey Safety Administrator, U.S.DOT
First Transit Marion C. Blakey, Federal Aviation Administrator, U.S.DOT
Kathryn D. Waters Joseph H. Boardman, Federal Railroad Administrator, U.S.DOT
Dallas Area Rapid Transit John Bobo, Deputy Administrator, Research and Innovative Technology Administration, U.S.DOT
Frank Wilson Rebecca M. Brewster, President and COO, American Transportation Research Institute, Smyrna, GA
Metropolitan Transit Authority of Harris County George Bugliarello, Chancellor, Polytechnic University of New York, Brooklyn, and Foreign Secretary,
EX OFFICIO MEMBERS National Academy of Engineering, Washington, DC
William W. Millar J. Richard Capka, Federal Highway Administrator, U.S.DOT
APTA Sean T. Connaughton, Maritime Administrator, U.S.DOT
Robert E. Skinner, Jr. Edward R. Hamberger, President and CEO, Association of American Railroads, Washington, DC
TRB John H. Hill, Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administrator, U.S.DOT
John C. Horsley John C. Horsley, Executive Director, American Association of State Highway and Transportation
AASHTO
Officials, Washington, DC
J. Richard Capka
FHWA J. Edward Johnson, Director, Applied Science Directorate, National Aeronautics and Space Administration,
John C. Stennis Space Center, MS
TDC EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR William W. Millar, President, American Public Transportation Association, Washington, DC
Louis Sanders Nicole R. Nason, National Highway Traffic Safety Administrator, U.S.DOT
APTA Jeffrey N. Shane, Under Secretary for Policy, U.S.DOT
SECRETARY James S. Simpson, Federal Transit Administrator, U.S.DOT
Robert J. Reilly Carl A. Strock (Lt. Gen., U.S. Army), Chief of Engineers and Commanding General, U.S. Army Corps of
TRB Engineers, Washington, DC
*Membership as of November 2006. *Membership as of November 2006.
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TRANSIT COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAM
AND
NATIONAL COOPERATIVE HIGHWAY RESEARCH PROGRAM
TCRP REPORT 86/NCHRP REPORT 525
TRANSPORTATION SECURITY
Volume 12:
Making Transportation
Tunnels Safe and
Secure
PARSONS BRINCKERHOFF QUADE & DOUGLAS, INC.
New York, NY
SCIENCE APPLICATIONS INTERNATIONAL CORPORATION
McLean, VA
INTERACTIVE ELEMENTS INCORPORATED
New York, NY
Subject Areas
Bridges, Other Structures, and Hydraulics and Hydrology · Operations and Safety
Public Transit · Rail · Freight Transportation · Security
Research sponsored by the Federal Transit Administration in cooperation with the Transit Development Corporation and by the
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials in cooperation with the Federal Highway Administration
TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD
WASHINGTON, D.C.
2006
www.TRB.org
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TRANSIT COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAM TCRP REPORT 86, VOLUME 12
The nation's growth and the need to meet mobility, environmental, Price $42.00
and energy objectives place demands on public transit systems. Current
Project J-10G
systems, some of which are old and in need of upgrading, must expand
ISSN 1073-4872
service area, increase service frequency, and improve efficiency to serve
ISBN-13: 978-0-309-09871-7
these demands. Research is necessary to solve operating problems, to ISBN-10: 0-309-09871-8
adapt appropriate new technologies from other industries, and to intro- Library of Congress Control Number 2006910357
duce innovations into the transit industry. The Transit Cooperative
Research Program (TCRP) serves as one of the principal means by © 2006 Transportation Research Board
which the transit industry can develop innovative near-term solutions
to meet demands placed on it.
The need for TCRP was originally identified in TRB Special Report COPYRIGHT PERMISSION
213--Research for Public Transit: New Directions, published in 1987 Authors herein are responsible for the authenticity of their materials and for obtaining
and based on a study sponsored by the Urban Mass Transportation written permissions from publishers or persons who own the copyright to any previously
Administration--now the Federal Transit Administration (FTA). A published or copyrighted material used herein.
report by the American Public Transportation Association (APTA), Cooperative Research Programs (CRP) grants permission to reproduce material in this
Transportation 2000, also recognized the need for local, problem- publication for classroom and not-for-profit purposes. Permission is given with the
understanding that none of the material will be used to imply TRB, AASHTO, FAA, FHWA,
solving research. TCRP, modeled after the longstanding and success-
FMCSA, FTA, or Transit Development Corporation endorsement of a particular product,
ful National Cooperative Highway Research Program, undertakes method, or practice. It is expected that those reproducing the material in this document for
research and other technical activities in response to the needs of tran- educational and not-for-profit uses will give appropriate acknowledgment of the source of
sit service providers. The scope of TCRP includes a variety of transit any reprinted or reproduced material. For other uses of the material, request permission
from CRP.
research fields including planning, service configuration, equipment,
facilities, operations, human resources, maintenance, policy, and
administrative practices.
TCRP was established under FTA sponsorship in July 1992. Pro- NOTICE
posed by the U.S. Department of Transportation, TCRP was autho- The project that is the subject of this report was a part of the Transit Cooperative Research
rized as part of the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act Program conducted by the Transportation Research Board with the approval of the
Governing Board of the National Research Council. Such approval reflects the Governing
of 1991 (ISTEA). On May 13, 1992, a memorandum agreement out-
Board's judgment that the project concerned is appropriate with respect to both the
lining TCRP operating procedures was executed by the three cooper- purposes and resources of the National Research Council.
ating organizations: FTA, the National Academies, acting through the
The members of the technical advisory panel selected to monitor this project and to review
Transportation Research Board (TRB); and the Transit Development this report were chosen for recognized scholarly competence and with due consideration
Corporation, Inc. (TDC), a nonprofit educational and research orga- for the balance of disciplines appropriate to the project. The opinions and conclusions
nization established by APTA. TDC is responsible for forming the expressed or implied are those of the research agency that performed the research, and
while they have been accepted as appropriate by the technical panel, they are not
independent governing board, designated as the TCRP Oversight and necessarily those of the Transportation Research Board, the National Research Council,
Project Selection (TOPS) Committee. the Transit Development Corporation, or the Federal Transit Administration of the U.S.
Research problem statements for TCRP are solicited periodically but Department of Transportation.
may be submitted to TRB by anyone at any time. It is the responsibility Each report is reviewed and accepted for publication by the technical panel according to
of the TOPS Committee to formulate the research program by identi- procedures established and monitored by the Transportation Research Board Executive
fying the highest priority projects. As part of the evaluation, the TOPS Committee and the Governing Board of the National Research Council.
Committee defines funding levels and expected products. The Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, the National Research
Once selected, each project is assigned to an expert panel, appointed Council, the Transit Development Corporation, and the Federal Transit Administration
(sponsor of the Transit Cooperative Research Program) do not endorse products or
by the Transportation Research Board. The panels prepare project state- manufacturers. Trade or manufacturers' names appear herein solely because they are
ments (requests for proposals), select contractors, and provide techni- considered essential to the clarity and completeness of the project reporting.
cal guidance and counsel throughout the life of the project. The process
for developing research problem statements and selecting research
agencies has been used by TRB in managing cooperative research pro-
grams since 1962. As in other TRB activities, TCRP project panels serve
voluntarily without compensation.
Because research cannot have the desired impact if products fail to
reach the intended audience, special emphasis is placed on dissemi-
Published reports of the
nating TCRP results to the intended end users of the research: tran-
sit agencies, service providers, and suppliers. TRB provides a series TRANSIT COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAM
of research reports, syntheses of transit practice, and other support- are available from:
ing material developed by TCRP research. APTA will arrange for Transportation Research Board
workshops, training aids, field visits, and other activities to ensure Business Office
that results are implemented by urban and rural transit industry 500 Fifth Street, NW
Washington, DC 20001
practitioners.
The TCRP provides a forum where transit agencies can cooperatively and can be ordered through the Internet at
address common operational problems. The TCRP results support and http://www.national-academies.org/trb/bookstore
complement other ongoing transit research and training programs. Printed in the United States of America
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NATIONAL COOPERATIVE HIGHWAY NCHRP REPORT 525, VOLUME 12
RESEARCH PROGRAM
Systematic, well-designed research provides the most effective Price $42.00
approach to the solution of many problems facing highway
Project 20-67
administrators and engineers. Often, highway problems are of local ISSN 0077-5614
interest and can best be studied by highway departments individually ISBN-13: 978-0-309-09871-7
or in cooperation with their state universities and others. However, the ISBN-10: 0-309-09871-8
accelerating growth of highway transportation develops increasingly Library of Congress Control Number 2006910357
complex problems of wide interest to highway authorities. These
© 2006 Transportation Research Board
problems are best studied through a coordinated program of
cooperative research.
In recognition of these needs, the highway administrators of the
COPYRIGHT PERMISSION
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
initiated in 1962 an objective national highway research program Authors herein are responsible for the authenticity of their materials and for obtaining
written permissions from publishers or persons who own the copyright to any previously
employing modern scientific techniques. This program is supported on published or copyrighted material used herein.
a continuing basis by funds from participating member states of the
Cooperative Research Programs (CRP) grants permission to reproduce material in this
Association and it receives the full cooperation and support of the publication for classroom and not-for-profit purposes. Permission is given with the
Federal Highway Administration, United States Department of understanding that none of the material will be used to imply TRB, AASHTO, FAA, FHWA,
Transportation. FMCSA, FTA, or Transit Development Corporation endorsement of a particular product,
method, or practice. It is expected that those reproducing the material in this document for
The Transportation Research Board of the National Academies was educational and not-for-profit uses will give appropriate acknowledgment of the source of
requested by the Association to administer the research program any reprinted or reproduced material. For other uses of the material, request permission
because of the Board's recognized objectivity and understanding of from CRP.
modern research practices. The Board is uniquely suited for this
purpose as it maintains an extensive committee structure from which
authorities on any highway transportation subject may be drawn; it NOTICE
possesses avenues of communications and cooperation with federal, The project that is the subject of this report was a part of the National Cooperative Highway
state and local governmental agencies, universities, and industry; its Research Program conducted by the Transportation Research Board with the approval of
the Governing Board of the National Research Council. Such approval reflects the
relationship to the National Research Council is an insurance of Governing Board's judgment that the program concerned is of national importance and
objectivity; it maintains a full-time research correlation staff of appropriate with respect to both the purposes and resources of the National Research
specialists in highway transportation matters to bring the findings of Council.
research directly to those who are in a position to use them. The members of the technical committee selected to monitor this project and to review this
The program is developed on the basis of research needs identified report were chosen for recognized scholarly competence and with due consideration for the
balance of disciplines appropriate to the project. The opinions and conclusions expressed
by chief administrators of the highway and transportation departments or implied are those of the research agency that performed the research, and, while they have
and by committees of AASHTO. Each year, specific areas of research been accepted as appropriate by the technical committee, they are not necessarily those of
needs to be included in the program are proposed to the National the Transportation Research Board, the National Research Council, the American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, or the Federal Highway
Research Council and the Board by the American Association of State Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation.
Highway and Transportation Officials. Research projects to fulfill these
Each report is reviewed and accepted for publication by the technical committee according
needs are defined by the Board, and qualified research agencies are to procedures established and monitored by the Transportation Research Board Executive
selected from those that have submitted proposals. Administration and Committee and the Governing Board of the National Research Council.
surveillance of research contracts are the responsibilities of the National The Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, the National Research
Research Council and the Transportation Research Board. Council, the Federal Highway Administration, the American Association of State Highway
and Transportation Officials, and the individual states participating in the National
The needs for highway research are many, and the National Cooperative Highway Research Program do not endorse products or manufacturers. Trade
Cooperative Highway Research Program can make significant or manufacturers' names appear herein solely because they are considered essential to the
contributions to the solution of highway transportation problems of object of this report.
mutual concern to many responsible groups. The program, however, is
intended to complement rather than to substitute for or duplicate other
highway research programs.
Published reports of the
NATIONAL COOPERATIVE HIGHWAY RESEARCH PROGRAM
are available from:
Transportation Research Board
Business Office
500 Fifth Street, NW
Washington, DC 20001
and can be ordered through the Internet at:
http://www.national-academies.org/trb/bookstore
Printed in the United States of America
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COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAMS
CRP STAFF FOR TCRP REPORT 86/NCHRP REPORT 525, VOL. 12
Robert J. Reilly, Director, Cooperative Research Programs
Christopher W. Jenks, TCRP Manager
Crawford F. Jencks, NCHRP Manager
S. A. Parker, Senior Program Officer
Eileen P. Delaney, Director of Publications
Beth Hatch, Editor
TCRP PROJECT J-10G PANEL/NCHRP PROJECT 20-67 PANEL
TCRP Field of Special Projects
NCHRP Field of Special Projects
Ernest R. Frazier, Countermeasures Assessment and Security Experts, LLC, Camden, NJ (Chair)
Wern-ping Chen, Jacobs Civil, Inc., Boston, MA
William F. Daly, Parsons Brinckerhoff, Newark, NJ
Herbert Einstein, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA
Gary Gee, San Francisco Bay Area Rapid Transit District, Oakland, CA
Jugesh Kapur, Washington State DOT
Levern McElveen, Federal Transit Administration
John Nelson, Colorado DOT
Brian Zelenko, URS Corporation, Gaithersburg, MD
Sheila Rimal Duwadi, FHWA Liaison
Matthew D. Rabkin, Volpe National Transportation Systems Center Liaison
Dawn Tucker, Research and Innovative Technology Administration Liaison
Stephen F. Maher, TRB Liaison
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FOREWORD
By S. A. Parker
Staff Officer
Transportation Research Board
This twelfth volume of both NCHRP Report 525: Surface Transportation Security and
TCRP Report 86: Public Transportation Security is designed to provide transportation tun-
nel owners and operators with guidelines for protecting their tunnels by minimizing the
damage potential from extreme events such that, if damaged, they may be returned to full
functionality in relatively short periods. This report will be of interest to tunnel authorities,
state and local transportation departments, other agencies responsible for tunnel operation
and maintenance, enforcement personnel and first responders responsible for tunnel safety
and security, and tunnel designers.
The objective of Volume 12: Making Transportation Tunnels Safe and Secure is to provide
safety and security guidelines for owners and operators of transportation tunnels to use in
identifying (1) principal vulnerabilities of tunnels to various hazards and threats; (2) poten-
tial physical countermeasures; (3) potential operational countermeasures; and (4) deploy-
able, integrated systems for emergency-related command, control, communications, and
information.
These guidelines were developed jointly under TCRP and NCHRP. They are appropriate
for all modes of transportation.
Science Applications International Corporation, together with Parsons Brinckerhoff
Quade & Douglas, Inc., and Interactive Elements, Inc., prepared this volume of NCHRP
Report 525/TCRP Report 86 under NCHRP Project 20-67/TCRP Project J-10G.
Emergencies arising from terrorist threats highlight the need for transportation managers
to minimize the vulnerability of travelers, employees, and physical assets through incident
prevention, preparedness, mitigation, response, and recovery. Managers seek to reduce the
chances that transportation vehicles and facilities will be targets or instruments of terrorist
attacks and to be prepared to respond to and recover from such possibilities. By being pre-
pared to respond to terrorism, each transportation agency is simultaneously prepared to
respond to natural disasters such as hurricanes, floods, and wildfires, as well as human-
caused events such as hazardous materials spills and other incidents.
This is the twelfth volume of NCHRP Report 525: Surface Transportation Security and the
twelfth volume of TCRP Report 86: Public Transportation Security, two series in which rele-
vant information is assembled into single, concise volumes--each pertaining to a specific
security problem and closely related issues. These volumes focus on the concerns that trans-
portation agencies are addressing when developing programs in response to the terrorist
attacks of September 11, 2001, and the anthrax attacks that followed. Future volumes of the
reports will be issued as they are completed.
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To develop this volume in a comprehensive manner and to ensure inclusion of signifi-
cant knowledge, available information was assembled from numerous sources, including a
number of state departments of transportation. A topic panel of experts in the subject area
was established to guide the researchers in organizing and evaluating the collected data and
to review the final document.
This volume was prepared to meet an urgent need for information in this area. It records
practices that were acceptable within the limitations of the knowledge available at the time
of its preparation. Work in this area is proceeding swiftly, and readers are encouraged to be
on the lookout for the most up-to-date information.
Volumes issued under NCHRP Report 525: Surface Transportation Security and TCRP
Report 86: Public Transportation Security may be found on the TRB website at http://www.
TRB.org/SecurityPubs.
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CONTENTS
xiii Preface
1 Chapter 1 Introduction
2 1.1 Audience
2 1.2 Basic Definitions
2 1.3 Methodology
2 1.4 Assumptions
4 Chapter 2 Hazards and Threats
4 2.1 Major Hazards and Threats
6 2.2 Damage Potential
7 2.3 Hazard and Threat Scenarios
7 2.3.1 Hazard Scenarios in Relation to Assets
11 2.3.2 Threat Scenarios in Relation to Assets
15 2.4 Conclusions
16 Chapter 3 Case Studies
16 3.1 Introduction
16 3.2 Case Study Descriptions
16 3.2.1 Moscow Subway Suicide Bombing
18 3.2.2 Jungangno (Chungang-Ro) Subway Station Arson Fire
21 3.2.3 St. Gotthard Tunnel Fire
22 3.2.4 Howard Street CSX Tunnel Fire
26 3.2.5 Kitzsteinhorn Tunnel Cable Car Fire
28 3.2.6 Mont Blanc Tunnel Fire
32 3.2.7 Channel Tunnel Fire
34 3.2.8 Subway Sarin Gas Attack
37 3.2.9 Chicago Freight Tunnel Flood
39 3.2.10 London Underground (the Tube) King's Cross Station Fire
42 3.2.11 Bay Area Rapid Transit (BART) Transbay Tunnel Fire
44 3.2.12 Port Authority Trans-Hudson (PATH) Evacuation under the
World Trade Center
46 3.3 Summary of Case Studies
46 3.4 Conclusions
46 3.4.1 Pinpointing Vulnerabilities
46 3.4.2 Lessons Observed
50 3.4.3 Role of MEC Systems in Case Study Incidents
51 Chapter 4 Tunnel Elements and Vulnerabilities
51 4.1 Introduction
51 4.2 Types of Transportation Tunnels
52 4.2.1 Typical Road Tunnels
52 4.2.2 Typical Transit and Rail Tunnels
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52 4.3 Tunnel Construction Methods
52 4.3.1 Immersed Tube Tunnels
55 4.3.2 Cut-and-Cover Tunnels
55 4.3.3 Bored or Mined Tunnels
59 4.3.4 Air-Rights Structure Tunnels
59 4.4 Structural Elements and Vulnerabilities
59 4.4.1 Ground Characteristics
59 4.4.2 Modes of Tunnel Failure
65 4.4.3 Effects of Other Extreme Events
68 4.4.4 Critical Factors in Vulnerability Assessment
of Transportation Tunnels
69 4.4.5 Damage Potential Rating of Tunnels
70 4.4.6 Summary
70 4.5 System Elements and Vulnerabilities
70 4.5.1 Key Safety Functions
72 4.5.2 Categorization of Systems
79 4.5.3 Degree of Impact on Safety and Operations
79 4.5.4 Potentially Critical Locations
79 4.5.5 Summary
79 4.6 Chapter Summary
100 Chapter 5 Countermeasures
100 5.1 Introduction
100 5.2 Hazard and Threat Directories
100 5.2.1 Structural Hazard and Threat Directories
100 5.2.2 System Hazard and Threat Directories
117 5.3 Countermeasure Guides
117 5.3.1 Introduction
117 5.3.2 Information Contained in Countermeasure Guides
121 5.3.3 How to Use the Countermeasure Guides
121 5.4 Countermeasure Descriptions
122 5.4.1 Recommended Minimum Measures
132 5.4.2 Recommended Measures for an Elevated Threat Level
136 5.4.3 Recommended Permanent Enhancements
149 5.5 Conclusion
152 Chapter 6 System Integration
152 6.1 Introduction
152 6.2 System Safety and Security
152 6.2.1 People
153 6.2.2 Operating Procedures
153 6.2.3 Engineering and Technological Systems and Controls
154 6.2.4 Physical Aspects of the Tunnel Structure
154 6.3 Security System Integration
156 6.4 Information Sharing
156 6.5 Conclusions
157 Chapter 7 Future Research
157 7.1 Pocket-Sized User Guide
157 7.2 Report Tables on a CD
159 7.3 Collaboration with European Research Programs
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159 7.4 Effects of Fire on the Tunnel Structure
159 7.5 Effectiveness of Current Tunnel Fire Detection Systems
159 7.6 Summary of Lessons Learned
159 7.7 Best Practices Manual
159 7.8 Changes in Operation Protocols to Enhance Safety
159 7.9 Sample Emergency Response Procedures
159 7.10 Owner Orientation Workshops
160 7.11 More Effective Broad-Based Fire Detection Systems
160 7.12 Ground Improvement Retrofitting Schemes
160 7.13 Guidelines for Vehicle Inspections
160 7.14 Design Criteria for New Tunnels
160 7.14.1 Tunnel Structural Elements
161 7.14.2 Tunnel System Elements
161 7.15 More Effective Fire Detection Systems
161 7.16 Industry Feedback Workshops
161 7.17 Interactive Electronic Version of this Report
162 7.18 Effectiveness of Current Tunnel Fire Suppression Systems
162 7.19 Retrofit Technologies to Enhance Safety
162 7.20 More Effective Tunnel Fire Suppression Systems
162 7.21 Tunnel-Specific Inspection Manual
162 7.22 Advanced Coordinated Control Schemes for Ventilation Systems
162 7.23 Test Tunnels or Models
162 7.24 Structural Blast Damage Potential Analyses
163 7.25 Intelligent Egress Systems
163 7.26 Issues Identified by Case Studies
164 References Cited in the Report
166 Additional Sources
167 List of Abbreviations
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Disclaimer: The contents within these guidelines reflect the best judgment and experience of Parsons Brinckerhoff Quade &
Douglas, Inc. (PB), Science Applications International Corporation (SAIC), and Interactive Elements, Inc. (IEI),
who researched and developed this book. The principal investigator for this project was Irfan Oncu (PB). Pri-
mary authors were Kevin A. Duffy (SAIC), Jaw-Nan (Joe) Wang (PB), Arthur Bendelius (PB), Gloria Hettinger
(PB), Steve Lockwood (PB), Harry Saporta (PB), James Guinan (PB), and Dorothy Schulz (IEI).
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PREFACE
This research project aimed to provide safety and security guidelines for transportation tun-
nel owners and operators. To accomplish this task, a team of experienced tunnel designers,
builders, and operations personnel collaborated with safety and security experts to address the
questions that a tunnel owner or operator may face in the post-9/11 environment, including the
following:
· What natural hazards and intentional threats do I face?
· How would they be introduced?
· What are the vulnerable areas of my tunnel?
· How much of a disturbance would there be?
· How can I avoid these hazards and threats?
· How can I prepare myself for this disturbance if it occurs?
While risks to tunnels derive from both intentional threats related to crime and terrorism and
hazards related to natural (i.e., unintentional) events, the risks often have the same tunnel vul-
nerabilities and damage potential and may share common countermeasures. Therefore, in this
report, threat- and hazard-related characteristics and countermeasures are typically treated
together in text and tables, except where specifically noted.
The recommendations for countermeasures presented in this report are intended for imple-
mentation by the tunnel owner or operator. This implementation may occur in part or whole
depending on the local conditions and, importantly, the level of risk faced by the owner or
operator. The owner or operator will also need to balance the implementation of structural
and/or operational countermeasures with funding constraints. The countermeasures are pre-
sented as a menu of items that the owner or operator may select from. Issues of funding are not
extensively explored in this report.
This report is organized into seven chapters:
· Chapter 1, "Introduction," introduces the problems that this project has attempted to solve
and the environment of the work. The chapter also describes the assumptions of the research
team in approaching the work and defines the research terms.
· Chapter 2, "Hazards and Threats," describes hazards and threats according to the areas or
elements of the tunnel that might be affected, how the hazards and threats might be intro-
duced, the operational and physical vulnerabilities to those hazards and threats, and the dam-
age potential of the hazards and threats.
· Chapter 3, "Case Studies," provides a chronology of past tunnel disasters that were studied
for this project. The case studies researched the cause and effect of the disasters to glean per-
tinent information that may be applied in this research.
· Chapter 4, "Tunnel Elements and Vulnerabilities," gives basic descriptions of various tun-
nel types, both by mode of transportation and by construction methodology. The chapter
then outlines specific vulnerabilities by describing how and why failures can occur under
safety- and security-related hazards and threats (e.g., fire or explosion) based on characteris-
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tics of the tunnel's structure as well as the surrounding earth. The chapter rates the damage
potential for various types of tunnels under explosion and fire events. The chapter also sum-
marizes structural vulnerabilities and damage potential of the most extreme hazard or
threat scenarios for road, transit, and rail tunnels.
The chapter presents a parallel analysis for mechanical, electrical, and communications
(MEC) systems serving tunnels. These systems are described and categorized based on how
critical they are to the continuing functionality of the tunnel and on the impact that system
disruption would have. The chapter rates vulnerability versus critical location for the five
MEC system types deemed to be the most critical. The system vulnerabilities and damage
potential of the most extreme hazard and threat scenarios are summarized for road, transit,
and rail tunnels.
· Chapter 5, "Countermeasures," presents structural and system hazard and threat directo-
ries, in the form of tables, that summarize the information given in Chapter 4. The tunnel
owner or operator is instructed how to apply these directories to his or her own facility and,
by the process of elimination, identify which of eight countermeasure guides to consult. The
countermeasure guides, which are also presented in the form of tables, refer the user to
50 possible countermeasures. The countermeasures are physical and/or operational meth-
ods for improving the structural and/or system elements of the tunnel. Within the guides,
each countermeasure is supplied with the following:
Implementation (i.e., minimum required, deployed for an elevated threat level, or perma-
nent enhancement),
Function and description,
Relative effectiveness,
Order-of-magnitude cost,
Physical or operational in nature,
Security strategy (i.e., deter, detect, interdict, or mitigate, including response and prepared-
ness), and
Multiple-benefit potential.
Directly following the guides, the 50 countermeasures are described in detail and are
accompanied by sketches wherever possible. The countermeasure descriptions incorporate
limitations of existing tunnels, types of construction, materials used, and the current tunnel
environmental conditions. The recommendations are intended to improve the operational
safety and structural integrity of the tunnel when exposed to a hazard or threat.
· Chapter 6, "System Integration," provides information on current and proposed integrated
systems that may be used to increase the safety and security of a transportation tunnel.
· Chapter 7, "Future Research," provides recommendations for areas requiring further study
and approximate funding costs. The areas of future research include 26 items with various
cost and schedule estimates.
The report concludes with a list of references that were cited in the text, a list of additional
sources, and a list of abbreviations.
