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Program Areas and Scientific Opportunities Research has played a major role in the success of U.S. and world agriculture. Advances in genetics and applied mathematics have stimulated major progress in plant breeding. Advances in microbiology have accelerated the study and control of plant diseases. Advances in endocrinology and reproductive biology have led to healthier and more productive livestock. Advances in electronics and materials science have yielded developments in agricultural engineering and food processing. Advances in computer science have transformed record-keeping and decisionmaking on many farms and throughout the agribusiness sector. The pace of development of new scientific tools dictates a renewal and expansion of the research effort the nation commits to agriculture. The opportunities to develop and deploy new knowledge in agriculture are impressive and compelling. In particular, new multidisciplinary research will have a major impact on the future of agriculture. For example, neurobiology and insect physiology will be combined to address problems in pest control. Knowledge of photosynthe- sis and protein chemistry will create more efficient and environmentally safe herbicides to protect crops from aggressive weeds. Economics and management skills will be transformed by supercomputer technolo- gies to allow farmers and merchants to make projec- tions and shape trade decisions to meet specific needs. Through the expanded program outlined in this proposal, the agricultural, food, and environmental research system can address the new problems con- fronting the United States, including international competitiveness, human health and well-being, and natural resources and the environment. 57 PROGRAM AREAS The U.S. Department of Agriculture's (USDA's) Competitive Research Grants Office (CRGO) cur- rently awards grants in three areas: (1) plant science, (2) animal science, and (3) human nutrition. These cover only a fraction of the broad program areas relevant to agriculture. Program areas are needed that would encompass all research challenges in the agricul- tural, food, and environmental system; encourage participation by scientists in the full range of disciplines that must be enlisted to meet the challenges within each program area; · reflect the programmatic challenges (and the related economic, social, and environmental issues) facing state and federal government agencies; farmers and foresters; and food, fiber, and forest products industries; and advance scientific and problem-solving capa- bilities. To bring this about, this proposal has identified the need for six major program areas: (1) plant systems; (2) animal systems; (3) nutrition, food quality, and health; (4) natural resources and the environment; (5) engineering,products, andprocesses; and (6) markets, trade, and policy. Descriptions of some of the scientific opportunities that fall under the six program areas follow.
58 PLANT SYSTEMS Research across the broad range of plant sciences from biochemistry to ecosystem studies will contrib- ute to improvements in plant productivity for the 1990s and beyond. Table 5.1 lists some of the special- ized research areas in plant science and gives ex- amples of how they relate to practical and potential applications. Subsequent sections identify some examples of the research needs and opportunities for improving plant productivity. Genetics and Diversity The ability of plant breeders to breed crop plants and forest trees with specific desirable traits is en- hanced by knowing the behavior of plant genes. Molecular biology has expanded the range and power of methods available to plant breeders. Researchers are beginning to work out detailed genetic maps for some plant species, which will be valuable for many applications. Equally important is the ability to iden- tify specific genes as molecules a sequence of DNA. When genes can be identified and isolated as a mole- cule of DNA, they can be transferred into plants by recombinant DNA techniques. In other instances, the gene might be used as a probe to find neighboring genes and to study how the plant's expression of genes is regulated. The development of restriction fragment length polymorphisms WHELP) and transposon tagging sys- tems are two examples of how the technology of working with genetic traits at the molecular level has rapidly advanced. High-resolution mapping of plant genomes can now be done with RFLPs, which exploit subtle differences in the DNA sequences that can be correlated with the presence of specific genetic traits. With RFLP technology, a breeder can verify the inheritance of a trait in DNA taken from a small piece of tissue, such as a seed or seedling. This technology aids in decisionmaking, for example, by decreasing the size of a population that must be grown to maturity to test whether a trait will be expressed in mature plants. RFLP mapping is possible for any crop plant. Further refinements of this technique will do much to improve speed end accuracy in plans breeding. RFLPs can also be used to evaluate and monitor the parentage and diversity of crop varieties. Another advance is the use of transposon tagging systems. A transposon is an easily identified sequence WRESTING IN RESEARCH . of DNA that is capable of infrequently "jumping" or relocating its position within the genome. In one application, if a transposon relocates by inserting itself within another gene, the insertion disrupts the expression of that gene. When expression of a trait is affected by a transposon insertion, the gene control- ling that trait can be isolated, because the transposon identifies the gene. Naturally occurring aansposons have been characterized in a few plant species, but recent work has demonstrated that functional trans- posons can be introduced into other crop plants using recombinant DNA technology. Transposons can be used in conjunction with RELP technology to mark nearby genetic Wits without disrupting gene expres- sion. Plant Developmental Biology The regulation of plant development affects plant yield and plant quality. Modelers, geneticists, ecolo- gists, and other plant scientists can identify many aspects of plant growth and structure that contribute to yield and quality. Despite this knowledge, the regula- tion of plant development remains poorly understood. Little is known about the genes that regulate develop- ment, the factors that control gene expression, or the specific sites in plant tissues where the genes are expressed. The regulation of plant developmental features such as branching patterns, formation of tubersorroots, the onset end termination of dormancy, induction of flowenng, reproductive incompatibility, fruit development, ripening, and senescence remains to be characterized. Advances in these areas are now possible and can contribute to more powerful manipu- lations to improve plant performance in ways hereto- fore not possible. The environmental regulation of endogenous plant hormones is an undeveloped area in terms of plant productivity and quality, despite the many empirical studies of the effects of exogenous hormones on a variety of processes associated with plant productiv- ity. An increased understanding of hormone action could lead to the ability to grow crops and forest trees profitably under unfavorable soil or climatic condi- tions, or to raise the maximum economic yield. An understanding of hormone action will necessitate further research on receptors, metabolism, the mecha- nisms hormones use to regulate plant processes, and the mechanisms that allow the environment to influ- ence the activity of plant hormones.
PROGRAM AREAS AND SCIENTIFIC OPPORTUNITIES TABLE 5.1 Relationship between Science Areas and Practical Developments that Contribute to Plant Productivity 59 Scientific Areas Areas of Practical or Potential Application Molecular and cellular Gene structure Gene expression Complex genetic systems Primary metabolism Secondary metabolism Photosynthesis Cell division Cell wall deposition Signal transduction Organismal Reproduction Florigenesis Fruit and seed development Embryogenesis (zygotic, somatic) Regulation of growth Germination and vigor Senescence Heterosis Environmental S tress -environmental physiology Water relations Soil chemistry-fertility Microbe-plant interactions Invertebrate-plant interactions Population genetics Ecology, plant-plant interactions Systems analysis Plant breeding systems, control of plant protein synthesis Nutritional quality, crop yield, pest and disease resistance Grafting scion and rootstock Quality, industrial products, yield, nutritional value Drugs, disease resistance, pest resistance Weed control, crop yield Plant architecture Fiber production, food texture Breeding systems, disease resistance, reproduction Advanced breeding systems, harvest index Yield, agronomic performance, harvest index Yield, postharvest, seed quality Seed quality, gene transfer techniques Vigor, harvest index, yield Stand establishment Postharvest quality Yield Yield, crop loss reduction, environmental synchrony and genetic improvement Drought tolerance, costs of production, tolerance of wet soils and humid . . cone Tons Yield, crop quality, environmental quality Biological nitrogen fixation, yield, more efficient use of chemical pesti- cides, disease resistance Crop management, disease prevention, pest control Insect pest and pathogen control, genetic diversity Weed control, disease and pest control Operations research Modeling of farming systems, stochastic optimization for use in decision making aids Resource economics Assessment of environmental externalities, matching land use to soil and climate Production economics Economically optimum rates of input use
60 Energy, Carbon Metabolism, and Minerals Plants are the source of many complex organic molecules used in commerce and industry. Their leaves and roots have large surface areas that absorb and accumulate resources, including solar energy, water, and minerals. Plants concentrate energy re- serves and nutrients and form the foundation of the food chain for almost all life on earth. Photosynthesis converts solar energy to chemical energy, feeding the plant's metabolic machinery to produce an extensive variety of organic molecules. Energy is also used to take up mineral elements selectively and concentrate them in amounts necessary for life processes. Studies on photosynthetic energy conversion yield insights on how to improve the effectiveness of plants in harvesting solar energy. For example, differences in carbon metabolism between C3 plants (such as wheat and soybeans) and C4 plants (such as corn and sugarcane) are responsible for the large differences in photosynthetic efficiency when the availability of water and carbon dioxide is limiting. Studies in plant biochemistry and carbon metabolism disclose the diversity of harvestable products that plants can pro- duce and the pathways that regulate the partitioning of photosynthate between edible and nonedible parts of the plant. Plant and Pest Interactions Continued heavy dependence on chemical control of insect pests, plant pathogens, and weeds will lead to environmental and health problems as well as future pest control problems because of the establishment of pesticide-resistant pest populations and secondary pests. Research on host-pest relationships provides the basis for more efficient, long-lasting pest control strategies. Such strategies include the use of biologi- cal control agents to attack pest populations, methods for assessing and predicting when pest damage will reach an economic threshold and when pesticide use would be most effective, and approaches for provid- ing hostplants with pest-resistant baits thatcan reduce the selection pressure favoring resistance. Plants possess a broad range of genetic, structural, and chemical defenses that protect them from attack by plant pathogens and predators. Despite consider- able research on plant responses to pathogens and pests, the specific mechanisms of the plant defense response are still not clear. In some cases, plant WRESTING IN RESE - CH defenses appear to be analogous to general responses to many biotic, environmental, and chemical stresses, including the amount of water, the level of salinity, and the presence of heavy metals. Others are highly specific to a particular interaction. In most cases, a better understanding of the biological and genetic basis of plant resistance to pathogens will enhance scientists' abilities to control diseases without nega- tive environmental consequences. Ecology and Plant Populations Farming, rangeland, and forestry practices impose major forces of change upon natural ecosystems. A better understanding and characterization of the components of different ecosystems and the factors important in stabilizing them will lead to more effec- tive management of farmlands, rangelands, and for- estlands. Study of the similarities and differences be- tween natural and managed ecosystems will reveal the relative importances of genetic diversity; He role of beneficial and pest organisms in plant productivity; and the long-term stability of fann, range, and forest ecosystems. Tropical ecosystems are of global concern. The enormous biological diversity that is characteristic of tropical ecosystems includes genetic traits for the synthesis of many novel compounds with biological activity for antibiotic, antiviral, pesticidal, and other chemical defense mechanisms. Those gene pools could be lost forever if tropical ecosystems are de- stroyed. Tropical ecosystems also play a major role in modulating global weather patterns and atmospheric conditions. As understanding evolves of the factors contributing to the so-called greenhouse effect, it is likely that tropical regions will become critical man- agement zones. Waste Management The soil rhizosphere (soil near root surfaces) is a region of complex decomposition and nutrient recy- cling processes. It is in this zone that the activity of microorganisms and the release of minerals and nutri- ents play key roles in plant health and nutrition. The microbial population in the rhizosphere is large, di- verse, and active. Microbes are important in the breakdown of organic matter and the release of miner- alsandnutrients for uptake by roofs. Toxic wastes can be deactivated or decomposed by these microorgan- isms.
PROGRAM AREAS AND SCIENTIFIC OPPORTUNITIES Some soil microbes are plant pathogens; some are biocontrol agents that protect plant roots from patho- gens end pests. Others, such as the mycorrhizal fungi, play an important role in nutrient mobilization for plants. The potential exists for manipulation of natu- ral soil microorganisms by genetic engineering to enhance their ability to remove toxic wastes, to use organic matter, to fix atmospheric nitrogen, and to . . . Increase c 1sease suppression. Plant Production Economics New developments in plant genetics, pest control, and agronomic practices are widely implemented and accepted only if they provide farmers a clear-cut economic advantage. Economic factors are a signifi cant component of plant productivity as global mar kets become more competitive and open. Research in plant production economics is needed to determine both economically optimum levels of input use and the productivity and profitability of various farming sys tems. Input use, productivity, and profitability are particularly important under marginal growing condi tions. Economic analyses can also help identify prob lem areas in farming systems, for example, by evalu ating the economic threshold of pesticide application to control pests. Economic analyses can be a useful step in targeting research in other areas. Research on the benefits of alternative farming and forestry sys tems and on the economic advantages and disadvan tages of specialization or diversification of crops under different conditions is also important in formulating efficient and effective farm, conservation, and regula . . tory policies. ANIMAL SYSTEMS Research across a broad range of animal science areas from biotechnology to animal farming systems will contribute to future developments in animal pro- ductivity. Table 5.2 lists some of the specialized research areas in animal science and how they relate to practical and potential applications. The sections that follow discuss more specific examples of research needs and opportunities. Cellular Growth and Development Because early growth in animals often determines subsequent performance, a better understanding is 61 needed of the developmental biology of productive tissues, including mammary glands, muscle, and fat. Research will involve studies of the biological control of homeostasis and of the state of equilibrium of the body's processes when other factors override the body's tendency to maintain a steady state (during lactation, for example). Research on the mechanisms controlling energy and resource allocation in animal growth are also important. Future research will include genetic and nongenetic approaches to the partitioning of nutrients into various productive functions such as fetal devel- opment, muscle growth, fattening, and milk and egg production. As scientists gain a better understanding of those mechanisms, there will be new techniques to partition nutrients toward more desirable functions, such as increasing the proportion of lean to fat tissue or altering the saturated fatty acid profile of certain animal products. A challenge to scientists working on the production and processing of animal food products is reducing the level of cholesterol or cholesterol-forming compo- nents in animal products. In the case of meatand milk, decreasing the amount of fat is clearly helpful in reducing cholesterol levels in humans. Genetics and Reproduction The new embryo biotechnologies of gene transfer, in vitro production, cloning, and determination of the sex of embryos have been developed and are being refined for practical use in animals. Development of efficient in vitro systems for maturing oocytes and sperm and for fertilizing and developing embryos has resulted in the commercial in vitro production of embryos. Cloning of embryos by nuclear transfer has been accomplished for sheep, cattle, pigs, and rabbits. The ability to select for males or females in sperm or embryos by using a specific antibody or other tech- niques could greatly improve the efficiency of many animal production systems. Before transgenic animals of value can be devel- oped, researchers must know which genes to intro- duce. Transgenic embryos or offspring have been produced from mice, rats, rabbits, chickens, fish, sheep, swine, and cattle. Genes can be targeted for expression in specific tissues, but more efficient meth- ods and a better understanding of the genes to be transferred are needed. Researchers need to gain an understanding of the genes influencing animal growth; efficiency of growth; environmental adaptation; meat,
62 INVESTING IN RESEARCH TABLE 5.2 Relationship between Animal Science Research Areas and Practical Developments That Contribute to Animal Productiona Scientific Areas Areas of Practical or Potential Application Molecular and cellular Gene expression Heterosis Biochemistry Physiology Metabolism Virology Immunology Pharmacology Organizational Reproduction Embryology Growth Microbiology Pathology Lactation physiology Meat sciences Biometry Environmental Production, quality, efficiency Efficiency, production Efficiency, disease control Production, quality, efficiency Efficiency, quality Disease prevention Efficiency, disease control Disease control Germplasm selection, production, efficiency Gene transfer and selection Quality, efficiency Disease control, forage utilization, product safety Disease prevention, control Milk production, efficiency Quality, further processing, marketing Efficiency, selection Population genetics Breeding stock, efficiency, quality, production Parisitology Parasite control, efficiency Nutrition Disease control, production, efficiency, quality Behavior Animal care, efficiency, disease control Systems analysis Facilities Production, efficiency, disease control Engineering Sanitation, animal care, feed processing Management Production, efficiency, disease control Profitability Economic impacts of management systems, new technology aProduciion refers to the yield of animal products such as mimic, meat, eggs, and wool. milk, or egg composition; and animal disease resis- tance. Molecular Basis of Disease Many of the disease problems in food-producing animals do not cause premature death but do reduce productivity and efficiency. The incidence of sub- clinical disease (such as mastitis in dairy cows, viral pneumonia in swine, and leukosis in poultry), respira- tory diseases, immune derangements (such as arthri tis), and nutritional and metabolic imbalances in all classes of animals needs to be better understood and documented. Their effects on production characteris- tics, behavior, and genetics should be assessed. Along with the traditional disciplines, new tech- nologies such as those that use recombinant DNA and monoclonal antibodies now afford an opportunity to understand, detect, identify, and control many animal diseases. Diseases can be controlledby a combination of procedures, including vaccination, enhancement of the immune response, vector control, diagnosis, and
PROGRA~f AREAS AND SCIENTIFIC OPPORTUNITIES therapy. New generations of antibiotics and pharma- ceutical agents to increase animal productivity are on the immediate horizon. Study and characterization of infectious agents at the molecular level can lead to improvements in all these approaches to disease con- trol. Research will likely focus on the genetics of the immune system in different animal species, the genes controlling virulence traits of diseases and parasites, and the use of hybridoma technology to develop highly specific monoclonal antibodies for use in dis- ease treatment and diagnostic procedures. Uses of Animal Wastes A major area of new research will undoubtedly be in the science of waste management. Water and soil contamination from waste resulting from intensive animal production systems is the major environmental problem faced by some producers. Research directed toward the more efficient use of these wastes is criti- cal. The nutritional value of some wastes may make them useful as animal feed, as has been done experi- mentally for over 25 years; other wastes should be utilized as plant nutrients. However, the safety aspects of these technologies are poorly understood, and more practical methods are needed for handling and proc- essing wastes. Innovative methods that reduce nutri- ent losses when animal wastes are applied to the land will help improve the economics of waste-based nutri- ent sources and will emerge as key components of many future low-input, sustainable agricultural sys- tems. Other uses of waste should be developed, including use for fermentation products and for en- ergy-based products such as ethanol and methane. Animal wastes also have potential value for use in hydroponics and aquaculture systems. Animal Production Systems and Economics In animal production systems, complex interac- tions arise from breed selection, housing systems, the selection of feed, and disease prevention programs. These interactions greatly influence animal health and performance, the economics of production systems, and in some cases, the safety of food products. A systems approach to research is vital to take into account these interactions and to recognize their full impact on profitability following selection of tech- nologies and other management decisions. Two factors suggest that there is increased reliance on grass- and forage-based production systems in the 63 beef industry. To meet nutritional goals, consumers are seeking leaner animal products. This will mean that leaner animals will be marketed at lower weights and producers will limit the time that animals spend in feedlots consuming high-energy, grain-based rations to gain weight and fat. Emphasis in recent farm legislation on soil erosion control and cropping pattern diversification might increase the supply of available forages and thus lower the cost of feeding beef animals grass-based rations in contrast to more costly feedstuffs. Sorting out these factors and determining how to respond to them at all stages in the industry are complicated tasks. Much improved production eco- nomics models, data, and analytical methods will be essential, as will the ability to estimate the effects of changes in government policies. NUTRITION, FOOD QUALITY, AND HEALTH This program area encompasses all of the topics relating to human nutrition, food quality, and human health. Therelationships between nutrition and human health and among nutrition, food science, and food technology are not always clear; indeed, the research needs and opportunities are often multidisciplinary in their coverage and complexity. Nonetheless, rela- tively clear delineations are used in this section for purposes of illustration. Table 5.3 lists several of the scientific areas that contribute to nutrition and food science and technology and gives examples of how they relate to some practical and potential applica- tions. All the research activities discussed in the following sections are being undertaken in rapidly changing areas of science. Interaction across disci- plines is essential to ensure that scientists incorporate the latest findings and techniques from fields such as molecular biology, genetics, physiology, microbiol- ogy, biochemistry, medicine, immunology, chemical engineering, analytical chemistry, electrical engineer- ing, agricultural engineering, economics, psychology, and other social sciences. New Dimensions of Nutritional and Food Sciences The "new" nutritional and food sciences continue to adhere to traditional roles as the interdisciplinary link between the composition and quality of the food supply and the effects of the food supply on the health
64 INVESTING IN RESEARCH TABLE 53 Relationship between Scientific Areas and Practical Developments That Contribute to Optimal Nutrition, Safety, and Quality in Foods Scientific Areas Areas of Practical or Potential Application Microbial genetics Biotechnology of starter cultures and food ingredients, DNA probes Microbial physiology and Pathogen resistance, food fermentations, microbial control metabolism or inactivation, mechanisms of pathogenicity, food spoilage mecha nisms Immunology DNA probes and antibody assays for pathogen or toxin detection, food constituent analyses, food allergies Toxicology Control of microbial pathogens and toxins; detection, removal, or neutrali zation of chemical and microbial contaminants Analytical biochemistry Rapid and automated analyses, food constituent interactions, physical and chemical properties of foods Protein, carbohydrate, and Structure-function mechanisms related to texture, flavor and lipid chemistry color; changes due to microbial and chemical actions; influence of physical-chemical processes on primary structure-function Flavor chemistry Constituents influencing normal and abnormal flavor, human responses to flavor compounds, differentiation between natural and artificial flavors, flavor stability Physical chemistry Interface phenomena in gels and emulsions, kinetics of food component reactions, description of primary structure of food constituents Nutritional biochemistry Nutrient bioavailability, nutrient stability in food processes, mechanisms of nutrient utilization at the molecular and cellular levels Clinical nutrition Diet-related disorders, nutritional requirements in disease, eating disorders Epidemiology Disease-nutrient relationships in different populations, dietary practice and changing food habits Human physiology and Nutrient form-efficacy, nutrition and disease interactions, diet and metabolism exercise, maternal nutrition, malnutrition, food allergies, sensory perception in normal and disease states Pediatrics and geriatrics Lifelong, age-related nutrient needs, lactating women and their infants, nutrition and immune response Process engineering Simulation and optimization of unit operations, processes and plants, and control fluid flow, particulate transfer, extrusion Package design Robot technology, biodegradable packaging materials, tamper-proof packaging, quality maintenance Mass and heat transfer Simulation of steady- and unsteady-state, semicontinuous, and continuous unit operations; ultra-high-temperature-preserved or semipreserved products Equipment and Sensors and monitoring systems, real-time sensing of quality instrumentation design attributes, nondestructive on-line measurements Psychology Analysis and development of diet-relevant behaviors
PROGRAMS AREAS AND SCIENTIFIC OPPORTUNITIES and well-being of the U.S. population. However, a revolution in the nutritional and food sciences is under way because there have never been greater opportuni- ties for the nutritional and food sciences to take advan- tage of recent advances in modern biology and to contribute to the well-being of the nation's popula- tion. Mechanisms are being elucidated to identify how individual nutrients and combinations of nutri- ents influence genomic expression in humans, plants, and animals and how these principles are transferable between species. New connections between basic science and production agriculture are being forged. For example, the isolation and characterization of the regulation of genes that are known to limit rates of macronutrient metabolic pathways, such as the phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase or liproprotein lipase pathways, enable strategies and rationales to be established for preparing transgenic plants and ani- mals with enhanced production capabilities or with more desirable nutrient compositions. This combination of the nutritional and food sci- ences with advances in biology and medicine permits the establishment of multidisciplinary research teams to address the entire spectrum of needs and opportuni- ties, ranging from long-term fundamental research (such as the molecular biology of fat metabolism and deposition) to more applied studies (such as the effects of food processing operations on nutrient availability and food digestibility in the gut) and to studies of the psychological and social factors influencing food and choice of diet. Food Contaminants and Microbial Hazards The Centers for Disease Control in Atlanta, Geor- gia, estimates that 6.5 million acute episodes of food- borne disease occur annually in the United States and that each year, more than 9,000 fatalities can be associated with foodborne diseases. Table 5.4 lists some of the causes of foodborne illness. Although the United States enjoys perhaps the safest, most abundant food supply in the world, the potential for microbial, viral, and chemical contami- nants in foods is ever present. Many genera ofbacteria have been implicated as causes of foodborne disease, either es toxicants or es infectious agents. Toxins from naturally occurring fungi and molds and from other sources are well recognized. A host of viruses can be transmitted by food. As a result, there continues to be concern over potential contaminants in the food sup- ply. This concern influences both private behavior 65 and public policy. Part of this concern stems from the dramatically improved analytical methodologies available to regulatory agencies and the scientific community. There is both a pressing need and a number of attractive, affordable opportunities to provide con- sumers with even greater margins of safety in terms of possible chemical or microbiological contamination. Improved analytical methods can be used quickly and inexpensively to identify and trace the source of micro- organisms end contaminants in the food supply. DNA probes and immunoassays are two technologies that can be developed to detect vine or pathogenic micro- organisms or their toxic constituents or by-products. Similarly, specific and highly sensitive analytical techniques and tools (gas and liquid chromatogra- phies and mass spectrometry) are needed to determine more precisely the presence and fate of chemical contaminants and toxicants in raw materials and proc- essed foods. Basic scientific information and real-world data would enable researchers to identify factors that influ- ence the growth and survival of microorganisms within ecological niches offood environments. Forexample, research could focus on how plant and animal genetic traits or management systems affect the presence of microorganisms, viruses, or molds that can pose risks to human health. Similarly, research could examine the influence of chemical residues and drug-induced metabolites in animals and animal products as they relate to food safety. Fundamental knowledge for controlling the growth of microorganisms in foods will allow the develop- ment of food processing and preservation strategies. Such strategies might include combinations of proc- essing methods (e.g., pasteurization, retorting, drying, and freezing), manipulation of ingredient composi- tion, packaging modifications, and enhancing popula- tions of competitive microbial flora. Part of the difficulty in identifying food-related illnesses is that some diseases may require chronic exposure and many years to manifest themselves (such as aflatoxin-induced cancer). Thus, further study is needed on issues relating food to specific aspects of human health. This includes assessment of new developments linking foodborne microorgan- isms with chronic nervous system, circulatory, and skeletal diseases not previously associated with gas- trointestinal disorders, as well as examination of the effects of malnutrition on the development and per- formance of the human immune system. Overall,
66 TABLE 5.4 Causes of Foodborne Illnesses INVESTING IN RESEARCH Food Origin Food Nonallergic Food Intolerances Foodborne Infections Toxemias Allergies Caused by: Caused by: Caused by: Caused by: Natural Products Chemicals Bacteria Botulinum toxins Milk Lactose Sulfites Salmonella spp. Staphylococcus Eggs Sucrose Nitntes Shigella spp. enterotoxins Wheat Galactose Nitrates Campylobacter spp. Escherichia cold Peanuts Gluten Monosodium Escherichia cold enterotoxins Soybean Broad beans glutamate Vibrio parahaemolyticus Verocytotoxins products (favism) Tartrazine dyes Listeria rrronocytogenes Clostridium Nuts Laythyrus peas Benzoic acid Yersinia spp. perfringens Fish (laythyrism) Organophosphates Parasites toxins Shellfish Caffeine Oxalates Trichinella Clostridium Other foods Theobromine Heavy metals Toxoplasma di~cile toxins Histamine Mercury Amoeba Bacillus cereus Tyramine Lead Giardia enterotoxins Tryptamine Arsenic Isosporia(Coccidia) Mushroom toxins Serotonin Copper Cryptosporidia Fungaltoxins Phenylethylamine Aspartame Viruses Ergot, myco- Solamine Butylated Hepatitis A virus toxins Hydroxytoluene Norwalk agent Trichothecenes Hydroxyanisole Other Norwalklike Aflatoxins viruses Puffer fish Rotaviruses Tetrodotoxin Adenovirusesa Ciguatoxins As~ovirusesa Scromobroid fish Echoviruses toxin Snow mountain agent Shellfish saxitoxin Cockle agent Coxsackie B vin~ses C~icivimsesa aViruses that cause gastroententis and that may be foodbome. SOURCE: From U.S. D~artment of Health and Human Services, U.S. Public Health Service. 1988. The Surgeon General's Report on Nutriiion and Health.U.S. Public Health Service, U.S. Deparunent of Health and Human Services Publication No. 88-50210. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Govemment Pnniing Office.
PROGRAM AREAS AND SCIENTIFIC OPPORTUNITIES research should focus on methods to identify and evaluate food-associated risks. Food Biotechnology Biotechnology is not a new field in the food sector, since humans have been adapting living systems for the production of food for centuries. The use of more recent biotechnology techniques, such as recombinant DNA technology, enzyme and protein engineering, plant and animal cell tissue culture, and biosensor applications, will contribute to the increased effi- ciency of production of special food and food ingredi- ents, reduced production costs, enhanced nutritional value, improved processing characteristics, and safer and more convenient food products. A fundamental understanding of the structure, function, and regulation of genetic information at the molecular level is needed for plants, animals, and microorganisms important to the food supply in order to harness the potential benefits of biotechnology. Such information can be used to custom design foods with improved nutritional, functional, and processing characteristics: cereal with improved protein, amino acid, and fiber components; oilseeds with more desir- able saturated fatty acid profiles; and fresh produce with improved flavor and storage qualities. Other goals of food biotechnology research are food starter cultures that produce natural preserva- tives to extend shelf-life and ensure safety, modify fat and reduce cholesterol or caloric content, enhance digestibility of food components such as lactose in fermented dairy products, and improve the efficiency of fermentation used in food manufacturing. Cost- effective alternatives to chemical additives in proc- essed foods might be developed from natural ingredi- ents through microorganism and tissue culture sys- tems. Food biotechnology research is also leading to diagnostic tools (DNA probe and immunoassay tests) and biosensors (enzyme-, cell-, or antibody-based detection systems) that will more effectively ensure the safety of raw ingredients and finished products and that will improve the efficiency and economics of food processing systems. Research in food biotechnology can be directed toward developing systems for the more efficient use of food processing waste streams and toward convert- ing the waste s~eam.s to val',e-~1fier1 or nonfat products. This is increasingly important to help cover the operational costs of food safety systems while, at 67 the same time, meeting environmental and water quality protection goals. Notwithstanding the major potential value of re- combinant DNA technologies and other modern tech- nologies such as irradiation for the food sector, it is essential that development of the processes and prod- ucts that use them be undertaken as carefully and thoughtfully as possible. This is necessary for the health and safety of both people and the environment. Just as important is public acceptance of these tech- nologies in light of some people's wariness of, even aversion to, such technologies. The need for public acceptance puts additional and interesting challenges before the public and private research and develop- ment (R&D) sectors to present and explain the re- search and technologies lucidly before misapprehen- s~on occurs. Designing Foods for Optimal Nutrition and Safety As the The Surgeon General'sReport on Nutrition andHealth states, "Good health does notalways come easy" (U.S. Department of Health and Human Ser- vices, U.S. Public Health Service,1988~. It also indi- cates that diet prays apart in 5 of the 10 leading causes of death (1,445,700, or 68 percent of the deaths in 1987~. About 34 million Americans are obese. Be- tween 15 and 20 percent of older people are affected by osteoporosis. For the first time in many decades, a clear consen- sus is emerging that the pattern in which the U.S. population is voluntarily selecting and ingesting food is significantly affecting the U.S. population's risk for chronic disease. Two major reports on the relation- ship of diet to health Diet and Health (National Research Council, 1 989b) and The Surgeon General' s Report on Nutrition and Health (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, U.S. Public Health Ser- vice, 1988) have stressed the importance of institut- ing changes in diet both by altering the composition of the available diet and by promoting health-relevant behaviors. Although the exact nature of the interac- tion between the average U.S. diet and chronic disease is still poorly understood, both of these reports have deemed the scientific evidence sufficiently strong to recommend reductions in the amount and the type of fat in the diet, to stress the importance of complex carbohydrates and fruits and vegetables, and to in- crease the consumption of foods that can supply suf- ficient calcium and iron.
68 As the evidence linking patterns of nutrient intake to disease becomes more specific and as methods of dietary intervention become more effective, the deliv- ery of reasonably priced, convenient, nutritionally balanced, highly palatable, safe, and stable foods to the consumer will remain the food system's major challenge. Research on the bioavailability of certain essential nutrients is increasingly important. This includes rapid and accurate measurement (e.g., by nuclear magnetic resonance and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry) of the level of available nutrients, coupled with monitoring of their metabolic activities with biochemical markers such as enzyme- and activ- ity-specif~c metabolites. Raw ingredients and proc- essing variables may also affect the biological availa- bility of critical nutrients. More specific information is needed on the role of individual dietary components and their interactions in relation to disease and aging. Rapid, nondestructive methods such as biosensors would enable monitoring of the level of nutritional components during foodprocessing, storage, andcook- ing. Similarly, development of processes such as supercritical extraction or fermentation could remove or modify fats and adjust the relative nutrient compo- sitions in foods. Understanding the effects of process- ing and storage on fat, protein, and carbohydrate and fiber fractions of food products would allow for the prediction of the safety of foods, minimize the forma- tion of undesirable substances such as oxidized lipids in foods, and optimize the amount and Me of fiber added to some foods. Research advances on alternative methods of pres- ervation may permit reduction of certain food con- stituents such as salt (sodium), sugar, sulfite, and nitrite, which are used for food preservation and are typically consumed far in excess of need. Quality Specifications, Processing, and Health The essence of quality is to fulfill consumer needs and expectations. Quality attributes range from nutn- tion to taste, convenience, appearance, and product safety. Research on food quality emphasizes an un- derstanding of fundamental physical and chemical properties of food constituents that affect food flavor, texture, appearance, nutritional value, and other es- sential attributes. Quality specifications of foods and food constituents are the basis for designing food pro- duction control processes that are fully responsive to safety and nutrient needs, thatare economical, and that INVESTING IN RESEARCH minimize postprocessing deterioration. Research should focus on the development of rapid methods to audit the effectiveness of quality control measures at critical control points and to examine alternative means of preserving quality and wholesomeness. The role of changing food habits (grazing, in- creased reliance on both fresh and prepared foods, greater consumption of ethnic foods) on the diets of specific population groups should be studied, as should their subsequent effects on health. A fundamental understanding of why different groups of consumers respond in different ways to food quality attributes is important. This knowledge and recognition of the unique dietary needs of individuals in various age groups and with different physical conditions must serve as the foundation for future attempts to improve health through dietary modifications. This knowledge is also critical in assessing how traditional plant and animal products should be modified through genetics or management. These challenges highlight the need for appropriate models to assess health risk and for improved dietary patterns. Essential components of such models will evolve from data bases on physiological mechanisms in food production and processing and on the effects of different processing, distribution, and preparation methods on food quality. Automation has brought a major change in food processing methods. It has generated new control needs in processing, while reducing many sources of potential problems. Other changes arise from the acceptance of new processes such as ultra-high-tem- perature sterilization of foods and aseptic packaging methods. Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point procedures, under development by the U.S. Depart- ment of Agriculture in partnership with food manufac- luring firms, utilize on-line monitoring techniques to ensure the safety of food products. These and other innovative processes increase the need for more under- standing of the fundamental properties of specific foods and methods of preservation. The influence of various processing operations on the molecular and structural properties of food and how conversion, processing, distribution, and storage affect food quality must be assessed. To get the highest food quality, it is first necessary to identify the effects of processing operations on the molecular and cellular mechanisms that control, inhibit, or inactivate biologically active constituents in food. Innovative processes will allow the creation of foods that fit into specific diets and health promotion plans. Models that
PROGRAM AREAS AND SCIENTIFIC OPPORTUNITIES describe and predict the outcomes of microwave pro- cessing and heating of foods, especially as they relate to safety and health, will increase the available food options. Traditional processes, such as caffeine re- moval, fat modification, or thermal processing, may work on new food products but must be assessed for their efficacy. The effects of processing on complex whole food systems must be evaluated at the molecu- lar level. The influence of processing on incorpora- tion and stability of nonnutrient ingredients that have been incorporated to address dietary needs remains a significant research need. Postharvest handling and preservation is a key ingredient in successful food processing. Too little research is now done on disease control in stored foods and on the effects of storage and preservation tech- niques on food safety (effects both of synthetic chemi- cals used to control mold and insect infestations and of natural mycotoxins and other food safety hazards that can become worse under certain storage conditions). Packaging and Distribution Methods Consumer expectations for food delivery systems have changed dramatically. Effortless, quick, safe, and economical meals are sought from both supermar- kets and restaurants. Consumers expect to be able to use a variety of cooking and storage techniques, pur- chase food in several portion sizes, and often prefer to consume or serve food directly from the package. These changes have brought on increasing concerns over excessive nonbiodegradable wastes from food packaging. In April 1989, Minneapolis and St. Paul, Minnesota, passed ordinances banning nonbiode- gradable packaging. The extent of packaging waste generated by the food service industry has reached crisis proportions in many urban areas and requires immediate attention. The visibility of the food industry places food and food products at the forefront of the solid waste debate. Immediate research is needed to develop packaging and then to implement new packaging approaches that will be responsive to the growing solid waste crisis, yet that will preserve the conven- ience, quality, economy, and safety that consumers have come to expect from their food products. Developing improved storage and packaging tech- nologies will require evaluation of the extent and consequences of the migration of packaging materials (toxicants, flavors, odors, etc.) into food and evalu- ation of the migration of food components (nutrients, 69 flavors, fluids, etc.) into or onto packaging materials. Predictive models should be developed to determine the stability of packaging materials during processing, storage, distribution, and handling by consumers; technology for nondestructive methods to quickly and continuously test the integrity of packages and seals should also be developed. Exciting research has begun on packaging systems with built-in, self-contained indicators of product safety and wholesomeness. Systems have been designed to ensure safe handling, proper storage, appropriate consumer cooking, and other actions that can influ- ence product safety and quality. Some recently devel- oped packaging materials actively and independently modify the aunosphere and environment in which food is kept, thereby ensuring that it stays fresh and free of contaminants. NATURAL RESOURCES AND THE ENVIRONMENT Research on natural resources and environmental quality, drawing on dozens of disciplines, will provide the technical foundation for decisions about new products, processes, services, and methods to manage natural resources. New discoveries in engineering, economics, sociology, and public affairs will provide the foundation for new means to utilize raw material, human resources, machinery, and market systems. Each must play a role in producing and delivering high-quality and competitively priced products, proc- esses, services, and management systems to society. Table 5.5 contains a summary of relationships be- tween scientific areas in natural resources stewardship and the environment and practical or potential appli- cations, and the box "Natural Resources" describes the diversity of natural resources in the United States. Water Quality and Water Management Water quality can be impaired by a variety of agricultural and forestry practices. Although water quality problems are highly variable, the most com- monly encountered problems include pesticide and nitrate contamination of surface and groundwaters, imp/roper disposal of animal and food processing wastes, and accumulation of salts and metals-espe- cially selenium, cadmium, molybdenum, end boron at toxic levels in frequently irrigated land. Both water impoundments designed to control floods in urban areas and large-scale drainage of wetlands are drasti
70 INFESTING IN RESEARCH TABLE 5.5 Relationship between Scientific Areas and Practical Applications in National Resources and the Environment Scientific Areas Areas of Practical or Potential Application Ecosystem structure and function Soil science Hydrology Plant physiology and biochemistry Botany, zoology, and wildlife management Agricultural . . engineering Landscape design Wood science and technology Meteorology and climatology Forest, agricultural, and resource economics Rural sociology Urban planning Range science Population biology Social ethics Measuration and biometry Atmospheric and climatic chances Methane cycle Pesticide volatilization Air pollutants and atmospheric depositions Forest, range, and farm productivity and efficiency, water yield and quality, ecosystem responses to stress Erosion control, groundwater contamination, plant water nutrient use, irrigation, tillage practices, salinization, nutrient use efficiency Water yield and quality, erosion control, waste disposal on forest and agricultural land Nutrient, water and energy use efficiency, air pollution impacts on crops and forests Quantification and maintenance of biodiversity habitat improvement for wildlife Waste disposal, irrigation practices, energy use, appropriate machinery, agricultural drainage Management of rural and small town communities, management of energy use Use of biomass as chemical and energy feed stocks Pesticide drift, dispersal of pollutants, forest fire management, drought management, irrigation practices, climatic change impacts on forests and rangelands Optimization of plant locations, analysis of cost of alternative manage- ment practices, labor and market analyses, assessment of environ- mental and social externalities Revitalization of rural and small town communities, recreation and tourism, maintaining aesthetic quality Maintaining parks and green ways, waste disposal and handling, land use planning, residential landscapes Carrying capacity, habitat quality, reproductive biology Weed control; biological diversity; convolution of hosts, pathogens, predators, and weeds; biotechnical improvement of forest and range plants Land and environmental ethics, social impacts of technological innovations, social services in rural communities Monitoring change in forest and other ecosystems, geographical information systems for national resources, remote sensing, com- puter mapping ~7 Control of agricultural methane production Integrated pest management Quality of natural and agricultural ecosystems Table 5.5 continues
PROGRAM AREAS AND SCIENTIFIC OPPORTUNITIES TABLE 5.5 (Continued) 71 Scientific Areas Areas of Practical or Potential Application CO2 warming Global carbon and nitrogen budgets Modeling link of biosphere, lithosphere, and atmosphere Regional climate modeling Quality and productivity of soils and land use Soil physical properties and quality Efficiency of nutrient utilization by plants and trees Pesticide fate in the environment Soil erosion Water quality and water management Hydrological cycle Lake and river fisheries Wetlands and wetland wildlife Transport and transformations Salinity and toxic trace minerals Irrigation systems Regional water budgets Forest, range, wildlife, and biological diversity Genetics and ecology Plant biomass production Urbanization Urban ecology Urban wastes and disposal Impact on agricultural and natural ecosystems Remote sensing Perturbations by agricultural practices Regional water management Land use, agricultural management Optimization of fertilizer application practices Groundwater quality transport in soils Soil and water conservation Quality of surface and groundwaters Surface water management practices Drainage management refuges Groundwater quality of water pollutants in soil sediment-water continuum Irrigation and drainage management in soils Agricultural water conservation and scheduling control of nonpoint source water pollutants Regional-scale water management Management of forests, rangelands, and biological diversity of wildlife habitats Alternative energy source Land use management of agricultural lands Land and water quality
72 INVESTING IN RESEARCH Natural Resources The natural resources of the United States are made up of some of the following land, water, vegetation, wildlife, and recreation resources: Croplands and pasturelands cover about 25 percent (550 million acres) of the nation's land area. These lands provide most of the food that the nation grows or raises, including forage and feedgrains for domestic livestock, and most natural fibers (cotton and wool). Commercial forests cover about 35 percent (700 million acres) of the nation's land area. They provide lumber, plywood, and other timber products for residential and commercial buildings; wooden furniture and implements; and paper in prodigious amounts more than 600 pounds annually for every man, woman, and child in the United States. They are the source of cellulose and other wood-based chemicals. Trees also provide protective coverforshallow mountain soils and regulate stream flows in watersheds. Forests provide habitat for wildlife and are places of beauty and recreation. Rangelands cover another 20 percent (400 million acres) of the nation's land area. They provide food for livestock and habitat for diverse populations of birds, fish, and game animals. The agricultural, forest, and rangelands described above supply raw materials for industries that provide more than 25 million jobs in the growing, harvesting, manufacturing, and marketing of human food, animal feed, fiber, wood, paper, and chemical products. Surface and groundwaters sustain human life and make possible the productivity of industries and agriculture. Commercial and sport fisheries provide both employment for thousands of people in seafood industries and outdoor recreation forthe millions more who enjoy fishing in the nation's streams, ponds, lakes, estuaries, and coastal waters. Abundant and diverse wildlife populations are a source of enjoyment to the millions who seek to photograph deer, bears, antelopes, mountain goats, beavers, foxes, coyotes, ducks, geese, eagles, squir- rels, rabbits, and other birds and animals in the nation's fields, forests, grasslands, mountains, and deserts, as well as the millions of sportsmen who fish and hunt abundant wild species. The system of national, state, county, municipal, and community parks provides places of beauty and recreation where families gather and people can seek refuge from everyday life. 1 . 1 catty altering the hydrological regime and sometimes even the survival of bottomland forests and shellfish populations in many parts of the United States. These impoundments and drainage practices have increased the land area available for agriculture and flood con- trol, but have also altered freshwater and nutrient flows, sometimes with negative consequences for water quality and fisheries in lakes and rivers, coastal sounds, estuaries, and other inland waterways. Little is known about the relative costs and benefits from these water management practices or about the long- term trends and effects of changes in water qualify and availability. Regional water management practices can have a profound influence on agriculture, environmental quality, and water uses. For example, the diversion of the Truckee River in California for irrigation has heavily affected the depth and quality of Pyramid Lake in Nevada. Conflict is growing over the need to sustain irrigated agriculture in the region and the need to protect the quality of the water resources and in- stream flows. Large-scale irrigation agriculture on the west side of California's San Joaquin Valley, an area with fertile soils but a shallow water table, led to rising concentra- tions of certain elements, particularly selenium, in the drainage waters. Selenium has reached concentra- tions that are toxic to fish and waterfowl in the Kester- son National Wildlife Refuge. Its environmental effect is the consequence of selenium and irrigation water transport through the soil profile. It then accu- mulated in drainage waters that were collected and transported in a drainage canal to the Kesterson Na- tional Wildlife Refuge reservoir.
PROCRA~I AREAS AND SCIENTIFIC OPPORTUNITIES A water management disaster outside the United States of catastrophic dimensions is the desiccation of the Aral Sea in the Soviet Union. Between 1960 and 1987 the level of the Am1 Sea dropped nearly 13 meters, and the average salinity rose from 10 to 27 grams/liter. It has dropped from fourth to sixth in area among the world's largest lakes and is predicted to shrink to a residual brine lake by the end of the century if desiccation remains unchecked. Desiccation of the Aral Sea is the result of reduced river inflows caused primarily by diversion of river water for irrigation and by unchecked pollutant contaminations from indus- tries along the inland sea and rivers flowing into it. As a result, the Aral Sea's severe desiccation has had widespread ecological consequences. Water management challenges vary greatly across the United States, reflecting the great diversity in soil types and hydrogeological conditions across the coun- try. Several water management problems are unique to arid, western regions-salinity and selenium buildup in soils, for example. Other problems are encountered more commonly in humid regions and include drain- age, surface water runoff, flooding, and water man- agement during periods of drought. Some problems are manageable and readily reversible; others are more severe and could take decades or centuries to reverse or may be essentially permanent. There is a pressing need for more research and data to help develop improved methods to distinguish between manageable problems and those with severe, long- term consequences. Agricultural runoff problems also vary greatly across the country. Runoff from rain, snowmelt, or excessive irrigation can cause losses of nitrogen fertil- izers, manure, and pesticides, followed in parts of the landscape by leaching to groundwater. More research on optimum irrigation management and reduced fer- tilizer and pesticide applications would alleviate the damaging effects of agricultural runoff on land and waterresources. Dischargeofanimalmanures,secon- da~y treated municipal wastes, or food processing plant effluents into surface waters is of environmental concern and warrants renewed efforts in research and treatment technology, as does the effect of solid waste in landfills on surface and groundwater quality. The ability to predict long-term trends in ground- water quality and ways in which land use and agricul- tural practices affect water quality is a critical area of hydrological research. Soil chemists and physicists, hydrogeologists, and environmental toxicologists face many challenges unraveling the transport and trans 73 formation of potential chemical pollutants in the soil- water continuum. The role of sediments and erosion control systems in protecting water quality also de- serves special attention. Quality and Productivity of SoiLs and Land Use Maintenance of soil quality is one of the prerequi- sites for sustaining the productivity of agricultural and forest ecosystems and is central to the success of sustainable agriculture. Productive soils are lost to agriculture and forestry in the United States through four primary processes: water and wind erosion, contamination with toxic metals and persistent pesti- cides, salinization after improper irrigation and drain- age of cropland, and permanent conversion to non- farm uses (impoundments, transportation and elec- tricity transmission corndors, and commercial and residential development). The incorporation into soil of greater quantities of crop residues and other nontoxic wastes, coupled with reduced tillage planting systems, has helped to sustain and often improve soil productivity. Common farm management practices can, however, otherwise ad- versely affect soil productivity through compaction; waterlogging; and excessive buildup of salt, other minerals, and toxicants. Soil maintenance in forests and other exploited wild systems is much less well understood, in part because the time scale over which effects are likely to occur is longer. Fertilizer application practices in agriculture and forestry must be optimized to sustain soil productivity and at the same time satisfy the goals of sustainable natural resources management. A necessary step toward this goal is increasing the utilization efficiency by plants of available nutrients in the soil. Research in a number of disciplines is needed to determine more precisely crop nutrient needs, the amount of available nutrients in the soil, and how and when fertilizer can be applied to maximize the portion taken up by plants. Research undertaken since the Dust Bowl era has identified some of the physical features of soils ac- counting for their productive potential and suscepti- bility to erosion. This knowledge has been useful in advancing science and is generally adequate for the administration of current conservation policies and in the design of affordable soil and water conservation systems for many types of land and farm operations. Gaps remain in understanding how farmers and forest- ers can best sustain soil productivity, and the record of on-farm adoption of soil conservation systems is spotty.
74 But certain types of problems are concentrated heavily in just a few areas. For example, about 15 percent of cultivated cropland accounts for some 80 percent of excessive erosion, selenium problems affect distinct hydrogeological regions in the western United States, and groundwater contamination is most severe in regions with sandy soils and shallow aquifers. A final concern about soil quality and land use is the behavior of pesticides and nutrients in soils, their potential transport through the soil profile, and the resultant contamination of groundwater. Excessive application of mobile fertilizers, particularly nitrates, can cause leaching of nutrients into the groundwater. Pesticides with a long half-lives in soils are a threat to soil and groundwater quality. Intensive research into the transport behavior of agrichemicals in soils would allow more accurate predictions of the fates of pesti- cides and fertilizers in the environment. Effect of Environment on Agricultural Productivity The environment has a large effect on plant and animal productivity. Plants grown in nature normally cannot realize their full genetic potential. Boyer (1982) has estimated that average yields of eight major food crops are depressed by about 70 percent below their yield potential because of adverse soil and cli- matic constraints. Advances in the 1980s in irrigation technology and scheduling, expansion of the amount of irrigated acreage, aggressive federal acreage reduc- tion programs targeted to highly credible cropland, and steady progress in drainage methods have helped farmers overcome somewhat the yield-depressing consequences of adverse soil and climatic constraints. Furthermore, improved tillage methods, crop rota- tions selected for disease control, genetic improve- ment, and other agronomic practices are being devel- oped and utilized by farmers for overcoming environ- mental constraints. While such practices and new technologies are usually successful to some degree, and often highly successful, they generally raise pro- duction costs over those in regions without such soil and climatic constraints; and when the natural con- straints prove to be more limiting than thought previ- ously, efforts to overcome them set the stage for sometimes serious adverse soil and water resource environmental consequences, both on and off the farm. Table 5.6 shows that only about 12 percent of U.S. soils are ideally suited for plant production, whereas INVESTING IN RESEARCH about 88 percent of the nation ' s cropland is affected by some unfavorable environmental limitation on plant productivity, primarily because of drought, soil shal- lowness, cold, and wet conditions. Moreover, these soil and environmental limitations can be made worse, or overcome, by human actions. Drainage can allevi- ate excessive wetness, erosion control systems can limit soil loss, and new crop varieties that are less susceptible to heat or cold can help overcome climatic limitations. Pesticide and fertilizer use and irrigation can greatly increase crop yields, but they can also create other environmental problems. Similarly, al- terations to natural environments can occur with in- tensive forest management, fisheries, mining, hunt- ing, and recreational uses of natural resources. Atmospheric and Climatic Change Declining air quality is a major environmental concern. Air pollutants and atmospheric depositions affect natural and agricultural ecosystems, but the mechanisms and magnitudes of these interactions are still not well known. Acid deposition and ozone are known to affect aquatic, forest, and agricultural eco- systems. Certain agricultural practices are a potential source of pollutants. Ammonia used as a fertilizer can escape from soil to the atmosphere. Also, ruminant animals area source of methane. The level of methane in Be atmosphere is clearly increasing; the sources of methane, however, are much debated, and the signifi TABLE 5.6 Area of the United States with Soils Subject to Environmental Constraints Environmental Constraint Area of U.S. Affected (percent) Drought Soil shallowness Cold Wet conditions Alkaline salts Saline or no soil Other None 25.3 19.6 16.5 15.7 2.9 4.5 3.4 12.1 SOURCE: Boyer, J. S. 1982. Plant productivity and environment. Science 218:443 448.
PROGRAM AREAS AND SCIENTIFIC OPPORTUNITIES cance of effects of elevated atmospheric methane levels on ecosystems is unknown. Pesticides can be volatilized from soils and transported through the atmosphere, potentially leading to soil and water contamination in areas far removed from the source. This is probably why dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDI) levels in the soil in some parts of the country have risen in recent years, despite a ban several years ago on the use of DDT in the United States. The sigruf~cance and role of increasing atmospheric pol- lutants and gases on the global carbon and nitrogen budgets needs more thorough investigation. Rising concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gases appear to be responsible for shifts in global climates. Although warming from increased levels of CO2 and potential climatic change are much debated, research into the environmental and agricultural consequences of warming from in- crased levels of CO2 must be undertaken now. Agri- culture's contribution to the rise in atmospheric CO2, particularly through large-scale deforestation, is clearly significant. Remote-sensing technologies constitute an important new tool for global studies of the carbon and nitrogen budgets and must be coupled with sub- stantial quantitative data collected on the ground. A long-term scientific challenge is to develop models that more accurately account for linkages among the active biosphere, lithosphere, and atmosphere. Many consequences of warming from increased levels of CO2 on global climatic patterns are unknown, but changes in regional rainfall and water availability could clearly have important effects on agriculture and forestry. There are also fears that the intense heat of summer and intense cold of winter could become more extreme. Melting of the polar ice caps and thermal expansion of the oceans could raise the level of oceans, inundating often highly productive coastal plains with seawater or infiltrating inland groundwa- ter resources with saline water. In addition, if the seasonal winter rainfall patterns common to the south- western United States shifted to a more uniform rain- fall distribution through the year, agricultural prac- tices would change dramatically in that part of the country. In the 1980s science and technology have made tremendous advances in computer technology, remote sensing, instrumentation, atmospheric chemistry, and other sciences key to understanding the global warm- ing phenomenon. Tremendous advances in oceanog- raphy and ocean-atmosphere interactions, such as research on the impacts of the E1 Nino current in the 75 Pacific Ocean, must be integrated into other environ- mental end agricultural research programs. Recogniz- ing and estimating physical, chemical, and biological linkages in the environment following warming caused by increased levels of CO2 through interdisciplinary research will be crucial in achieving this goal. Biological and Genetic Diversity Maintaining biological and genetic diversity in agricultural crops is desirable in principle but is hard to ensure when trying to respond to market demands for uniform products. Many questions warrant atten- tion. What constitutes diversity? How much is needed? What resource uses should be included in multiple use plans, and how should potentially con- flicting goals be balanced, and by whom? Are forests more or less diverse than they were in Resettlement times? Over what sizes of areas should criteria defin- ing biological diversity be applied? What is the role of genetics research in maintaining biological diversity? How will specific management practices influence the effectiveness of multiple-use plans and ecosystem diversity? Understanding ecosystem structure and function is essential if biological and genetic diversity are to be understood and maintained. It is equally essential if managed ecosystems are to be understood and if they are to provide sustained productivity with minimum economic and environmental expenditures. The brief discussion of ecosystem structure and function in Chapter 4 outlines the status and challenges for this important field of study. Pests are defined as insects and diseases that occur in such amounts and concentrations within an ecosys- tem usually a managed ecosystem as to cause economic loss. Pests and pesticides are also discussed briefly in Chapter 4. Pesticides of all kinds have a major effect on biological diversity, and sometimes on overall genetic diversity; thus, their study and benefi- cent use are best considered in terms of ecosystem structure and function, along with the more organism- specific studies. Forests, Rangelands, and Wildlife Managing forests and rangelands for multiple uses and biological diversity is easy to mandate but diffi- cult to achieve. Several specific forest management practices-clear-cutting, the use of herbicides for weed and brush control, livestock grazing in national
76 forests, and forest fire control policies-raise com- plex technical issues that often must be resolved as matters of public policy. Better scientific and im- proved data on forestland and rangeland conditions will not eliminate the need for difficult choices to be made by the public sector, but they can help provide decisionmakers and the public with a clearer sense of the consequences of alternative choices. New harvest, pest control, and reseeding technolo- gies are needed for a range of forestland and rangeland applications on both public and private lands. Future practices should focus on the vital need to conserve the biological productivity of rangeland and forestland soils and on the susceptibility of forestland and range- land ecosystems to degradation when they are mis- managed or exploited too heavily. Development of a Land Ethic Increasing human pressures on natural resources heighten the need for a renewed land stewardship ethic. For the long-term maintenance of a clean and productive natural environment, the factors shaping public attitudes toward natural resources will need to be identified; alternative systems to balance produc- tion and conservation needs will need to be developed; and the role of government in supporting stewardship will need to be defined. The need to develop a land ste- wardship ethic is described eloquently in Aldo Leo- pold's (1968) book A Sarut County Almanac: The first ethics dealt with the relation between individuals. Later accretions dealt with the relation between individuals and society. Ibe Golden Rule tries to integrate the individual to society; democracy to integrate social organizations to the individ- ual. There is as yet no ethic dealing with man's relation to land and the animals and plants that grow upon it.... The land-relation is still strictly economic, entailing privileges but not obligations. Me extension of ethics to this third element in the human en- vironment is an evolutionary possibility and an ecological neces- s~ty. Identifying the changes in human behavior and agricultural practices needed to meet the challenge of resource stewardship raises complex questions. Answers depend upon creative integration of several disciplines as diverse as physics, anthropology, and forest ecology. In addition, the key role of public policies and institutions in shaping a land ethic and I - ESTINC IN RESEARCH helping individuals meet its mandate must be thought- fully reassessed in the years ahead. ENGINEERING, PRODUCTS, AND PROCESSES Engineering activities can be applied to the entire agricultural, food, and environmental system. These activities include providing conceptual frameworks for systematic analysis of problems and questions (both physical and biological); defining scientific and technological questions by physical and mathematical analyses; and designing usable physical (as well as physical and biological) machines and systems to serve useful purposes. The problems engineering addresses range from those at the molecular and cellu- lar levels to those at the level of large machinery. The engineering research agenda is being trans- formed by the major issues challenging agriculture today. Key problems, and therefore opportunities, lie in the areas of (1) water quality and water manage- ment, (2) sensors, (3) computing and information sys- tems management, (4) bioengineering, (5) bio- processing, (6) innovation in equipment manufactur- ing, and (7) production efficiency and resource con- servation. Table 5.7 shows some of the relationships between areas of engineering research and their prac- tical or potential applications. The rate at which progress is made, however, will depend on how effec- tively people with engineering knowledge and re- search skills are integrated into multidisciplinary teams that include scientists trained in the physical sciences, biology, mathematics, natural resources management, and other disciplines. Water Quality and Management Water supply and water quality are clearly critical to agriculture, forestry, and the nation. Eighty percent of the water in the 48 contiguous states is in ground- water aquifers, and nearly 70 percent of the water withdrawn from these aquifers is used for irrigation. This figure is even more striking when one considers that irrigated land is less than 20 percent of the land area under cultivation in the United States. Water could be used more efficiently in agricul- ture, and agriculture's adverse effects on water quality could be lessened if soil-plant-air-water interactions were better understood. A systems approach should be used to consider the cost and availability of water, irrigation methods, drainage requirements, crop fertil _ ~. .
PROCRA1~ AREAS AND SCIENTIFIC OPPORTUNITIES TABLE 5.7 Relationship between Scientific Areas and Practical Applications in Engineering 77 Scientific Areas Areas of Practical or Potential Applications Combustion Fuel efficiency, emissions, engine materials, biomass fuel Computing systems Control systems, production and manufacturing efficiencies, systems analyses Control systems Greenhouse environment, water quality, remote navigation Corrosion Chemical handling equipment, aquatic system structures Dynamics Transport damage to food, crop harvesting method Electric power Time of use, impact of transmission lines Electronics Sensors, communications, data acquisition Expert systems System management, quality control Fluid mechanics Irrigation, drainage, soil erosion, environmental control Heat transfer Food processing, energy use efficiency Human factors Worker safety, efficiency, stress Hydrology Water flows and quality, erosion Image processing Food quality evaluation, harvesting sensors, animal behavior Information processing Crop or irrigation scheduling, artificial intelligence Instrumentation Nondestructive tests, detection of contaminants Manufacturing processes Computer-aided, customized, short-line manufacturing; plastics; composites Materials science Package films, fluter membranes, abrasion resistance, sensors, bioengineering Mass transfer Flavor migration, soil drainage, contaminant movement Micrometeorology Environment control, growth modeling Packaging Microenvironment control, tamper-proof and biodegradable packaging Physical properties Relationship to quality, sensor development, failure criteria Radiation Food preservation, inspection, analysis Reaction kinetics Biotechnology, food and waste processing Remote sensing Field, forest, and water resource evaluation; yield forecasting Rheology Behavior of food concentrates Robotics Harvesting and sorting mechanisms, equipment manufacturing, bioengineering Systems analysis System modeling, optimization, economics, social impacts Unit processes Bioengineering, bioprocessing ity and pest control needs, the timing of field and harvest operations, and methods to protect water quality. Emphasis should be placed on improving methods to predict the availability and application efficiency of water. More accurate and practical in- f~eld tools should be used to monitor and, when necessary, to mitigate the contamination of water r e s 0 u r c e s b y a g r i c u 1 t u ~ 1 a n d f 0 r e s t r y 0 p e r a t i 0 n s . B e t t e r ways should also be found to measure the relatively high degree of variability found in soil type, topogra- phy, and plant cover and to incorporate that informa- tion into management decisionmaking and in-f~eld operations. Sensors Design engineering and management systems rely on adequate information about how a production process or system responds to its inputs. New transducer and sensor developments will allow meas- urements of a wide range of factors that influence the production and processing of food products, including moisture, chemical concentrations, pathogens, and particulate concentrations in facilities and storage structures. Sensors could also help monitor animal behavior and well-being. Improved methods are needed for measuring moisture content; fertility and
78 filth of soils; and chemical compositions of forestry, aquaculture, and agricultural materials. The develop- ment of force and position transducer technologies will allow continued progress in mechanization sys- tems and robotics. Monitoring techniques to improve operator deci sionmaking and to increase operator safety and health will be increasingly important. Computing and Information Management Developments in sensors linked with advances in computing capacity and convenience will be neces- sary to achieve innovative applications throughout the agricultural, food, and environmental system. How- ever, developments in this area will depend on contin- ued advances in understanding the fundamental physi- cal and chemical processes relevant to the conditions being monitored. Research mustfocus on understand- ing the properties of materials and the physical and biological factors governing effective production processes. Improvements in information processing, expert systems, and artificial intelligence for handling the vast quantities of information will be obtained by coupling reliable electronic instrumentation systems such as biosensors with computing systems. Bioengineering Bioengineenng is the combination of engineering science with biological materials into an integrated specialty that goes beyond current biochemical and related engineering specialties. For example, use of this new specialty will help researchers understand the surface and physical properties of cells so they can be adsorbed onto solid-phase reactors and develop engi- neered systems for embryo transfer, photosynthsis in manufactured systems, estrus detection, both low- and high-temperature biology, and delivery of engineered organisms (such as encapsulation of genetically modified seeds and their surrounding nutrients). Bioprocessing Bioprocessing is the processing, handling, and reformulation of biological materials using engineered biological systems. For example, anaerobic digesters of manure wastes and cellulosic residues are bioreac- tors that are used to convert the wastes, through bioprocessing, into fuels. Similarly, bioreactors can be developed to convert biological wastes into pro- tein. Major fields in which bioprocessing has already INVESTING IN RESEARCH proved valuable, and will certainly prove even more so in the future, are the production of alternative fuels from wastes and other biological materials; the de- composition of municipal, industrial, and agricultural and food processing wastes; food processing and engineering; and formulation of new products such as biodegradable plastics. Innovation in Equipment Manufacturing The continued success of U.S. agriculture also depends on access to efficient, reliable machines and tools for carrying out soil, crop, harvesting, and prod- uctprocessing activities. The equipment manufactur- ing industry faces a number of problems labor costs and the need to retool manufacturing plants, for ex- ample for which it must seek engineering solutions. Research on improved manufacturing processes such as computer-aided design and manufacturing, nu- merically controlled manufacturing, and just-in-time manufacturing and advanced inventory management systems will help. Changes in market demand for equipment will need to be responded to more quickly, particularly if U.S.-based industries are to remain competitive internationally and regain a larger share of the domestic market in small machinery. Equip- ment that can be used for multiple purposes, some in combination with specially designed attachments, can lower capital and operating costs. Today, many large, specialized machines are idle much of the year or can be used only for a single crop. Support will stimulate innovation in equipment design to address unique needs associated with both small- and large-scale sustainable agriculture operations. These needs in- clude machines to make and apply composted materi- als, cultivation equipment, new low-cost animal hous- ing systems, and ways to harvest crops grown in polycultures. Production Efficiency and Resource Conservation The need for improved production efficiency and resource conservation underlies all of the major issues discussed above. The ability of the agricultural sector to respond to these needs will depend largely on how well basic information is utilized in the design and use of efficient, safe production systems. For this reason, a broader array of systems-based models must be developed to estimate both near- and long-term effects of alternative production practices and management
PROCESS LEAS kD ~IE=IFIC OPPORTUNITIES options. Models will help analysts address not only the great diversity that exists in natural ecosystems but also the many factors that must be taken into account when one is trying to estimate real-world interactions in technically complex and dynamic systems like those commonly found in production agriculture. Great progress has been made in recent years in developing useful new analytical tools and models to address questions of soil erosion and water conservation, product and market development, selection of desir- able genetic traits in breeding programs, chemical and biological pest management, monitoring of crop di- versity, mechanization in cultural practices, human health and safety, and many other issues that directly affect farmers and the nation. The effects of industrial and urban pollutants on the land, air, and water resources so important to forestry and agricultural production is a growing area of emphasis for engineers. Questions about the effects of acid rein on crops, sulfuremissions from powerplants, and urban and industrial pollution of water supplies are under intense investigation in several regions of the country; and conditions in many forest ecosystems in the eastern United States and Rocky Mountain region are clearly growing worse. MARKETS, TRADE, AND POLICY The program area of markets, trade, and policy encompasses all of the issues that relate to the eco- nomic and societal implications, effects, consequences, profitability, and value of the agricultural, food, and environmental system in their national and interna- tional dimensions. It embraces the disciplines com- monly associated with the social sciences and with policy and management sciences. In addition, this program area has a close relationship with the biologi- cal and physical sciences required for assessing the economic and social value of sustainable agricultural systems, the value of new uses of a particular crop, and the societal and environmental implications of new technologies. Research on the effects of policy has not kept pace with the growing influence of policy on the perform- anceofU.S. agriculture. For example, the commodity policies pursued during the last half century have resulted in such massive distortions in the technology and location of agricultural production that it has become almost impossible to determine the extent to which production of major U.S. agricultural com 79 modifies would decline or grow in a world market environment characterized by a more open national commodity market and more open trade policies. These kinds of deficiencies inhibit policy analysis and development. Thus,policy research should be a major priority and should be coupled with discipline-ori- ented studies. Significant policy research has been done by the USDA's Economic Research Service, and they continue to do such studies. Given the magnitude of the needs, including the changing global conditions and the changing global environment, for science and technolog~and the interest of the academic and research communities in policy issues and their capac- ity for strong research there are major opportunities of joining need and research capacity for furthering this necessary work. The sections that follow present some aspects of this program area and give some examples of research needs and opportunities. Markets and Trade Markets and trade, with particular emphasis on international trade, are surveyed in Chapter 4, as are some of the research needs. The following are some additional research needs and opportunities: analyzing the effect of economic policies on trade patterns; · identifying and characterizing the trade-offs and linkages between domestic agricultural and trade policies; · devising an optimal international commodity trade policy for the United States; · assessinginsiitutionalrelationships such es state trading, monopolistic business practices, and govern- ment involvement in international agreements and their effects on the performance of international mar- kets, information, and transaction linkages; · determining the extent to which monetary policy and other institutional factors mask U.S. comparative advantages in the agricultural and food sector; · accounting for technological differences among countries and for changes in those differences over time; · incorporating concepts of imperfect competition and institutional interactions into trade policy; and · improving the conceptual framework for research on international trade and developing and using im- proved empirical models for policy analysis.
80 Technological Innovation and Value-Added Products As noted in the discussions of international trade in Chapter 4, technological innovation and value-added products are two domains in which the United States may have a competitive advantage. In terms of tech- nological innovations, the nation's R&D sector has a historically strong record on which to build, particu- larly if the new advances in molecular genetics and computers are exploited. In terms of value-added products, the nation is still focused more on bulk commodities than on value-added products, which suggests a major unrealized opportunity. A key feature of research on markets and trade is the opportunity to derive major advantage from com- bining scientific and technological analysis with eco- nomic, social, and policy analysis in integrated plans of study. Some program and research needs and opportunities include the following: · Identifying the product andprocess niches where U.S. strength in science and technology may offer a significant advantage; · identifying the industries and markets where the United States can best utilize its inherent strengths in technology, natural resources, and infrastructure; · elucidating short- and long-term trends for tech- nological innovation and desirable value-added quali- ties that would ensure a long-term market niche; characterizing the advantageous coupling be- tween biological advances, such as tissue culture and plant growth, with technological approaches, such as those for delivering new plant materials; . . . . identifying plant and animal characteristics most responsible for major losses in preharvest production and in postharvest transport and processes, and then elucidating mechanisms for eliminating or minimiz- ing those characteristics; and · identifying opportunities for new uses of com- modity products and for major new markets for newer crops, such as rapeseed and rapeseed oils. Economic Performance Economic performance refers to the performance of the individual producing or processing unit rather than to the more macro-level issues, such as the behavior offinancial institutions; it also designates the social and environmental externalities that accom- pany production and processing operations. Some of INVESTING IN RESEARCH the program and research needs and opportunities include the following: · creating greater flexibility in commodity price support programs to cost-effectively alter cropping patterns and use new crops and technologies. · identifying thephysical, biotic, end environmental relationships between a farm's actual and optimal economic and environmental performances; · determining the effects on costs, and on the loca- tion of agricultural production, of regulatory or incen- tive programs designed to reduce the environmental and health effects of the intensification of agricultural and industrial production; elucidating the economic effects that, for ex- ample, changes in global climate (resulting from the greenhouse effect), acid deposition, and destruction of the ozone layer have on trends in the growth, location, and costs of agricultural production; · developing more and improved safety practices for the use of equipment and chemicals; developing further energy self-sufficiency for producing and processing industries; · identifying and developing the management and decision tools needed for optimum economic and environmental performance; and continuing to craft public policies that will bring economic and environmental goals into congruence with each other and, in particular, advancing the devel- opment and adoption of systems for natural resources conservation and low-input sustainable agriculture. Rural Development Rural development focuses on sustaining and de- veloping the rural sector of the United States. Program needs and research needs and opportunities include the following: determining cost-effective opportunities and strategies to invest public funds in the rural economic infrastructure; identifying environmentally acceptable opportu- nities and methods to recycle and dispose of wastes; · encouraging increased investment in product and processing development and facilities, with special focus on value-added or new product industries; and · understanding the social, economic, and environ- mental forces and policies that have the greatest influ- ence on the vitality of the rural sector of the United States.
PROGRAM AREAS AND SCIENTIFIC OPPORTUNITIES RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PROGRAM AREAS AND RECOGNIZED PRIORITIES The proposed six major program areas evolved from the Board on Agriculture's general considera- tions; from its review of the priorities identified by the Joint Council for Food and Agricultural Sciences, the National Agricultural Research Committee (NARC) of the National Association of State Universities and Land-Grant Colleges, and other organizations; and from its review of pertinent Board on Agriculture and National Research Councilreports. Table S.8 summa- rizes the six major program areas proposed here, current USDA competitive grants program research areas, and the priorities identified by NARC. Table 5.9 lists the six major program areas proposed here, the major research objectives of the Agricultural Research Service (ARS), and funding for those re- search objectives in fiscal year (FY) 1988. Appendix D contains detailed information on the priorities iden- tified by all these organizations, agencies, and com- mittees. The comparisons in Tables 5.8 and 5.9 show that the proposed six majorprogram areas fully encompass the priorities identified by state agricultural experi- ment station research planners and are consonant with the program areas of ARS and with CRGO's current programs, simplifying the transition in program management from the current to the expanded pro- gram. It is important to note that several research needs relate to or could fall within two or more major program areas. For example, physical studies of soil moisture and instrument capabilities in relation to plant physiology and crop response models could be in the areas of plant systems; natural resources and the environment; or engineering, products, and processes. Studies on animal biochemistry, physiology, and endocrinology related to fat end protein metabolism- and thus to nutritionally improved food products with lower fat and cholesterol levels and reduced levels of sodium-could either be in the animal systems or nutrition, food quality, and health program areas. Research on physical and chemical properties of bio- polymers- as it applies topotentialnew uses forbasic commodities such as corn, starch, wood fiber, soy- beans, and animal fat-could eitherbe in the engineer- ing, products, and processes or markets, trade, and policy program areas, with secondary input from the plant systems and animal systems program areas. Because the six proposed program areas encom 81 pass the entire agricultural, food, and environmental system, they could be useful when specific new re- search, education, and extension programs are being considered. A proposed new activity couldbeconsid- ered in relation to one or more program areas; a determination could then be made as to how the activity fits with current emphases in the area. In that way, a comprehensive, integrated organization of specific program activities could evolve. RELATIONSHIPS AMONG THE SIX MAJOR PROGRAM AREAS, SCIENTIFIC DISCIPLINES, AND NATIONAL PRIORITIES A key feature of this proposal is to provide strong opportunities and incentives to bring into the agricul- tural, food, and environmental research system all scientists working in relevant disciplines, including, among others, biology, chemistry, physics, engineer- ing, the various disciplines of biomedicine, and the en- vironmental and social sciences. At present, there are few and, for some disciplines, no-opportunities to contribute to agricultural, food, and environmental research needs. A second feature of this proposal is to ensure that scientists who are part of the traditional agricultural research disciplines have an opportunity to participate fully in the proposed expanded grants program. These disciplines include, among others, agricultural eco- nomics, agricultural engineering, agronomy, animal science, entomology, fisheries and wildlife, forestry, genetics, horticultural science, Hematology, plant pathology, plant science, soil science, and veterinary . · . mea~c~ne. The traditional agricultural sciences have always drawn from the fundamental and basic sciences, and they have effectively used applicable principles and research methodologies. Reciprocally, research in various agricultural areas has contributed significantly to fundamental understanding such as in the biology of photosynthesis, cytogenetics, mammalian repro- duction, hydrology, microbiology, and antibiotics, to name just a few areas. A major purpose of this proposal is to ensure that the links between the funda- mental sciences and agriculture remain strong and, indeed, increase. The potential involvement of seven basic science categories in agricultural, food, and environmental research is illustrated below. Examples of several scientific and engineering disciplines for each cate
82 INVESTING IN RESEARCH TABLE 5.8 Proposed Competitive Grants Program Major Areas, Current Competitive Research Grants Office Program Areas, and National Agricultural Research Committee National Priorities Proposed Program Area Current CRGO Research NARC National Priontiesa Plant systems Animal systems Nutrition, food, quality, and health Natural resources and the environment Engineering, products, None and processes Markets, trade, None and policy Plant science (18.0)6 Pest science (2.0) Biotechnology (portion of 19.0) Animal science (6.0) Biotechnology (portion of 19.0) Human nutrition (1.0) Stratospheric ozone (3.7) Plant genetic improvement, new uses's improved pest control, forest productivity,C and plants for urban environments Animal efficiency, new uses,C and animal health and disease Food quality enhancement and food, diet, and health Water quality and quantity, sustaining soil produc- tivity, land use, range production, forest productivity's and ecosystem impacts of atmos- pheric deposition New uses,C energy efficiency, and advanced electronics and decision aids Integrating agricultural technologies, marketing, policy and global markets, and rural families and communities aAnother NARC priority area, biotechnology, encompasses plant productivity, plant disease resistance, nutritional quality of plants, biological control of pests, biologically active matenals, diagnostic and immunologic products, animal disease resistance, animal development and productivity, and impacts of biotechnology. Other cross-cutting issues, like sustainable agriculture and foundations of com- petitiveness, could fall within several major program areas, depending upon the specific focus of the proposed research. See Appendix D for a more complete description of the 21 NARC priority initiatives and objectives. Values in parentheses are FY 1989 appropriations in millions of dollars. A total of $19.0 million for biotechnology was divided between plant and animal science. CPnorigr area that falls within more than one major program area. gory and examples of possible research themes are also given. 1. Physical Sciences: Chemistry, physics, mathe- matics, geology, climatology, and atmospheric sci- ences. Research on basic chemical and physical properties and processes; energy flows in natural systems; chemical reactions and interactions; physics of transport through porous media; and design of new materials and processes. 2. Molecular and Cellular Biology: Biochemis- try, genetics, cell biology, physiology (plant arid ani- mal), endocrinology, and immunology. Research on genome structure and function; genetic markers for disease diagnosis, epidemiology, and genetic improve- ment and ecological effects; biochemical and genetic
PROGRA*! AREAS AND SCIENTIFIC OPPORTUNITIES basis of agriculturally implant traits; cellular and biochemical basis of host-pathogen interactions; mechanisms of gene expression; and chromosome structure, replication, cell division, and genetic re- combination. 3. Developmental and Organismal Biology: Microbiology and virology, developmental biology (plant and animal), plant biology, pathology (plant and animal), neurobiology and behavior, and limnol- ogy. Research on the health and performance of total organisms; nutrient and physiological needs in grow- ing plants and animals; and genetic transfer methods for reproductive improvement. 4. EnvironmentalBiology and Ecology: Ecosys- tems research, population biology, hydrology, envi- ronmental biophysics, soil physics and chemistry, and wildlife and aquatic sciences. Research related to the health and performance of wild and managed ecosys- tems; soil microbiology and rhizosphere dynamics; short- and long-term interactions between agricultural and forestry production practices and natural resources, aquatic habitats, soil, water, and wildlife; genetic stability of populations (both natural and genetically 83 altered); population dynamics, genetics, biochemis- try, and physiology of pathogens and pests; interac- tions among agricultural systems, soil systems, and water systems; and the fate (and consequences for ecosystems) of natural and synthetic toxins associated with agriculture and forestry. 5. Biomedical and Related Sciences: Nutrition, epidemiology, veterinary medicine, and medical sci- ences. Research focusing on the interactions among food, diet, and health; opportunities to reduce the incidence of cardiovascular disease and certain can- cers by modifying foods; detection and control of foodborne pathogens; and reduction of nutritional deficiencies and excesses in special human popula- tions. 6. Engineering and Information Systems: Bioen- gineering and chemical engineering, biostatistics, operations research, computer science, environmental and civil engineering, agricultural engineering, and electrical and mechanical engineering. Research and engineering applications of advanced electronics in robotics, quality control systems, diagnostic probes and sensors, and instrumentation; expert systems for TABLE 5.9 Proposed Competitive Grants Program Major Areas, ARS Major Program Areas, and ARS Funding, FY 1988 ARS Funding, FY 1988 Proposed (in millions of Areas ARS Program Area dollars) Plant systems Productivity and quality-crop 183.9 Animal systems Productivity and quality animal 182.3 Nutrition, food quality, Human health and well-being 42.0 and health Natural resources Natural resources- management 56.5 and environment Engineering, products, Agricultural products 88.9 and processes domestic and export Markets, trade, and None policK None Scientific knowledge systems 11.8 Total 565.4 Research in this area is undertaken by USDA's Economic Research Service.
84 making decisions about farm management, modeling growth, and studying the consequences of alternative policy options; remote sensing of irrigation needs, fertilizer needs, or plant nutrient deficiencies; robot- ics; and techniques for assessing the quality and prop- erties of foods and forest products. 7. SocialSystemsandPolicy:Anthropology,social and behavioral sciences, law, sociology (including demography and rural sociology), business admini- stration, marketing, political science, and economics (including agricultural economics). Analysis of mar- kets, trade, economics, technology, and policy; the sociology of decisionmaking on farms and by con- sumers; cultural and anthropological trends, conse- quences, and causes; effects of demographic change; the information and technology transfer process; and methods of assessing the costs and consequences of policy options. SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY BUDGET PRIORITIES The legislative and executive branches of the fed- eral government face special difficulties in establish- ing priorities for allocating funds for research. Sci- ence and technology budget requests and recommen- dations are made on behalf of many different pro- grams and agencies; some requests address mission agency needs, whereas others focus on advancing science in particular areas. Although science and technology programs collectively constitute a major public investment, opportunities in the budges process of either the executive or the legislative branch to assess the overall adequacy, focus, and balance of this multifarious investment are limited. To help address this problem, the budget committees of the U.S. Congress used the FY 1989 budges resolution to seek assistance from the National Academy of Sciences (NAS), the National Academy of Engineering (NAE), and the Institute of Medicine (IOM). The three acade- mies were asked to provide the following (U.S. Con- gress, House, 1988~: . . . advice on developing an appropriate institutional framework and information base for conducting cross-program development and review of the nation's research and development programs. Ibis [framework] should be structured in such a way that it can be used by both the Executive Branch and Congress as a method for reviewing program contents and strategies and in determining funding and organizational priorities for science and technology. INVESTING IN RESEARCH The academies responded by forming a committee to review the budges process end produce a report. The report issued in December 1988, highlighted four categories for policymakers to use in evaluating sci- ence and technology budget requests (National Acad- emy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and Institute of Medicine, 1988~. These categories are not mutually exclusive; a given R&D program can serve multiple objectives and thus fit into more than one category. By considering the distribution of R&D funding in teens of these categories, individuals and agencies involved in the budget process may identify possible needed adjustments in science and technol- ogy budget priorities. The four basic categories are as follows: 1. the science and technology activities of individ- ual agencies in relation to their own missions; 2. the aggregate contribution of several agencies to the science and technology base of the nation, a base that includes fundamental research, the supporting infrastructure, and the continued production of scien- tists and engineers; 3. the contribution of science and technology ac- tivities (frequently supported by several agencies) to national objectives to which the President, the Con- gress, or both have given priority (e.g., industrial competitiveness, environmental protection, and pre- vention and treatment of the acquired immune defi- ciency syndrome [AIDS]~; and 4. major science and technology initiatives that attract attention in any budget year primarily because of their cost and budgetary consequences for other science and technology activities across agencies (e.g., a superconducting supercollider or a space station). Responding to USDA's Missions In evaluating science and technology priorities, policymakers should first assess an agency's science and technology activities in relation to the agency's own mission needs and responsibilities. For USDA, the intramural research program of the ARS is gener- ally adequate in this respect, as evidenced by ARS's many cooperative agreements with over USDA mis- sion agencies (see Appendix A) and by the clear relevance of ongoing ARS research to the primary science and technology questions USDA faces. Within the executive branch's budget review process, the need for resources to support ARS research on behalf
PROGRAM AREAS AND SCIENTIFIC OPPORTUNITIES of mission agency programs is recognized and gener- ally responded to. What is lacking, however, is a similarly effective federal funding mechanism to attract academic scien- tists in areas related to ongoing ARS research and to cross-cutting science and technology needs that per- tain to the overlapping responsibilities of several agencies. In a limited number of cases, academic scientists conduct research under contract to, or con- sullwith,USDAmissionagencies,butthefull strength of the scientific and engineering communities is not engaged. A broadened, adequately funded USDA competi- tive grants program would largely remedy this situ- ation. Scientists and administrators from USDA mission agencies would likely participate in competi- tive grants program advisory committees, planning activities, and peer review panels; and agency scien- tists possibly in conjunction with academic col- leagues and collaborators would compete for sup- port through the program. Strengthening the Science and Technology Infrastructure The second category for policymakers to use in evaluating science and technology priorities is whether research has the potential to help strengthen the na- tion's technology base. Despite modest funding since its inception in 1978, USDA's competitive grants program has illustrated the program's potential for broadening the nation's overall science and engineering infrastructure. Nev- ertheless, the USDA competitive grants program has not fulfilled even a small portion of that potential, nor has it brought about an adequate network of active linkages and partnerships involving food and agricul- tural scientists and the broader scientific community. It is simply too small. Fortunately, other USDA and state-funded science and technology activities such as the state agricultural experiment stations have contributed steadily and strongly to the naiion's scientific infrastructure for agriculture and food. Land-grant universities are major centers for higher education and conduct exten- sive, vital, long-term research programs across the full spectrum of science and engineering disciplines. Other public and private universities do so to the limited extent permitted by funding, but they a have much greater capacity to influence the agricultural, food, 85 and environmental system if the support and incen- tives are in place. As Chapters 2 and 3 explained, the shortcomings in USDA's competitive grants program will be largely eliminated if the number of scientists and engineers who can participate in the program is substantially increased; if the average size of grant per principal investigator is doubled; if the average duration of grants is extended, if new program areas in natural resources and the environment; engineering, prod- ucts, and processes; and markets, trade, and policy are developed; and if new types of grant~multidiscipli- nary team grants and research-strengthening grants- are offered. Moreover, a $500 million increase in funding would constitute a sizable investment in a broadened science and technology base. It would also be a clear signal to the science community that agricultural, food, and environmental science and technology are important to the nation's well-being. The reaffirmation of the national importance of agriculture could be among the most significant long-term benefits of the expanded program. Targeting National Priorities The third category of priorities identified in the academies' science and technology budget report of NAS, NAE, and IOM (1988) described above in- volves science and technology that will help achieve national objectives. The President's FY 1990 budget request includes two sizable increases for USDA research efforts ad- dressing major national needs. The competitive grants program budget request includes a second year of funding for research on the effects of change in strato- spheric ozone levels ($3.7 million appropriated in the FY 1989 budget,$7.4 million requested for FY 1990~; and following a govemment-wide review of water quality issues and research needs led by the Office of Management and Budget, $13.9 million in additional funding (nearly a 30 percent increase over the FY 1989 program level) has been proposed for USDA water quality research activities. Supporting Major Science and Technology Initiatives The fourth category identified by the report of NAS, NAE, and IOM (1988) is major initiatives of
86 unusual scale and character that would, if funded, invariably reduce the funding available for other major initiatives and possibly for research overall. Contem- porary examples include the superconducting super- collider, the space station, and the human genome project. No single major, costly project in the agricultural, food, and environmental sciences is under serious consideration. Although plant and animal genome mapping activities are likely to expand markedly in the years ahead and will be among the science and technology priorities supported through the funding requested in this proposal, there are no currentrecom- mendations calling for a major and unusual commit- ment of funding to accelerate plant or animal genome mapping. The proposed expanded program involves a substantial increase in funding for agricultural, food, and environmental research, but it does not fit into this fourth category of science and technology activities because it is neither unusual nor distinct. WRESTING IN RESEARCH CONCLUSION An expanded USDA competitive grants program would provide a comprehensive and catalytic new mechanism for awarding federal support for science and technology activities relevant to agriculture (as it has been broadly defined in this proposal). In so doing, it would offer clear advantages in the following areas: · defining and pursuing high-priority science and technology projects of national significance carried out by mission agencies; · strengthening the breadth and quality of the na- tion's scientific infrastructure; and · responding to presidential and congressional priorities that reflect pressing national needs.
