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OCR for page 57
Program Areas and
Scientific Opportunities
Research has played a major role in the success of
U.S. and world agriculture. Advances in genetics and
applied mathematics have stimulated major progress
in plant breeding. Advances in microbiology have
accelerated the study and control of plant diseases.
Advances in endocrinology and reproductive biology
have led to healthier and more productive livestock.
Advances in electronics and materials science have
yielded developments in agricultural engineering and
food processing. Advances in computer science have
transformed record-keeping and decisionmaking on
many farms and throughout the agribusiness sector.
The pace of development of new scientific tools
dictates a renewal and expansion of the research effort
the nation commits to agriculture. The opportunities
to develop and deploy new knowledge in agriculture
are impressive and compelling. In particular, new
multidisciplinary research will have a major impact on
the future of agriculture. For example, neurobiology
and insect physiology will be combined to address
problems in pest control. Knowledge of photosynthe-
sis and protein chemistry will create more efficient
and environmentally safe herbicides to protect crops
from aggressive weeds. Economics and management
skills will be transformed by supercomputer technolo-
gies to allow farmers and merchants to make projec-
tions and shape trade decisions to meet specific needs.
Through the expanded program outlined in this
proposal, the agricultural, food, and environmental
research system can address the new problems con-
fronting the United States, including international
competitiveness, human health and well-being, and
natural resources and the environment.
57
PROGRAM AREAS
The U.S. Department of Agriculture's (USDA's)
Competitive Research Grants Office (CRGO) cur-
rently awards grants in three areas: (1) plant science,
(2) animal science, and (3) human nutrition. These
cover only a fraction of the broad program areas
relevant to agriculture. Program areas are needed that
would
encompass all research challenges in the agricul-
tural, food, and environmental system;
encourage participation by scientists in the full
range of disciplines that must be enlisted to meet the
challenges within each program area;
· reflect the programmatic challenges (and the
related economic, social, and environmental issues)
facing state and federal government agencies; farmers
and foresters; and food, fiber, and forest products
industries; and
advance scientific and problem-solving capa-
bilities.
To bring this about, this proposal has identified the
need for six major program areas: (1) plant systems;
(2) animal systems; (3) nutrition, food quality, and
health; (4) natural resources and the environment; (5)
engineering,products, andprocesses; and (6) markets,
trade, and policy.
Descriptions of some of the scientific opportunities
that fall under the six program areas follow.
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58
PLANT SYSTEMS
Research across the broad range of plant sciences
from biochemistry to ecosystem studies will contrib-
ute to improvements in plant productivity for the
1990s and beyond. Table 5.1 lists some of the special-
ized research areas in plant science and gives ex-
amples of how they relate to practical and potential
applications. Subsequent sections identify some
examples of the research needs and opportunities for
improving plant productivity.
Genetics and Diversity
The ability of plant breeders to breed crop plants
and forest trees with specific desirable traits is en-
hanced by knowing the behavior of plant genes.
Molecular biology has expanded the range and power
of methods available to plant breeders. Researchers
are beginning to work out detailed genetic maps for
some plant species, which will be valuable for many
applications. Equally important is the ability to iden-
tify specific genes as molecules a sequence of DNA.
When genes can be identified and isolated as a mole-
cule of DNA, they can be transferred into plants by
recombinant DNA techniques. In other instances, the
gene might be used as a probe to find neighboring
genes and to study how the plant's expression of genes
is regulated.
The development of restriction fragment length
polymorphisms WHELP) and transposon tagging sys-
tems are two examples of how the technology of
working with genetic traits at the molecular level has
rapidly advanced. High-resolution mapping of plant
genomes can now be done with RFLPs, which exploit
subtle differences in the DNA sequences that can be
correlated with the presence of specific genetic traits.
With RFLP technology, a breeder can verify the
inheritance of a trait in DNA taken from a small piece
of tissue, such as a seed or seedling. This technology
aids in decisionmaking, for example, by decreasing
the size of a population that must be grown to maturity
to test whether a trait will be expressed in mature
plants. RFLP mapping is possible for any crop plant.
Further refinements of this technique will do much to
improve speed end accuracy in plans breeding. RFLPs
can also be used to evaluate and monitor the parentage
and diversity of crop varieties.
Another advance is the use of transposon tagging
systems. A transposon is an easily identified sequence
WRESTING IN RESEARCH
.
of DNA that is capable of infrequently "jumping" or
relocating its position within the genome. In one
application, if a transposon relocates by inserting
itself within another gene, the insertion disrupts the
expression of that gene. When expression of a trait is
affected by a transposon insertion, the gene control-
ling that trait can be isolated, because the transposon
identifies the gene. Naturally occurring aansposons
have been characterized in a few plant species, but
recent work has demonstrated that functional trans-
posons can be introduced into other crop plants using
recombinant DNA technology. Transposons can be
used in conjunction with RELP technology to mark
nearby genetic Wits without disrupting gene expres-
sion.
Plant Developmental Biology
The regulation of plant development affects plant
yield and plant quality. Modelers, geneticists, ecolo-
gists, and other plant scientists can identify many
aspects of plant growth and structure that contribute to
yield and quality. Despite this knowledge, the regula-
tion of plant development remains poorly understood.
Little is known about the genes that regulate develop-
ment, the factors that control gene expression, or the
specific sites in plant tissues where the genes are
expressed. The regulation of plant developmental
features such as branching patterns, formation of
tubersorroots, the onset end termination of dormancy,
induction of flowenng, reproductive incompatibility,
fruit development, ripening, and senescence remains
to be characterized. Advances in these areas are now
possible and can contribute to more powerful manipu-
lations to improve plant performance in ways hereto-
fore not possible.
The environmental regulation of endogenous plant
hormones is an undeveloped area in terms of plant
productivity and quality, despite the many empirical
studies of the effects of exogenous hormones on a
variety of processes associated with plant productiv-
ity. An increased understanding of hormone action
could lead to the ability to grow crops and forest trees
profitably under unfavorable soil or climatic condi-
tions, or to raise the maximum economic yield. An
understanding of hormone action will necessitate
further research on receptors, metabolism, the mecha-
nisms hormones use to regulate plant processes, and
the mechanisms that allow the environment to influ-
ence the activity of plant hormones.
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PROGRAM AREAS AND SCIENTIFIC OPPORTUNITIES
TABLE 5.1 Relationship between Science Areas and Practical Developments that
Contribute to Plant Productivity
59
Scientific Areas
Areas of Practical or Potential Application
Molecular and cellular
Gene structure
Gene expression
Complex genetic systems
Primary metabolism
Secondary metabolism
Photosynthesis
Cell division
Cell wall deposition
Signal transduction
Organismal
Reproduction
Florigenesis
Fruit and seed development
Embryogenesis (zygotic,
somatic)
Regulation of growth
Germination and vigor
Senescence
Heterosis
Environmental
S tress -environmental
physiology
Water relations
Soil chemistry-fertility
Microbe-plant interactions
Invertebrate-plant
interactions
Population genetics
Ecology, plant-plant
interactions
Systems analysis
Plant breeding systems, control of plant protein synthesis
Nutritional quality, crop yield, pest and disease resistance
Grafting scion and rootstock
Quality, industrial products, yield, nutritional value
Drugs, disease resistance, pest resistance
Weed control, crop yield
Plant architecture
Fiber production, food texture
Breeding systems, disease resistance, reproduction
Advanced breeding systems, harvest index
Yield, agronomic performance, harvest index
Yield, postharvest, seed quality
Seed quality, gene transfer techniques
Vigor, harvest index, yield
Stand establishment
Postharvest quality
Yield
Yield, crop loss reduction, environmental synchrony and genetic
improvement
Drought tolerance, costs of production, tolerance of wet soils and humid
. .
cone Tons
Yield, crop quality, environmental quality
Biological nitrogen fixation, yield, more efficient use of chemical pesti-
cides, disease resistance
Crop management, disease prevention, pest control
Insect pest and pathogen control, genetic diversity
Weed control, disease and pest control
Operations research Modeling of farming systems, stochastic optimization for use in decision
making aids
Resource economics Assessment of environmental externalities, matching land use to soil and
climate
Production economics Economically optimum rates of input use
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60
Energy, Carbon Metabolism, and Minerals
Plants are the source of many complex organic
molecules used in commerce and industry. Their
leaves and roots have large surface areas that absorb
and accumulate resources, including solar energy,
water, and minerals. Plants concentrate energy re-
serves and nutrients and form the foundation of the
food chain for almost all life on earth. Photosynthesis
converts solar energy to chemical energy, feeding the
plant's metabolic machinery to produce an extensive
variety of organic molecules. Energy is also used to
take up mineral elements selectively and concentrate
them in amounts necessary for life processes.
Studies on photosynthetic energy conversion yield
insights on how to improve the effectiveness of plants
in harvesting solar energy. For example, differences
in carbon metabolism between C3 plants (such as
wheat and soybeans) and C4 plants (such as corn and
sugarcane) are responsible for the large differences in
photosynthetic efficiency when the availability of
water and carbon dioxide is limiting. Studies in plant
biochemistry and carbon metabolism disclose the
diversity of harvestable products that plants can pro-
duce and the pathways that regulate the partitioning of
photosynthate between edible and nonedible parts of
the plant.
Plant and Pest Interactions
Continued heavy dependence on chemical control
of insect pests, plant pathogens, and weeds will lead to
environmental and health problems as well as future
pest control problems because of the establishment of
pesticide-resistant pest populations and secondary
pests.
Research on host-pest relationships provides the
basis for more efficient, long-lasting pest control
strategies. Such strategies include the use of biologi-
cal control agents to attack pest populations, methods
for assessing and predicting when pest damage will
reach an economic threshold and when pesticide use
would be most effective, and approaches for provid-
ing hostplants with pest-resistant baits thatcan reduce
the selection pressure favoring resistance.
Plants possess a broad range of genetic, structural,
and chemical defenses that protect them from attack
by plant pathogens and predators. Despite consider-
able research on plant responses to pathogens and
pests, the specific mechanisms of the plant defense
response are still not clear. In some cases, plant
WRESTING IN RESE - CH
defenses appear to be analogous to general responses
to many biotic, environmental, and chemical stresses,
including the amount of water, the level of salinity,
and the presence of heavy metals. Others are highly
specific to a particular interaction. In most cases, a
better understanding of the biological and genetic
basis of plant resistance to pathogens will enhance
scientists' abilities to control diseases without nega-
tive environmental consequences.
Ecology and Plant Populations
Farming, rangeland, and forestry practices impose
major forces of change upon natural ecosystems. A
better understanding and characterization of the
components of different ecosystems and the factors
important in stabilizing them will lead to more effec-
tive management of farmlands, rangelands, and for-
estlands. Study of the similarities and differences be-
tween natural and managed ecosystems will reveal the
relative importances of genetic diversity; He role of
beneficial and pest organisms in plant productivity;
and the long-term stability of fann, range, and forest
ecosystems.
Tropical ecosystems are of global concern. The
enormous biological diversity that is characteristic of
tropical ecosystems includes genetic traits for the
synthesis of many novel compounds with biological
activity for antibiotic, antiviral, pesticidal, and other
chemical defense mechanisms. Those gene pools
could be lost forever if tropical ecosystems are de-
stroyed. Tropical ecosystems also play a major role in
modulating global weather patterns and atmospheric
conditions. As understanding evolves of the factors
contributing to the so-called greenhouse effect, it is
likely that tropical regions will become critical man-
agement zones.
Waste Management
The soil rhizosphere (soil near root surfaces) is a
region of complex decomposition and nutrient recy-
cling processes. It is in this zone that the activity of
microorganisms and the release of minerals and nutri-
ents play key roles in plant health and nutrition. The
microbial population in the rhizosphere is large, di-
verse, and active. Microbes are important in the
breakdown of organic matter and the release of miner-
alsandnutrients for uptake by roofs. Toxic wastes can
be deactivated or decomposed by these microorgan-
isms.
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PROGRAM AREAS AND SCIENTIFIC OPPORTUNITIES
Some soil microbes are plant pathogens; some are
biocontrol agents that protect plant roots from patho-
gens end pests. Others, such as the mycorrhizal fungi,
play an important role in nutrient mobilization for
plants. The potential exists for manipulation of natu-
ral soil microorganisms by genetic engineering to
enhance their ability to remove toxic wastes, to use
organic matter, to fix atmospheric nitrogen, and to
. . .
Increase c 1sease suppression.
Plant Production Economics
New developments in plant genetics, pest control,
and agronomic practices are widely implemented and
accepted only if they provide farmers a clear-cut
economic advantage. Economic factors are a signifi
cant component of plant productivity as global mar
kets become more competitive and open. Research in
plant production economics is needed to determine
both economically optimum levels of input use and the
productivity and profitability of various farming sys
tems. Input use, productivity, and profitability are
particularly important under marginal growing condi
tions. Economic analyses can also help identify prob
lem areas in farming systems, for example, by evalu
ating the economic threshold of pesticide application
to control pests. Economic analyses can be a useful
step in targeting research in other areas. Research on
the benefits of alternative farming and forestry sys
tems and on the economic advantages and disadvan
tages of specialization or diversification of crops under
different conditions is also important in formulating
efficient and effective farm, conservation, and regula
. .
tory policies.
ANIMAL SYSTEMS
Research across a broad range of animal science
areas from biotechnology to animal farming systems
will contribute to future developments in animal pro-
ductivity. Table 5.2 lists some of the specialized
research areas in animal science and how they relate to
practical and potential applications. The sections that
follow discuss more specific examples of research
needs and opportunities.
Cellular Growth and Development
Because early growth in animals often determines
subsequent performance, a better understanding is
61
needed of the developmental biology of productive
tissues, including mammary glands, muscle, and fat.
Research will involve studies of the biological control
of homeostasis and of the state of equilibrium of the
body's processes when other factors override the
body's tendency to maintain a steady state (during
lactation, for example).
Research on the mechanisms controlling energy
and resource allocation in animal growth are also
important. Future research will include genetic and
nongenetic approaches to the partitioning of nutrients
into various productive functions such as fetal devel-
opment, muscle growth, fattening, and milk and egg
production. As scientists gain a better understanding
of those mechanisms, there will be new techniques to
partition nutrients toward more desirable functions,
such as increasing the proportion of lean to fat tissue
or altering the saturated fatty acid profile of certain
animal products.
A challenge to scientists working on the production
and processing of animal food products is reducing the
level of cholesterol or cholesterol-forming compo-
nents in animal products. In the case of meatand milk,
decreasing the amount of fat is clearly helpful in
reducing cholesterol levels in humans.
Genetics and Reproduction
The new embryo biotechnologies of gene transfer,
in vitro production, cloning, and determination of the
sex of embryos have been developed and are being
refined for practical use in animals. Development of
efficient in vitro systems for maturing oocytes and
sperm and for fertilizing and developing embryos has
resulted in the commercial in vitro production of
embryos. Cloning of embryos by nuclear transfer has
been accomplished for sheep, cattle, pigs, and rabbits.
The ability to select for males or females in sperm or
embryos by using a specific antibody or other tech-
niques could greatly improve the efficiency of many
animal production systems.
Before transgenic animals of value can be devel-
oped, researchers must know which genes to intro-
duce. Transgenic embryos or offspring have been
produced from mice, rats, rabbits, chickens, fish,
sheep, swine, and cattle. Genes can be targeted for
expression in specific tissues, but more efficient meth-
ods and a better understanding of the genes to be
transferred are needed. Researchers need to gain an
understanding of the genes influencing animal growth;
efficiency of growth; environmental adaptation; meat,
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62
INVESTING IN RESEARCH
TABLE 5.2 Relationship between Animal Science Research Areas and Practical Developments That
Contribute to Animal Productiona
Scientific Areas
Areas of Practical or Potential Application
Molecular and cellular
Gene expression
Heterosis
Biochemistry
Physiology
Metabolism
Virology
Immunology
Pharmacology
Organizational
Reproduction
Embryology
Growth
Microbiology
Pathology
Lactation physiology
Meat sciences
Biometry
Environmental
Production, quality, efficiency
Efficiency, production
Efficiency, disease control
Production, quality, efficiency
Efficiency, quality
Disease prevention
Efficiency, disease control
Disease control
Germplasm selection, production, efficiency
Gene transfer and selection
Quality, efficiency
Disease control, forage utilization, product safety
Disease prevention, control
Milk production, efficiency
Quality, further processing, marketing
Efficiency, selection
Population genetics Breeding stock, efficiency, quality, production
Parisitology Parasite control, efficiency
Nutrition Disease control, production, efficiency, quality
Behavior Animal care, efficiency, disease control
Systems analysis
Facilities Production, efficiency, disease control
Engineering Sanitation, animal care, feed processing
Management Production, efficiency, disease control
Profitability Economic impacts of management systems, new technology
aProduciion refers to the yield of animal products such as mimic, meat, eggs, and wool.
milk, or egg composition; and animal disease resis-
tance.
Molecular Basis of Disease
Many of the disease problems in food-producing
animals do not cause premature death but do reduce
productivity and efficiency. The incidence of sub-
clinical disease (such as mastitis in dairy cows, viral
pneumonia in swine, and leukosis in poultry), respira-
tory diseases, immune derangements (such as arthri
tis), and nutritional and metabolic imbalances in all
classes of animals needs to be better understood and
documented. Their effects on production characteris-
tics, behavior, and genetics should be assessed.
Along with the traditional disciplines, new tech-
nologies such as those that use recombinant DNA and
monoclonal antibodies now afford an opportunity to
understand, detect, identify, and control many animal
diseases. Diseases can be controlledby a combination
of procedures, including vaccination, enhancement of
the immune response, vector control, diagnosis, and
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PROGRA~f AREAS AND SCIENTIFIC OPPORTUNITIES
therapy. New generations of antibiotics and pharma-
ceutical agents to increase animal productivity are on
the immediate horizon. Study and characterization of
infectious agents at the molecular level can lead to
improvements in all these approaches to disease con-
trol. Research will likely focus on the genetics of the
immune system in different animal species, the genes
controlling virulence traits of diseases and parasites,
and the use of hybridoma technology to develop
highly specific monoclonal antibodies for use in dis-
ease treatment and diagnostic procedures.
Uses of Animal Wastes
A major area of new research will undoubtedly be
in the science of waste management. Water and soil
contamination from waste resulting from intensive
animal production systems is the major environmental
problem faced by some producers. Research directed
toward the more efficient use of these wastes is criti-
cal. The nutritional value of some wastes may make
them useful as animal feed, as has been done experi-
mentally for over 25 years; other wastes should be
utilized as plant nutrients. However, the safety aspects
of these technologies are poorly understood, and more
practical methods are needed for handling and proc-
essing wastes. Innovative methods that reduce nutri-
ent losses when animal wastes are applied to the land
will help improve the economics of waste-based nutri-
ent sources and will emerge as key components of
many future low-input, sustainable agricultural sys-
tems. Other uses of waste should be developed,
including use for fermentation products and for en-
ergy-based products such as ethanol and methane.
Animal wastes also have potential value for use in
hydroponics and aquaculture systems.
Animal Production Systems and Economics
In animal production systems, complex interac-
tions arise from breed selection, housing systems, the
selection of feed, and disease prevention programs.
These interactions greatly influence animal health and
performance, the economics of production systems,
and in some cases, the safety of food products. A
systems approach to research is vital to take into
account these interactions and to recognize their full
impact on profitability following selection of tech-
nologies and other management decisions.
Two factors suggest that there is increased reliance
on grass- and forage-based production systems in the
63
beef industry. To meet nutritional goals, consumers
are seeking leaner animal products. This will mean
that leaner animals will be marketed at lower weights
and producers will limit the time that animals spend in
feedlots consuming high-energy, grain-based rations
to gain weight and fat.
Emphasis in recent farm legislation on soil erosion
control and cropping pattern diversification might
increase the supply of available forages and thus lower
the cost of feeding beef animals grass-based rations in
contrast to more costly feedstuffs.
Sorting out these factors and determining how to
respond to them at all stages in the industry are
complicated tasks. Much improved production eco-
nomics models, data, and analytical methods will be
essential, as will the ability to estimate the effects of
changes in government policies.
NUTRITION, FOOD QUALITY, AND
HEALTH
This program area encompasses all of the topics
relating to human nutrition, food quality, and human
health. Therelationships between nutrition and human
health and among nutrition, food science, and food
technology are not always clear; indeed, the research
needs and opportunities are often multidisciplinary in
their coverage and complexity. Nonetheless, rela-
tively clear delineations are used in this section for
purposes of illustration. Table 5.3 lists several of the
scientific areas that contribute to nutrition and food
science and technology and gives examples of how
they relate to some practical and potential applica-
tions. All the research activities discussed in the
following sections are being undertaken in rapidly
changing areas of science. Interaction across disci-
plines is essential to ensure that scientists incorporate
the latest findings and techniques from fields such as
molecular biology, genetics, physiology, microbiol-
ogy, biochemistry, medicine, immunology, chemical
engineering, analytical chemistry, electrical engineer-
ing, agricultural engineering, economics, psychology,
and other social sciences.
New Dimensions of Nutritional and
Food Sciences
The "new" nutritional and food sciences continue
to adhere to traditional roles as the interdisciplinary
link between the composition and quality of the food
supply and the effects of the food supply on the health
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64
INVESTING IN RESEARCH
TABLE 53 Relationship between Scientific Areas and Practical Developments That Contribute to Optimal
Nutrition, Safety, and Quality in Foods
Scientific Areas
Areas of Practical or Potential Application
Microbial genetics Biotechnology of starter cultures and food ingredients, DNA probes
Microbial physiology and Pathogen resistance, food fermentations, microbial control
metabolism or inactivation, mechanisms of pathogenicity, food spoilage mecha
nisms
Immunology DNA probes and antibody assays for pathogen or toxin detection, food
constituent analyses, food allergies
Toxicology Control of microbial pathogens and toxins; detection, removal, or neutrali
zation of chemical and microbial contaminants
Analytical biochemistry Rapid and automated analyses, food constituent interactions, physical and
chemical properties of foods
Protein, carbohydrate, and Structure-function mechanisms related to texture, flavor and
lipid chemistry color; changes due to microbial and chemical actions; influence of
physical-chemical processes on primary structure-function
Flavor chemistry Constituents influencing normal and abnormal flavor, human responses to
flavor compounds, differentiation between natural and artificial
flavors, flavor stability
Physical chemistry Interface phenomena in gels and emulsions, kinetics of food component
reactions, description of primary structure of food constituents
Nutritional biochemistry Nutrient bioavailability, nutrient stability in food processes, mechanisms
of nutrient utilization at the molecular and cellular levels
Clinical nutrition Diet-related disorders, nutritional requirements in disease, eating disorders
Epidemiology Disease-nutrient relationships in different populations, dietary practice and
changing food habits
Human physiology and Nutrient form-efficacy, nutrition and disease interactions, diet and
metabolism exercise, maternal nutrition, malnutrition, food allergies, sensory
perception in normal and disease states
Pediatrics and geriatrics Lifelong, age-related nutrient needs, lactating women and their infants,
nutrition and immune response
Process engineering Simulation and optimization of unit operations, processes and plants,
and control fluid flow, particulate transfer, extrusion
Package design Robot technology, biodegradable packaging materials, tamper-proof
packaging, quality maintenance
Mass and heat transfer Simulation of steady- and unsteady-state, semicontinuous, and continuous
unit operations; ultra-high-temperature-preserved or semipreserved
products
Equipment and Sensors and monitoring systems, real-time sensing of quality
instrumentation design attributes, nondestructive on-line measurements
Psychology Analysis and development of diet-relevant behaviors
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PROGRAMS AREAS AND SCIENTIFIC OPPORTUNITIES
and well-being of the U.S. population. However, a
revolution in the nutritional and food sciences is under
way because there have never been greater opportuni-
ties for the nutritional and food sciences to take advan-
tage of recent advances in modern biology and to
contribute to the well-being of the nation's popula-
tion. Mechanisms are being elucidated to identify
how individual nutrients and combinations of nutri-
ents influence genomic expression in humans, plants,
and animals and how these principles are transferable
between species. New connections between basic
science and production agriculture are being forged.
For example, the isolation and characterization of the
regulation of genes that are known to limit rates of
macronutrient metabolic pathways, such as the
phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase or liproprotein
lipase pathways, enable strategies and rationales to be
established for preparing transgenic plants and ani-
mals with enhanced production capabilities or with
more desirable nutrient compositions.
This combination of the nutritional and food sci-
ences with advances in biology and medicine permits
the establishment of multidisciplinary research teams
to address the entire spectrum of needs and opportuni-
ties, ranging from long-term fundamental research
(such as the molecular biology of fat metabolism and
deposition) to more applied studies (such as the effects
of food processing operations on nutrient availability
and food digestibility in the gut) and to studies of the
psychological and social factors influencing food and
choice of diet.
Food Contaminants and Microbial Hazards
The Centers for Disease Control in Atlanta, Geor-
gia, estimates that 6.5 million acute episodes of food-
borne disease occur annually in the United States and
that each year, more than 9,000 fatalities can be
associated with foodborne diseases. Table 5.4 lists
some of the causes of foodborne illness.
Although the United States enjoys perhaps the
safest, most abundant food supply in the world, the
potential for microbial, viral, and chemical contami-
nants in foods is ever present. Many genera ofbacteria
have been implicated as causes of foodborne disease,
either es toxicants or es infectious agents. Toxins from
naturally occurring fungi and molds and from other
sources are well recognized. A host of viruses can be
transmitted by food. As a result, there continues to be
concern over potential contaminants in the food sup-
ply. This concern influences both private behavior
65
and public policy. Part of this concern stems from the
dramatically improved analytical methodologies
available to regulatory agencies and the scientific
community.
There is both a pressing need and a number of
attractive, affordable opportunities to provide con-
sumers with even greater margins of safety in terms of
possible chemical or microbiological contamination.
Improved analytical methods can be used quickly and
inexpensively to identify and trace the source of micro-
organisms end contaminants in the food supply. DNA
probes and immunoassays are two technologies that
can be developed to detect vine or pathogenic micro-
organisms or their toxic constituents or by-products.
Similarly, specific and highly sensitive analytical
techniques and tools (gas and liquid chromatogra-
phies and mass spectrometry) are needed to determine
more precisely the presence and fate of chemical
contaminants and toxicants in raw materials and proc-
essed foods.
Basic scientific information and real-world data
would enable researchers to identify factors that influ-
ence the growth and survival of microorganisms within
ecological niches offood environments. Forexample,
research could focus on how plant and animal genetic
traits or management systems affect the presence of
microorganisms, viruses, or molds that can pose risks
to human health. Similarly, research could examine
the influence of chemical residues and drug-induced
metabolites in animals and animal products as they
relate to food safety.
Fundamental knowledge for controlling the growth
of microorganisms in foods will allow the develop-
ment of food processing and preservation strategies.
Such strategies might include combinations of proc-
essing methods (e.g., pasteurization, retorting, drying,
and freezing), manipulation of ingredient composi-
tion, packaging modifications, and enhancing popula-
tions of competitive microbial flora.
Part of the difficulty in identifying food-related
illnesses is that some diseases may require chronic
exposure and many years to manifest themselves
(such as aflatoxin-induced cancer). Thus, further
study is needed on issues relating food to specific
aspects of human health. This includes assessment of
new developments linking foodborne microorgan-
isms with chronic nervous system, circulatory, and
skeletal diseases not previously associated with gas-
trointestinal disorders, as well as examination of the
effects of malnutrition on the development and per-
formance of the human immune system. Overall,
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66
TABLE 5.4 Causes of Foodborne Illnesses
INVESTING IN RESEARCH
Food Origin Food Nonallergic Food Intolerances
Foodborne Infections Toxemias Allergies Caused by:
Caused by: Caused by: Caused by: Natural Products Chemicals
Bacteria Botulinum toxins Milk Lactose Sulfites
Salmonella spp. Staphylococcus Eggs Sucrose Nitntes
Shigella spp. enterotoxins Wheat Galactose Nitrates
Campylobacter spp. Escherichia cold Peanuts Gluten Monosodium
Escherichia cold enterotoxins Soybean Broad beans glutamate
Vibrio parahaemolyticus Verocytotoxins products (favism) Tartrazine dyes
Listeria rrronocytogenes Clostridium Nuts Laythyrus peas Benzoic acid
Yersinia spp. perfringens Fish (laythyrism) Organophosphates
Parasites toxins Shellfish Caffeine Oxalates
Trichinella Clostridium Other foods Theobromine Heavy metals
Toxoplasma di~cile toxins Histamine Mercury
Amoeba Bacillus cereus Tyramine Lead
Giardia enterotoxins Tryptamine Arsenic
Isosporia(Coccidia) Mushroom toxins Serotonin Copper
Cryptosporidia Fungaltoxins Phenylethylamine Aspartame
Viruses Ergot, myco- Solamine Butylated
Hepatitis A virus toxins Hydroxytoluene
Norwalk agent Trichothecenes Hydroxyanisole
Other Norwalklike Aflatoxins
viruses Puffer fish
Rotaviruses Tetrodotoxin
Adenovirusesa Ciguatoxins
As~ovirusesa Scromobroid fish
Echoviruses toxin
Snow mountain agent Shellfish saxitoxin
Cockle agent
Coxsackie B vin~ses
C~icivimsesa
aViruses that cause gastroententis and that may be foodbome.
SOURCE: From U.S. D~artment of Health and Human Services, U.S. Public Health Service. 1988. The Surgeon General's Report on
Nutriiion and Health.U.S. Public Health Service, U.S. Deparunent of Health and Human Services Publication No. 88-50210. Washington,
D.C.: U.S. Govemment Pnniing Office.
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PROGRAM AREAS AND SCIENTIFIC OPPORTUNITIES
research should focus on methods to identify and
evaluate food-associated risks.
Food Biotechnology
Biotechnology is not a new field in the food sector,
since humans have been adapting living systems for
the production of food for centuries. The use of more
recent biotechnology techniques, such as recombinant
DNA technology, enzyme and protein engineering,
plant and animal cell tissue culture, and biosensor
applications, will contribute to the increased effi-
ciency of production of special food and food ingredi-
ents, reduced production costs, enhanced nutritional
value, improved processing characteristics, and safer
and more convenient food products.
A fundamental understanding of the structure,
function, and regulation of genetic information at the
molecular level is needed for plants, animals, and
microorganisms important to the food supply in order
to harness the potential benefits of biotechnology.
Such information can be used to custom design foods
with improved nutritional, functional, and processing
characteristics: cereal with improved protein, amino
acid, and fiber components; oilseeds with more desir-
able saturated fatty acid profiles; and fresh produce
with improved flavor and storage qualities.
Other goals of food biotechnology research are
food starter cultures that produce natural preserva-
tives to extend shelf-life and ensure safety, modify fat
and reduce cholesterol or caloric content, enhance
digestibility of food components such as lactose in
fermented dairy products, and improve the efficiency
of fermentation used in food manufacturing. Cost-
effective alternatives to chemical additives in proc-
essed foods might be developed from natural ingredi-
ents through microorganism and tissue culture sys-
tems.
Food biotechnology research is also leading to
diagnostic tools (DNA probe and immunoassay tests)
and biosensors (enzyme-, cell-, or antibody-based
detection systems) that will more effectively ensure
the safety of raw ingredients and finished products and
that will improve the efficiency and economics of food
processing systems.
Research in food biotechnology can be directed
toward developing systems for the more efficient use
of food processing waste streams and toward convert-
ing the waste s~eam.s to val',e-~1fier1 or nonfat
products. This is increasingly important to help cover
the operational costs of food safety systems while, at
67
the same time, meeting environmental and water quality
protection goals.
Notwithstanding the major potential value of re-
combinant DNA technologies and other modern tech-
nologies such as irradiation for the food sector, it is
essential that development of the processes and prod-
ucts that use them be undertaken as carefully and
thoughtfully as possible. This is necessary for the
health and safety of both people and the environment.
Just as important is public acceptance of these tech-
nologies in light of some people's wariness of, even
aversion to, such technologies. The need for public
acceptance puts additional and interesting challenges
before the public and private research and develop-
ment (R&D) sectors to present and explain the re-
search and technologies lucidly before misapprehen-
s~on occurs.
Designing Foods for Optimal
Nutrition and Safety
As the The Surgeon General'sReport on Nutrition
andHealth states, "Good health does notalways come
easy" (U.S. Department of Health and Human Ser-
vices, U.S. Public Health Service,1988~. It also indi-
cates that diet prays apart in 5 of the 10 leading causes
of death (1,445,700, or 68 percent of the deaths in
1987~. About 34 million Americans are obese. Be-
tween 15 and 20 percent of older people are affected
by osteoporosis.
For the first time in many decades, a clear consen-
sus is emerging that the pattern in which the U.S.
population is voluntarily selecting and ingesting food
is significantly affecting the U.S. population's risk for
chronic disease. Two major reports on the relation-
ship of diet to health Diet and Health (National
Research Council, 1 989b) and The Surgeon General' s
Report on Nutrition and Health (U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services, U.S. Public Health Ser-
vice, 1988) have stressed the importance of institut-
ing changes in diet both by altering the composition of
the available diet and by promoting health-relevant
behaviors. Although the exact nature of the interac-
tion between the average U.S. diet and chronic disease
is still poorly understood, both of these reports have
deemed the scientific evidence sufficiently strong to
recommend reductions in the amount and the type of
fat in the diet, to stress the importance of complex
carbohydrates and fruits and vegetables, and to in-
crease the consumption of foods that can supply suf-
ficient calcium and iron.
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76
forests, and forest fire control policies-raise com-
plex technical issues that often must be resolved as
matters of public policy. Better scientific and im-
proved data on forestland and rangeland conditions
will not eliminate the need for difficult choices to be
made by the public sector, but they can help provide
decisionmakers and the public with a clearer sense of
the consequences of alternative choices.
New harvest, pest control, and reseeding technolo-
gies are needed for a range of forestland and rangeland
applications on both public and private lands. Future
practices should focus on the vital need to conserve the
biological productivity of rangeland and forestland
soils and on the susceptibility of forestland and range-
land ecosystems to degradation when they are mis-
managed or exploited too heavily.
Development of a Land Ethic
Increasing human pressures on natural resources
heighten the need for a renewed land stewardship
ethic. For the long-term maintenance of a clean and
productive natural environment, the factors shaping
public attitudes toward natural resources will need to
be identified; alternative systems to balance produc-
tion and conservation needs will need to be developed;
and the role of government in supporting stewardship
will need to be defined. The need to develop a land ste-
wardship ethic is described eloquently in Aldo Leo-
pold's (1968) book A Sarut County Almanac:
The first ethics dealt with the relation between individuals.
Later accretions dealt with the relation between individuals and
society. Ibe Golden Rule tries to integrate the individual to
society; democracy to integrate social organizations to the individ-
ual.
There is as yet no ethic dealing with man's relation to land and
the animals and plants that grow upon it.... The land-relation is
still strictly economic, entailing privileges but not obligations.
Me extension of ethics to this third element in the human en-
vironment is an evolutionary possibility and an ecological neces-
s~ty.
Identifying the changes in human behavior and
agricultural practices needed to meet the challenge of
resource stewardship raises complex questions.
Answers depend upon creative integration of several
disciplines as diverse as physics, anthropology, and
forest ecology. In addition, the key role of public
policies and institutions in shaping a land ethic and
I - ESTINC IN RESEARCH
helping individuals meet its mandate must be thought-
fully reassessed in the years ahead.
ENGINEERING, PRODUCTS, AND
PROCESSES
Engineering activities can be applied to the entire
agricultural, food, and environmental system. These
activities include providing conceptual frameworks
for systematic analysis of problems and questions
(both physical and biological); defining scientific and
technological questions by physical and mathematical
analyses; and designing usable physical (as well as
physical and biological) machines and systems to
serve useful purposes. The problems engineering
addresses range from those at the molecular and cellu-
lar levels to those at the level of large machinery.
The engineering research agenda is being trans-
formed by the major issues challenging agriculture
today. Key problems, and therefore opportunities, lie
in the areas of (1) water quality and water manage-
ment, (2) sensors, (3) computing and information sys-
tems management, (4) bioengineering, (5) bio-
processing, (6) innovation in equipment manufactur-
ing, and (7) production efficiency and resource con-
servation. Table 5.7 shows some of the relationships
between areas of engineering research and their prac-
tical or potential applications. The rate at which
progress is made, however, will depend on how effec-
tively people with engineering knowledge and re-
search skills are integrated into multidisciplinary teams
that include scientists trained in the physical sciences,
biology, mathematics, natural resources management,
and other disciplines.
Water Quality and Management
Water supply and water quality are clearly critical
to agriculture, forestry, and the nation. Eighty percent
of the water in the 48 contiguous states is in ground-
water aquifers, and nearly 70 percent of the water
withdrawn from these aquifers is used for irrigation.
This figure is even more striking when one considers
that irrigated land is less than 20 percent of the land
area under cultivation in the United States.
Water could be used more efficiently in agricul-
ture, and agriculture's adverse effects on water quality
could be lessened if soil-plant-air-water interactions
were better understood. A systems approach should
be used to consider the cost and availability of water,
irrigation methods, drainage requirements, crop fertil
_ ~. .
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PROCRA1~ AREAS AND SCIENTIFIC OPPORTUNITIES
TABLE 5.7 Relationship between Scientific Areas and Practical Applications in Engineering
77
Scientific Areas Areas of Practical or Potential Applications
Combustion Fuel efficiency, emissions, engine materials, biomass fuel
Computing systems Control systems, production and manufacturing efficiencies, systems analyses
Control systems Greenhouse environment, water quality, remote navigation
Corrosion Chemical handling equipment, aquatic system structures
Dynamics Transport damage to food, crop harvesting method
Electric power Time of use, impact of transmission lines
Electronics Sensors, communications, data acquisition
Expert systems System management, quality control
Fluid mechanics Irrigation, drainage, soil erosion, environmental control
Heat transfer Food processing, energy use efficiency
Human factors Worker safety, efficiency, stress
Hydrology Water flows and quality, erosion
Image processing Food quality evaluation, harvesting sensors, animal behavior
Information processing Crop or irrigation scheduling, artificial intelligence
Instrumentation Nondestructive tests, detection of contaminants
Manufacturing processes Computer-aided, customized, short-line manufacturing; plastics; composites
Materials science Package films, fluter membranes, abrasion resistance, sensors, bioengineering
Mass transfer Flavor migration, soil drainage, contaminant movement
Micrometeorology Environment control, growth modeling
Packaging Microenvironment control, tamper-proof and biodegradable packaging
Physical properties Relationship to quality, sensor development, failure criteria
Radiation Food preservation, inspection, analysis
Reaction kinetics Biotechnology, food and waste processing
Remote sensing Field, forest, and water resource evaluation; yield forecasting
Rheology Behavior of food concentrates
Robotics Harvesting and sorting mechanisms, equipment manufacturing, bioengineering
Systems analysis System modeling, optimization, economics, social impacts
Unit processes Bioengineering, bioprocessing
ity and pest control needs, the timing of field and
harvest operations, and methods to protect water
quality. Emphasis should be placed on improving
methods to predict the availability and application
efficiency of water. More accurate and practical in-
f~eld tools should be used to monitor and, when
necessary, to mitigate the contamination of water
r e s 0 u r c e s b y a g r i c u 1 t u ~ 1 a n d f 0 r e s t r y 0 p e r a t i 0 n s . B e t t e r
ways should also be found to measure the relatively
high degree of variability found in soil type, topogra-
phy, and plant cover and to incorporate that informa-
tion into management decisionmaking and in-f~eld
operations.
Sensors
Design engineering and management systems rely
on adequate information about how a production
process or system responds to its inputs. New
transducer and sensor developments will allow meas-
urements of a wide range of factors that influence the
production and processing of food products, including
moisture, chemical concentrations, pathogens, and
particulate concentrations in facilities and storage
structures. Sensors could also help monitor animal
behavior and well-being. Improved methods are
needed for measuring moisture content; fertility and
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78
filth of soils; and chemical compositions of forestry,
aquaculture, and agricultural materials. The develop-
ment of force and position transducer technologies
will allow continued progress in mechanization sys-
tems and robotics. Monitoring techniques to improve
operator deci sionmaking and to increase operator safety
and health will be increasingly important.
Computing and Information Management
Developments in sensors linked with advances in
computing capacity and convenience will be neces-
sary to achieve innovative applications throughout the
agricultural, food, and environmental system. How-
ever, developments in this area will depend on contin-
ued advances in understanding the fundamental physi-
cal and chemical processes relevant to the conditions
being monitored. Research mustfocus on understand-
ing the properties of materials and the physical and
biological factors governing effective production
processes. Improvements in information processing,
expert systems, and artificial intelligence for handling
the vast quantities of information will be obtained by
coupling reliable electronic instrumentation systems
such as biosensors with computing systems.
Bioengineering
Bioengineenng is the combination of engineering
science with biological materials into an integrated
specialty that goes beyond current biochemical and
related engineering specialties. For example, use of
this new specialty will help researchers understand the
surface and physical properties of cells so they can be
adsorbed onto solid-phase reactors and develop engi-
neered systems for embryo transfer, photosynthsis in
manufactured systems, estrus detection, both low- and
high-temperature biology, and delivery of engineered
organisms (such as encapsulation of genetically
modified seeds and their surrounding nutrients).
Bioprocessing
Bioprocessing is the processing, handling, and
reformulation of biological materials using engineered
biological systems. For example, anaerobic digesters
of manure wastes and cellulosic residues are bioreac-
tors that are used to convert the wastes, through
bioprocessing, into fuels. Similarly, bioreactors can
be developed to convert biological wastes into pro-
tein. Major fields in which bioprocessing has already
INVESTING IN RESEARCH
proved valuable, and will certainly prove even more
so in the future, are the production of alternative fuels
from wastes and other biological materials; the de-
composition of municipal, industrial, and agricultural
and food processing wastes; food processing and
engineering; and formulation of new products such as
biodegradable plastics.
Innovation in Equipment Manufacturing
The continued success of U.S. agriculture also
depends on access to efficient, reliable machines and
tools for carrying out soil, crop, harvesting, and prod-
uctprocessing activities. The equipment manufactur-
ing industry faces a number of problems labor costs
and the need to retool manufacturing plants, for ex-
ample for which it must seek engineering solutions.
Research on improved manufacturing processes such
as computer-aided design and manufacturing, nu-
merically controlled manufacturing, and just-in-time
manufacturing and advanced inventory management
systems will help. Changes in market demand for
equipment will need to be responded to more quickly,
particularly if U.S.-based industries are to remain
competitive internationally and regain a larger share
of the domestic market in small machinery. Equip-
ment that can be used for multiple purposes, some in
combination with specially designed attachments, can
lower capital and operating costs. Today, many large,
specialized machines are idle much of the year or can
be used only for a single crop. Support will stimulate
innovation in equipment design to address unique
needs associated with both small- and large-scale
sustainable agriculture operations. These needs in-
clude machines to make and apply composted materi-
als, cultivation equipment, new low-cost animal hous-
ing systems, and ways to harvest crops grown in
polycultures.
Production Efficiency and Resource
Conservation
The need for improved production efficiency and
resource conservation underlies all of the major issues
discussed above. The ability of the agricultural sector
to respond to these needs will depend largely on how
well basic information is utilized in the design and use
of efficient, safe production systems. For this reason,
a broader array of systems-based models must be
developed to estimate both near- and long-term effects
of alternative production practices and management
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PROCESS LEAS kD ~IE=IFIC OPPORTUNITIES
options. Models will help analysts address not only
the great diversity that exists in natural ecosystems but
also the many factors that must be taken into account
when one is trying to estimate real-world interactions
in technically complex and dynamic systems like
those commonly found in production agriculture. Great
progress has been made in recent years in developing
useful new analytical tools and models to address
questions of soil erosion and water conservation,
product and market development, selection of desir-
able genetic traits in breeding programs, chemical and
biological pest management, monitoring of crop di-
versity, mechanization in cultural practices, human
health and safety, and many other issues that directly
affect farmers and the nation.
The effects of industrial and urban pollutants on the
land, air, and water resources so important to forestry
and agricultural production is a growing area of
emphasis for engineers. Questions about the effects of
acid rein on crops, sulfuremissions from powerplants,
and urban and industrial pollution of water supplies
are under intense investigation in several regions of
the country; and conditions in many forest ecosystems
in the eastern United States and Rocky Mountain
region are clearly growing worse.
MARKETS, TRADE, AND POLICY
The program area of markets, trade, and policy
encompasses all of the issues that relate to the eco-
nomic and societal implications, effects, consequences,
profitability, and value of the agricultural, food, and
environmental system in their national and interna-
tional dimensions. It embraces the disciplines com-
monly associated with the social sciences and with
policy and management sciences. In addition, this
program area has a close relationship with the biologi-
cal and physical sciences required for assessing the
economic and social value of sustainable agricultural
systems, the value of new uses of a particular crop, and
the societal and environmental implications of new
technologies.
Research on the effects of policy has not kept pace
with the growing influence of policy on the perform-
anceofU.S. agriculture. For example, the commodity
policies pursued during the last half century have
resulted in such massive distortions in the technology
and location of agricultural production that it has
become almost impossible to determine the extent to
which production of major U.S. agricultural com
79
modifies would decline or grow in a world market
environment characterized by a more open national
commodity market and more open trade policies.
These kinds of deficiencies inhibit policy analysis and
development. Thus,policy research should be a major
priority and should be coupled with discipline-ori-
ented studies.
Significant policy research has been done by
the USDA's Economic Research Service, and they
continue to do such studies. Given the magnitude of
the needs, including the changing global conditions
and the changing global environment, for science and
technolog~and the interest of the academic and
research communities in policy issues and their capac-
ity for strong research there are major opportunities
of joining need and research capacity for furthering
this necessary work.
The sections that follow present some aspects of
this program area and give some examples of research
needs and opportunities.
Markets and Trade
Markets and trade, with particular emphasis on
international trade, are surveyed in Chapter 4, as are
some of the research needs. The following are some
additional research needs and opportunities:
analyzing the effect of economic policies on
trade patterns;
· identifying and characterizing the trade-offs and
linkages between domestic agricultural and trade
policies;
· devising an optimal international commodity
trade policy for the United States;
· assessinginsiitutionalrelationships such es state
trading, monopolistic business practices, and govern-
ment involvement in international agreements and
their effects on the performance of international mar-
kets, information, and transaction linkages;
· determining the extent to which monetary policy
and other institutional factors mask U.S. comparative
advantages in the agricultural and food sector;
· accounting for technological differences among
countries and for changes in those differences over
time;
· incorporating concepts of imperfect competition
and institutional interactions into trade policy; and
· improving the conceptual framework for research
on international trade and developing and using im-
proved empirical models for policy analysis.
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80
Technological Innovation and
Value-Added Products
As noted in the discussions of international trade in
Chapter 4, technological innovation and value-added
products are two domains in which the United States
may have a competitive advantage. In terms of tech-
nological innovations, the nation's R&D sector has a
historically strong record on which to build, particu-
larly if the new advances in molecular genetics and
computers are exploited. In terms of value-added
products, the nation is still focused more on bulk
commodities than on value-added products, which
suggests a major unrealized opportunity.
A key feature of research on markets and trade is
the opportunity to derive major advantage from com-
bining scientific and technological analysis with eco-
nomic, social, and policy analysis in integrated plans
of study. Some program and research needs and
opportunities include the following:
· Identifying the product andprocess niches where
U.S. strength in science and technology may offer a
significant advantage;
· identifying the industries and markets where the
United States can best utilize its inherent strengths in
technology, natural resources, and infrastructure;
· elucidating short- and long-term trends for tech-
nological innovation and desirable value-added quali-
ties that would ensure a long-term market niche;
characterizing the advantageous coupling be-
tween biological advances, such as tissue culture and
plant growth, with technological approaches, such as
those for delivering new plant materials;
. . . .
identifying plant and animal characteristics most
responsible for major losses in preharvest production
and in postharvest transport and processes, and then
elucidating mechanisms for eliminating or minimiz-
ing those characteristics; and
· identifying opportunities for new uses of com-
modity products and for major new markets for newer
crops, such as rapeseed and rapeseed oils.
Economic Performance
Economic performance refers to the performance
of the individual producing or processing unit rather
than to the more macro-level issues, such as the
behavior offinancial institutions; it also designates the
social and environmental externalities that accom-
pany production and processing operations. Some of
INVESTING IN RESEARCH
the program and research needs and opportunities
include the following:
· creating greater flexibility in commodity price
support programs to cost-effectively alter cropping
patterns and use new crops and technologies.
· identifying thephysical, biotic, end environmental
relationships between a farm's actual and optimal
economic and environmental performances;
· determining the effects on costs, and on the loca-
tion of agricultural production, of regulatory or incen-
tive programs designed to reduce the environmental
and health effects of the intensification of agricultural
and industrial production;
elucidating the economic effects that, for ex-
ample, changes in global climate (resulting from the
greenhouse effect), acid deposition, and destruction of
the ozone layer have on trends in the growth, location,
and costs of agricultural production;
· developing more and improved safety practices
for the use of equipment and chemicals;
developing further energy self-sufficiency for
producing and processing industries;
· identifying and developing the management and
decision tools needed for optimum economic and
environmental performance; and
continuing to craft public policies that will bring
economic and environmental goals into congruence
with each other and, in particular, advancing the devel-
opment and adoption of systems for natural resources
conservation and low-input sustainable agriculture.
Rural Development
Rural development focuses on sustaining and de-
veloping the rural sector of the United States. Program
needs and research needs and opportunities include the
following:
determining cost-effective opportunities and
strategies to invest public funds in the rural economic
infrastructure;
identifying environmentally acceptable opportu-
nities and methods to recycle and dispose of wastes;
· encouraging increased investment in product and
processing development and facilities, with special
focus on value-added or new product industries; and
· understanding the social, economic, and environ-
mental forces and policies that have the greatest influ-
ence on the vitality of the rural sector of the United
States.
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PROGRAM AREAS AND SCIENTIFIC OPPORTUNITIES
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PROGRAM
AREAS AND RECOGNIZED PRIORITIES
The proposed six major program areas evolved
from the Board on Agriculture's general considera-
tions; from its review of the priorities identified by the
Joint Council for Food and Agricultural Sciences, the
National Agricultural Research Committee (NARC)
of the National Association of State Universities and
Land-Grant Colleges, and other organizations; and
from its review of pertinent Board on Agriculture and
National Research Councilreports. Table S.8 summa-
rizes the six major program areas proposed here,
current USDA competitive grants program research
areas, and the priorities identified by NARC. Table
5.9 lists the six major program areas proposed here,
the major research objectives of the Agricultural
Research Service (ARS), and funding for those re-
search objectives in fiscal year (FY) 1988. Appendix
D contains detailed information on the priorities iden-
tified by all these organizations, agencies, and com-
mittees.
The comparisons in Tables 5.8 and 5.9 show that
the proposed six majorprogram areas fully encompass
the priorities identified by state agricultural experi-
ment station research planners and are consonant with
the program areas of ARS and with CRGO's current
programs, simplifying the transition in program
management from the current to the expanded pro-
gram.
It is important to note that several research needs
relate to or could fall within two or more major
program areas. For example, physical studies of soil
moisture and instrument capabilities in relation to
plant physiology and crop response models could be in
the areas of plant systems; natural resources and the
environment; or engineering, products, and processes.
Studies on animal biochemistry, physiology, and
endocrinology related to fat end protein metabolism-
and thus to nutritionally improved food products with
lower fat and cholesterol levels and reduced levels of
sodium-could either be in the animal systems or
nutrition, food quality, and health program areas.
Research on physical and chemical properties of bio-
polymers- as it applies topotentialnew uses forbasic
commodities such as corn, starch, wood fiber, soy-
beans, and animal fat-could eitherbe in the engineer-
ing, products, and processes or markets, trade, and
policy program areas, with secondary input from the
plant systems and animal systems program areas.
Because the six proposed program areas encom
81
pass the entire agricultural, food, and environmental
system, they could be useful when specific new re-
search, education, and extension programs are being
considered. A proposed new activity couldbeconsid-
ered in relation to one or more program areas; a
determination could then be made as to how the
activity fits with current emphases in the area. In that
way, a comprehensive, integrated organization of
specific program activities could evolve.
RELATIONSHIPS AMONG THE SIX
MAJOR PROGRAM AREAS, SCIENTIFIC
DISCIPLINES, AND NATIONAL PRIORITIES
A key feature of this proposal is to provide strong
opportunities and incentives to bring into the agricul-
tural, food, and environmental research system all
scientists working in relevant disciplines, including,
among others, biology, chemistry, physics, engineer-
ing, the various disciplines of biomedicine, and the en-
vironmental and social sciences. At present, there are
few and, for some disciplines, no-opportunities to
contribute to agricultural, food, and environmental
research needs.
A second feature of this proposal is to ensure that
scientists who are part of the traditional agricultural
research disciplines have an opportunity to participate
fully in the proposed expanded grants program. These
disciplines include, among others, agricultural eco-
nomics, agricultural engineering, agronomy, animal
science, entomology, fisheries and wildlife, forestry,
genetics, horticultural science, Hematology, plant
pathology, plant science, soil science, and veterinary
. · .
mea~c~ne.
The traditional agricultural sciences have always
drawn from the fundamental and basic sciences, and
they have effectively used applicable principles and
research methodologies. Reciprocally, research in
various agricultural areas has contributed significantly
to fundamental understanding such as in the biology
of photosynthesis, cytogenetics, mammalian repro-
duction, hydrology, microbiology, and antibiotics, to
name just a few areas. A major purpose of this
proposal is to ensure that the links between the funda-
mental sciences and agriculture remain strong and,
indeed, increase.
The potential involvement of seven basic science
categories in agricultural, food, and environmental
research is illustrated below. Examples of several
scientific and engineering disciplines for each cate
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82
INVESTING IN RESEARCH
TABLE 5.8 Proposed Competitive Grants Program Major Areas, Current Competitive Research Grants
Office Program Areas, and National Agricultural Research Committee National Priorities
Proposed
Program Area
Current
CRGO Research
NARC National
Priontiesa
Plant systems
Animal systems
Nutrition, food,
quality, and health
Natural resources and
the environment
Engineering, products, None
and processes
Markets, trade, None
and policy
Plant science (18.0)6
Pest science (2.0)
Biotechnology (portion of
19.0)
Animal science (6.0)
Biotechnology (portion of
19.0)
Human nutrition (1.0)
Stratospheric ozone (3.7)
Plant genetic improvement, new uses's improved
pest control, forest productivity,C and plants for
urban environments
Animal efficiency, new uses,C and animal health
and disease
Food quality enhancement and food, diet, and
health
Water quality and quantity, sustaining soil produc-
tivity, land use, range production, forest
productivity's and ecosystem impacts of atmos-
pheric deposition
New uses,C energy efficiency, and advanced
electronics and decision aids
Integrating agricultural technologies, marketing,
policy and global markets, and rural families and
communities
aAnother NARC priority area, biotechnology, encompasses plant productivity, plant disease resistance, nutritional quality of plants,
biological control of pests, biologically active matenals, diagnostic and immunologic products, animal disease resistance, animal
development and productivity, and impacts of biotechnology. Other cross-cutting issues, like sustainable agriculture and foundations of com-
petitiveness, could fall within several major program areas, depending upon the specific focus of the proposed research. See Appendix D
for a more complete description of the 21 NARC priority initiatives and objectives.
Values in parentheses are FY 1989 appropriations in millions of dollars. A total of $19.0 million for biotechnology was divided between
plant and animal science.
CPnorigr area that falls within more than one major program area.
gory and examples of possible research themes are
also given.
1. Physical Sciences: Chemistry, physics, mathe-
matics, geology, climatology, and atmospheric sci-
ences. Research on basic chemical and physical
properties and processes; energy flows in natural
systems; chemical reactions and interactions; physics
of transport through porous media; and design of new
materials and processes.
2. Molecular and Cellular Biology: Biochemis-
try, genetics, cell biology, physiology (plant arid ani-
mal), endocrinology, and immunology. Research on
genome structure and function; genetic markers for
disease diagnosis, epidemiology, and genetic improve-
ment and ecological effects; biochemical and genetic
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PROGRA*! AREAS AND SCIENTIFIC OPPORTUNITIES
basis of agriculturally implant traits; cellular and
biochemical basis of host-pathogen interactions;
mechanisms of gene expression; and chromosome
structure, replication, cell division, and genetic re-
combination.
3. Developmental and Organismal Biology:
Microbiology and virology, developmental biology
(plant and animal), plant biology, pathology (plant
and animal), neurobiology and behavior, and limnol-
ogy. Research on the health and performance of total
organisms; nutrient and physiological needs in grow-
ing plants and animals; and genetic transfer methods
for reproductive improvement.
4. EnvironmentalBiology and Ecology: Ecosys-
tems research, population biology, hydrology, envi-
ronmental biophysics, soil physics and chemistry, and
wildlife and aquatic sciences. Research related to the
health and performance of wild and managed ecosys-
tems; soil microbiology and rhizosphere dynamics;
short- and long-term interactions between agricultural
and forestry production practices and natural resources,
aquatic habitats, soil, water, and wildlife; genetic
stability of populations (both natural and genetically
83
altered); population dynamics, genetics, biochemis-
try, and physiology of pathogens and pests; interac-
tions among agricultural systems, soil systems, and
water systems; and the fate (and consequences for
ecosystems) of natural and synthetic toxins associated
with agriculture and forestry.
5. Biomedical and Related Sciences: Nutrition,
epidemiology, veterinary medicine, and medical sci-
ences. Research focusing on the interactions among
food, diet, and health; opportunities to reduce the
incidence of cardiovascular disease and certain can-
cers by modifying foods; detection and control of
foodborne pathogens; and reduction of nutritional
deficiencies and excesses in special human popula-
tions.
6. Engineering and Information Systems: Bioen-
gineering and chemical engineering, biostatistics,
operations research, computer science, environmental
and civil engineering, agricultural engineering, and
electrical and mechanical engineering. Research and
engineering applications of advanced electronics in
robotics, quality control systems, diagnostic probes
and sensors, and instrumentation; expert systems for
TABLE 5.9 Proposed Competitive Grants Program Major Areas, ARS Major Program Areas, and ARS
Funding, FY 1988
ARS Funding,
FY 1988
Proposed (in millions of
Areas ARS Program Area dollars)
Plant systems Productivity and quality-crop 183.9
Animal systems Productivity and quality animal 182.3
Nutrition, food quality, Human health and well-being 42.0
and health
Natural resources Natural resources- management 56.5
and environment
Engineering, products, Agricultural products 88.9
and processes domestic and export
Markets, trade, and None
policK
None Scientific knowledge systems 11.8
Total 565.4
Research in this area is undertaken by USDA's Economic Research Service.
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84
making decisions about farm management, modeling
growth, and studying the consequences of alternative
policy options; remote sensing of irrigation needs,
fertilizer needs, or plant nutrient deficiencies; robot-
ics; and techniques for assessing the quality and prop-
erties of foods and forest products.
7. SocialSystemsandPolicy:Anthropology,social
and behavioral sciences, law, sociology (including
demography and rural sociology), business admini-
stration, marketing, political science, and economics
(including agricultural economics). Analysis of mar-
kets, trade, economics, technology, and policy; the
sociology of decisionmaking on farms and by con-
sumers; cultural and anthropological trends, conse-
quences, and causes; effects of demographic change;
the information and technology transfer process; and
methods of assessing the costs and consequences of
policy options.
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
BUDGET PRIORITIES
The legislative and executive branches of the fed-
eral government face special difficulties in establish-
ing priorities for allocating funds for research. Sci-
ence and technology budget requests and recommen-
dations are made on behalf of many different pro-
grams and agencies; some requests address mission
agency needs, whereas others focus on advancing
science in particular areas. Although science and
technology programs collectively constitute a major
public investment, opportunities in the budges process
of either the executive or the legislative branch to
assess the overall adequacy, focus, and balance of this
multifarious investment are limited. To help address
this problem, the budget committees of the U.S.
Congress used the FY 1989 budges resolution to seek
assistance from the National Academy of Sciences
(NAS), the National Academy of Engineering (NAE),
and the Institute of Medicine (IOM). The three acade-
mies were asked to provide the following (U.S. Con-
gress, House, 1988~:
. . . advice on developing an appropriate institutional framework
and information base for conducting cross-program development
and review of the nation's research and development programs.
Ibis [framework] should be structured in such a way that it can be
used by both the Executive Branch and Congress as a method for
reviewing program contents and strategies and in determining
funding and organizational priorities for science and technology.
INVESTING IN RESEARCH
The academies responded by forming a committee
to review the budges process end produce a report. The
report issued in December 1988, highlighted four
categories for policymakers to use in evaluating sci-
ence and technology budget requests (National Acad-
emy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering,
and Institute of Medicine, 1988~. These categories are
not mutually exclusive; a given R&D program can
serve multiple objectives and thus fit into more than
one category. By considering the distribution of R&D
funding in teens of these categories, individuals and
agencies involved in the budget process may identify
possible needed adjustments in science and technol-
ogy budget priorities.
The four basic categories are as follows:
1. the science and technology activities of individ-
ual agencies in relation to their own missions;
2. the aggregate contribution of several agencies
to the science and technology base of the nation, a base
that includes fundamental research, the supporting
infrastructure, and the continued production of scien-
tists and engineers;
3. the contribution of science and technology ac-
tivities (frequently supported by several agencies) to
national objectives to which the President, the Con-
gress, or both have given priority (e.g., industrial
competitiveness, environmental protection, and pre-
vention and treatment of the acquired immune defi-
ciency syndrome [AIDS]~; and
4. major science and technology initiatives that
attract attention in any budget year primarily because
of their cost and budgetary consequences for other
science and technology activities across agencies (e.g.,
a superconducting supercollider or a space station).
Responding to USDA's Missions
In evaluating science and technology priorities,
policymakers should first assess an agency's science
and technology activities in relation to the agency's
own mission needs and responsibilities. For USDA,
the intramural research program of the ARS is gener-
ally adequate in this respect, as evidenced by ARS's
many cooperative agreements with over USDA mis-
sion agencies (see Appendix A) and by the clear
relevance of ongoing ARS research to the primary
science and technology questions USDA faces. Within
the executive branch's budget review process, the
need for resources to support ARS research on behalf
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PROGRAM AREAS AND SCIENTIFIC OPPORTUNITIES
of mission agency programs is recognized and gener-
ally responded to.
What is lacking, however, is a similarly effective
federal funding mechanism to attract academic scien-
tists in areas related to ongoing ARS research and to
cross-cutting science and technology needs that per-
tain to the overlapping responsibilities of several
agencies. In a limited number of cases, academic
scientists conduct research under contract to, or con-
sullwith,USDAmissionagencies,butthefull strength
of the scientific and engineering communities is not
engaged.
A broadened, adequately funded USDA competi-
tive grants program would largely remedy this situ-
ation. Scientists and administrators from USDA
mission agencies would likely participate in competi-
tive grants program advisory committees, planning
activities, and peer review panels; and agency scien-
tists possibly in conjunction with academic col-
leagues and collaborators would compete for sup-
port through the program.
Strengthening the Science and
Technology Infrastructure
The second category for policymakers to use in
evaluating science and technology priorities is whether
research has the potential to help strengthen the na-
tion's technology base.
Despite modest funding since its inception in 1978,
USDA's competitive grants program has illustrated
the program's potential for broadening the nation's
overall science and engineering infrastructure. Nev-
ertheless, the USDA competitive grants program has
not fulfilled even a small portion of that potential, nor
has it brought about an adequate network of active
linkages and partnerships involving food and agricul-
tural scientists and the broader scientific community.
It is simply too small.
Fortunately, other USDA and state-funded science
and technology activities such as the state agricultural
experiment stations have contributed steadily and
strongly to the naiion's scientific infrastructure for
agriculture and food. Land-grant universities are
major centers for higher education and conduct exten-
sive, vital, long-term research programs across the full
spectrum of science and engineering disciplines. Other
public and private universities do so to the limited
extent permitted by funding, but they a have much
greater capacity to influence the agricultural, food,
85
and environmental system if the support and incen-
tives are in place.
As Chapters 2 and 3 explained, the shortcomings in
USDA's competitive grants program will be largely
eliminated if the number of scientists and engineers
who can participate in the program is substantially
increased; if the average size of grant per principal
investigator is doubled; if the average duration of
grants is extended, if new program areas in natural
resources and the environment; engineering, prod-
ucts, and processes; and markets, trade, and policy are
developed; and if new types of grant~multidiscipli-
nary team grants and research-strengthening grants-
are offered.
Moreover, a $500 million increase in funding would
constitute a sizable investment in a broadened science
and technology base. It would also be a clear signal to
the science community that agricultural, food, and
environmental science and technology are important
to the nation's well-being. The reaffirmation of the
national importance of agriculture could be among the
most significant long-term benefits of the expanded
program.
Targeting National Priorities
The third category of priorities identified in the
academies' science and technology budget report of
NAS, NAE, and IOM (1988) described above in-
volves science and technology that will help achieve
national objectives.
The President's FY 1990 budget request includes
two sizable increases for USDA research efforts ad-
dressing major national needs. The competitive grants
program budget request includes a second year of
funding for research on the effects of change in strato-
spheric ozone levels ($3.7 million appropriated in the
FY 1989 budget,$7.4 million requested for FY 1990~;
and following a govemment-wide review of water
quality issues and research needs led by the Office of
Management and Budget, $13.9 million in additional
funding (nearly a 30 percent increase over the FY
1989 program level) has been proposed for USDA
water quality research activities.
Supporting Major Science and
Technology Initiatives
The fourth category identified by the report of
NAS, NAE, and IOM (1988) is major initiatives of
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86
unusual scale and character that would, if funded,
invariably reduce the funding available for other major
initiatives and possibly for research overall. Contem-
porary examples include the superconducting super-
collider, the space station, and the human genome
project.
No single major, costly project in the agricultural,
food, and environmental sciences is under serious
consideration. Although plant and animal genome
mapping activities are likely to expand markedly in
the years ahead and will be among the science and
technology priorities supported through the funding
requested in this proposal, there are no currentrecom-
mendations calling for a major and unusual commit-
ment of funding to accelerate plant or animal genome
mapping. The proposed expanded program involves
a substantial increase in funding for agricultural, food,
and environmental research, but it does not fit into this
fourth category of science and technology activities
because it is neither unusual nor distinct.
WRESTING IN RESEARCH
CONCLUSION
An expanded USDA competitive grants program
would provide a comprehensive and catalytic new
mechanism for awarding federal support for science
and technology activities relevant to agriculture (as it
has been broadly defined in this proposal). In so
doing, it would offer clear advantages in the following
areas:
· defining and pursuing high-priority science and
technology projects of national significance carried
out by mission agencies;
· strengthening the breadth and quality of the na-
tion's scientific infrastructure; and
· responding to presidential and congressional
priorities that reflect pressing national needs.
Representative terms from entire chapter:
scientific opportunities
