Visualization for Project Development (2006)

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41 4-D Technology—computerized animated 3-D model that portrays movement through space, over a period of time. An example would be virtual reality-based computer graphics. Cathode ray tube (CRT)—display device used in most com- puter displays, video monitors, televisions, and oscillo- scopes. The CRT developed from Philo Farnsworth’s work was used in all television sets until the late 20th cen- tury and the advent of plasma screens, LCDs (liquid crys- tal displays), and other technologies. Compact Disc Read-Only Memory (CD-ROM)—version of the compact disc that allows information to be stored and retrieved. Once a CD-ROM is pressed, new data cannot be stored and the disc cannot be erased for reuse. Although CD-ROMs look like music discs, they can only be used with a computer equipped with a CD-ROM drive. Computer-aided design (CAD)—use of computer programs and systems to design detailed 2-D or 3-D models of physical objects, such as mechanical parts, buildings, and molecules. Computer-aided drafting and design, computer-aided design and drafting, or computer-aided design development (CADD)—use of the computer to help with the drafting of product plans. Computer-aided engineering (CAE)—use of computers to help with all phases of engineering design work. Similar to computer-aided design, it also involves the conceptual and analytical design steps. Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM)—process of using specialized computers to control, monitor, and adjust tools and machinery in manufacturing. Computer animation—art of creating moving images by means of computers. It is a subfield of computer graphics and animation. Increasingly it is created by means of 3-D computer graphics, although 2-D computer graphics are still widely used. Sometimes the target of the animation is the computer itself; sometimes the target is another medium, such as film. Computer-generated imagery (CGI)—application of the field of computer graphics (or more specifically 3-D computer graphics) to special effects. CGI is used in movies, televi- sion programs and commercials, and in printed media. Real-time computer graphics, such as those in video games, are rarely referred to as CGI. Computer numerical control (CNC)—technology that has been around since the early 1970s. Before this, it was called NC, for numerical control. A CNC equivalent system can be programmed to duplicate the repetitive and mundane manual labor manufacturing operations in a much more automatic, accurate, and cost-efficient fashion. Context-sensitive design (CSD)—collaborative, interdisci- plinary approach that involves all stakeholders to develop a transportation facility that fits its physical setting and preserves scenic, aesthetic, historic, and environmental resources, while maintaining safety and mobility. CSD is an approach that considers the total context within which a transportation improvement project will exist. Context-sensitive solutions (CSS)—philosophy wherein safe transportation solutions are designed in harmony with the community. CSS strives to balance environmental, scenic, aesthetic, cultural, and natural resources, as well as com- munity and transportation service needs. Design–build (D–B)—project delivery method in which the agency or owner holds a single contract with a single entity for both the design and construction of a project. Design–build is owner-driven, and it commonly reduces project delivery time by eliminating lengthy bidding proceedings. Digital terrain model (DTM)—topographic model of the bare earth that can be manipulated by computer programs. The data files contain the elevation data of the terrain in a digital format that relates to a rectangular grid. Vegetation, buildings, and other cultural features are removed digi- tally, leaving just the underlying terrain. Environmental impact statement (EIS)—document that stud- ies all likely impacts that will result from major trans- portation projects. Impacts include those on the natural environment, as well as those on the economy and society, and those on the built environment of historical and aes- thetic significance. FHWA—federal agency that administers federal highway programs. The agency reviews all Transportation Plans and Transportation Improvement Programs to ensure com- pliance with federal planning and funding requirements. Geographic information systems (GIS)—system of hardware and software used for storage, retrieval, mapping, and analysis of geographic data. GIS differs from CADD and other graphical computer applications in that all spatial data are geographically referenced to a map projection in an earth coordinate system. For the most part, spatial data can be “re-projected” from one coordinate system into another; therefore, data from various sources can be brought together into a common database and integrated using GIS software. Global Positioning System (GPS)—worldwide radio naviga- tion system formed from a constellation of 24 satellites and their ground stations. GPS uses these “man-made stars” as reference points to calculate positions accurate to a matter of meters. Information technology (IT)—technology required for infor- mation processing. In particular, the use of computers and computer software to convert, store, protect, process, transmit, and retrieve information from anywhere at anytime. ISO 9000—family of standards and guidelines for quality in the manufacturing and service industries from the Interna- GLOSSARY

42 tional Organization for Standardization (ISO). ISO 9000 defines the criteria for what should be measured. ISO 9001 covers design and development; ISO 9002 covers produc- tion, installation, and service; and ISO 9003 covers final testing and inspection. ISO 9000 certification does not guarantee product quality. It ensures that the processes that develop the product are documented and perform in a quality manner. Metropolitan planning organization (MPO)—regional orga- nization responsible for comprehensive transportation planning and programming in urbanized areas. Work products include the Transportation Plan, the Transporta- tion Improvement Program, and the Unified Planning Work Program. Multimedia development—systems that support the interac- tive use of text, audio, still images, video, and graphics. Each of these elements must be converted in some way from analog form to digital form before they can be used in a computer application. Thus, the distinction of multi- media is the convergence of previously diverse systems. Network distributed rendering—process of aggregating the power of several computing entities to collaboratively run a single computational task in a transparent and coherent way, so that they appear as a single, centralized system. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)— branch of the U.S. Department of Labor responsible for establishing and enforcing safety and health standards in the workplace. Personal computers (PCs)—home or office desktop com- puter systems that run Microsoft DOS and Windows oper- ating systems. Pixel—one of the many tiny dots that makes up the repre- sentation of a picture in a computer’s memory. Usually the dots are so small and so numerous that, when printed on paper or displayed on a computer monitor, they appear to merge into a smooth image. The color and intensity of each dot is chosen individually by the computer to repre- sent a small area of the picture. Polygon—closed planar path composed of a finite number of sequential line segments. The straight line segments that make up the polygon are called its sides or edges and the points where the sides meet are the polygon’s vertices. If a polygon is simple, then its sides (and vertices) constitute the boundary of a polygonal region, and the term polygon sometimes also describes the interior of the polygonal region (the open area that this path encloses) or the union of both the region and its boundary. Project managers—person responsible for the planning, coordination, and controlling of a project from inception to completion, meeting the project’s requirements and ensuring completion on time, within cost, and to required quality standards. Often, there is a project manager and a consultant project manager. Random access memory (RAM)—type of computer storage whose contents can be accessed in any order. Computers use RAM to hold the program code and data during execution. Raster graphics—data file or structure representing a generally rectangular grid of pixels, or points of color, on a computer monitor, paper, or other display device. The color of each pixel is individually defined; images in the red–green–blue (RGB) color space, for instance, often consist of colored pixels defined by three bytes—one byte each for red, green, and blue. Less colorful images require less information per pixel; an image with only black and white pixels requires only a single bit for each pixel. Raster graphics are distin- guished from vector graphics in that vector graphics repre- sent an image through the use of geometric objects such as curves and polygons. Render farm—computer cluster to render computer gener- ated imagery, typically for film and television special effects. The rendering of images is a highly parallelizable activity, as each frame can be calculated independently of the others, with the main communication between proces- sors being the upload of the initial models and textures, and the download of the finished images. Rendering—the process of generating an image from a description of 3-D objects, by means of a software pro- gram. The description is in a strictly defined language or data structure and would contain geometry, viewpoint, texture, and lighting information. The image is a digital image/raster graphics image. Return on investment (ROI)—calculation used to determine whether a proposed investment is wise and how well it will repay the investor. It is calculated as the ratio of the amount gained (taken as positive), or lost (taken as nega- tive), relative to the basis. Texture mapping—process of assigning a material to an object similar to the specification provided to the building contrac- tor. To duplicate the object’s surface quality, it is necessary to obtain this information in a digital format. One way to cre- ate a texture map is by scanning a physical sample material provided by the designer or to scan a photograph. Value engineering (VE)—federal, state, and local highway agencies are responsible for getting the best overall proj- ect value for the taxpayer. Applying the VE process to suitable projects will help one achieve this purpose. Sim- ply stated, VE is an organized application of common sense and technical knowledge directed at finding and eliminating unnecessary costs in a project. Vector graphics or geometric modeling—use of geometrical primitives such as points, lines, curves, and polygons to rep- resent images in computer graphics. It is used by contrast to the term raster graphics, which is the representation of images as a collection of pixels (dots). Virtual reality—artificial environment created with computer hardware and software and presented to the user in such a way that it appears and feels like a real environment. To “enter” a virtual reality, a user dons special gloves, ear- phones, and goggles, all of which receive their input from the computer system. In this way, at least three of the five senses are controlled by the computer. In addition to feed- ing sensory input to the user, the devices also monitor the

43 user’s actions. The goggles, for example, track how the eyes move and respond accordingly by sending new video input. Virtual reality simulation—real-time simulation is a graphical database technology that allows for interactive navigation throughout a digital model. The database can foster rapid conceptual approvals, identify design flaws, and, ultimately, reduce development costs before commencement of con- struction. This technology has been pioneered by the U.S. military for flight and combat simulation and is rapidly becoming a key tool for the Urban Design and Planning community. Although traditional visualization methods have been used as a presentation tool, real-time simulation streamlines the complex phases of a planning and designing a project.