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TRANSIT
TCRP REPORT 114
COOPERATIVE
RESEARCH
PROGRAM
Sponsored by
the Federal
Transit Administration
Center Truck Performance on
Low-Floor Light Rail Vehicles
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TCRP OVERSIGHT AND PROJECT TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD 2006 EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE*
SELECTION COMMITTEE*
CHAIR OFFICERS
David A. Lee
Connecticut Transit CHAIR: Michael D. Meyer, Professor, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of
Technology, Atlanta
MEMBERS VICE CHAIR: Linda S. Watson, Executive Director, LYNX--Central Florida Regional Transportation
Ann August
Santee Wateree Regional Transportation Authority Authority, Orlando
Linda J. Bohlinger EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR: Robert E. Skinner, Jr., Transportation Research Board
HNTB Corp.
Robert I. Brownstein MEMBERS
PB Consult, Inc.
Peter Cannito Michael W. Behrens, Executive Director, Texas DOT, Austin
Metropolitan Transportation Authority--Metro Allen D. Biehler, Secretary, Pennsylvania DOT, Harrisburg
North Railroad John D. Bowe, Regional President, APL Americas, Oakland, CA
Gregory Cook Larry L. Brown, Sr., Executive Director, Mississippi DOT, Jackson
Ann Arbor Transportation Authority Deborah H. Butler, Vice President, Customer Service, Norfolk Southern Corporation and Subsidiaries,
Nathaniel P. Ford Atlanta, GA
San Francisco MUNI
Ronald L. Freeland
Anne P. Canby, President, Surface Transportation Policy Project, Washington, DC
Booz Allen Hamilton, Inc. Douglas G. Duncan, President and CEO, FedEx Freight, Memphis, TN
Fred M. Gilliam Nicholas J. Garber, Henry L. Kinnier Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Virginia,
Capital Metropolitan Transportation Authority Charlottesville
Kim R. Green Angela Gittens, Vice President, Airport Business Services, HNTB Corporation, Miami, FL
GFI GENFARE Genevieve Giuliano, Professor and Senior Associate Dean of Research and Technology,
Jill A. Hough School of Policy, Planning, and Development, and Director, METRANS National Center
North Dakota State University
John Inglish for Metropolitan Transportation Research, University of Southern California, Los Angeles
Utah Transit Authority Susan Hanson, Landry University Professor of Geography, Graduate School of Geography, Clark
Jeanne W. Krieg University, Worcester, MA
Eastern Contra Costa Transit Authority James R. Hertwig, President, CSX Intermodal, Jacksonville, FL
Celia G. Kupersmith Gloria J. Jeff, General Manager, City of Los Angeles DOT, Los Angeles, CA
Golden Gate Bridge, Highway and Transportation Adib K. Kanafani, Cahill Professor of Civil Engineering, University of California, Berkeley
District
Harold E. Linnenkohl, Commissioner, Georgia DOT, Atlanta
Clarence W. Marsella
Denver Regional Transportation District Sue McNeil, Professor, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark
Faye L. M. Moore Debra L. Miller, Secretary, Kansas DOT, Topeka
Southeastern Pennsylvania Transportation Michael R. Morris, Director of Transportation, North Central Texas Council of Governments, Arlington
Authority Carol A. Murray, Commissioner, New Hampshire DOT, Concord
Michael H. Mulhern John R. Njord, Executive Director, Utah DOT, Salt Lake City
Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority Pete K. Rahn, Director, Missouri DOT, Jefferson City
Retirement Fund
Stephanie L. Pinson
Sandra Rosenbloom, Professor of Planning, University of Arizona, Tucson
Gilbert Tweed Associates, Inc. Henry Gerard Schwartz, Jr., Senior Professor, Washington University, St. Louis, MO
Robert H. Prince, Jr. Michael S. Townes, President and CEO, Hampton Roads Transit, Hampton, VA
DMJM+Harris C. Michael Walton, Ernest H. Cockrell Centennial Chair in Engineering, University of Texas, Austin
Jeffrey M. Rosenberg
Amalgamated Transit Union EX OFFICIO MEMBERS
Michael Scanlon
San Mateo County Transit District Thad Allen (Adm., U.S. Coast Guard), Commandant, U.S. Coast Guard, Washington, DC
Beverly Scott Thomas J. Barrett (Vice Adm., U.S. Coast Guard, ret.), Pipeline and Hazardous Materials
Sacramento Regional Transit District Safety Administrator, U.S.DOT
James S. Simpson Marion C. Blakey, Federal Aviation Administrator, U.S.DOT
FTA
Joseph H. Boardman, Federal Railroad Administrator, U.S.DOT
Frank Tobey
First Transit John Bobo, Deputy Administrator, Research and Innovative Technology Administration, U.S.DOT
Kathryn D. Waters Rebecca M. Brewster, President and COO, American Transportation Research Institute, Smyrna, GA
Dallas Area Rapid Transit George Bugliarello, Chancellor, Polytechnic University of New York, Brooklyn, and Foreign Secretary,
Frank Wilson National Academy of Engineering, Washington, DC
Metropolitan Transit Authority of Harris County J. Richard Capka, Federal Highway Administrator, U.S.DOT
EX OFFICIO MEMBERS Sean T. Connaughton, Maritime Administrator, U.S.DOT
William W. Millar Edward R. Hamberger, President and CEO, Association of American Railroads, Washington, DC
APTA John H. Hill, Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administrator, U.S.DOT
Robert E. Skinner, Jr. John C. Horsley, Executive Director, American Association of State Highway and Transportation
TRB Officials, Washington, DC
John C. Horsley
AASHTO J. Edward Johnson, Director, Applied Science Directorate, National Aeronautics and Space Administration,
J. Richard Capka John C. Stennis Space Center, MS
FHWA William W. Millar, President, American Public Transportation Association, Washington, DC
Nicole R. Nason, National Highway Traffic Safety Administrator, U.S.DOT
TDC EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR
Louis Sanders Jeffrey N. Shane, Under Secretary for Policy, U.S.DOT
APTA James S. Simpson, Federal Transit Administrator, U.S.DOT
Carl A. Strock (Maj. Gen., U.S. Army), Chief of Engineers and Commanding General, U.S. Army Corps of
SECRETARY Engineers, Washington, DC
Robert J. Reilly
TRB
*Membership as of September 2006. *Membership as of September 2006.
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TRANSIT COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAM
TCRP REPORT 114
Center Truck Performance on
Low-Floor Light Rail Vehicles
Trevor Griffin
INTERFLEET TECHNOLOGY, INC.
DERBY, UNITED KINGDOM
Subject Areas
Public Transit
Research sponsored by the Federal Transit Administration in cooperation with the Transit Development Corporation
TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD
WASHINGTON, D.C.
2006
www.TRB.org
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TRANSIT COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAM TCRP REPORT 114
The nation's growth and the need to meet mobility, environmental, Price $34.00
and energy objectives place demands on public transit systems. Current
Project C-16
systems, some of which are old and in need of upgrading, must expand
ISSN 1073-4872
service area, increase service frequency, and improve efficiency to serve
ISBN-13: 978-0-309-09863-2
these demands. Research is necessary to solve operating problems, to ISBN-10: 0-309-09863-7
adapt appropriate new technologies from other industries, and to intro- Library of Congress Control Number 2006908254
duce innovations into the transit industry. The Transit Cooperative
Research Program (TCRP) serves as one of the principal means by © 2006 Transportation Research Board
which the transit industry can develop innovative near-term solutions
to meet demands placed on it.
The need for TCRP was originally identified in TRB Special Report COPYRIGHT PERMISSION
213--Research for Public Transit: New Directions, published in 1987 Authors herein are responsible for the authenticity of their materials and for obtaining
and based on a study sponsored by the Urban Mass Transportation written permissions from publishers or persons who own the copyright to any previously
Administration--now the Federal Transit Administration (FTA). A published or copyrighted material used herein.
report by the American Public Transportation Association (APTA), Cooperative Research Programs (CRP) grants permission to reproduce material in this
Transportation 2000, also recognized the need for local, problem- publication for classroom and not-for-profit purposes. Permission is given with the
understanding that none of the material will be used to imply TRB, AASHTO, FAA, FHWA,
solving research. TCRP, modeled after the longstanding and success-
FMCSA, FTA, or Transit Development Corporation endorsement of a particular product,
ful National Cooperative Highway Research Program, undertakes method, or practice. It is expected that those reproducing the material in this document for
research and other technical activities in response to the needs of tran- educational and not-for-profit uses will give appropriate acknowledgment of the source of
sit service providers. The scope of TCRP includes a variety of transit any reprinted or reproduced material. For other uses of the material, request permission
from CRP.
research fields including planning, service configuration, equipment,
facilities, operations, human resources, maintenance, policy, and
administrative practices.
TCRP was established under FTA sponsorship in July 1992. Pro- NOTICE
posed by the U.S. Department of Transportation, TCRP was autho- The project that is the subject of this report was a part of the Transit Cooperative Research
rized as part of the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act Program conducted by the Transportation Research Board with the approval of the
Governing Board of the National Research Council. Such approval reflects the Governing
of 1991 (ISTEA). On May 13, 1992, a memorandum agreement out-
Board's judgment that the project concerned is appropriate with respect to both the
lining TCRP operating procedures was executed by the three cooper- purposes and resources of the National Research Council.
ating organizations: FTA, the National Academies, acting through the
The members of the technical advisory panel selected to monitor this project and to review
Transportation Research Board (TRB); and the Transit Development this report were chosen for recognized scholarly competence and with due consideration
Corporation, Inc. (TDC), a nonprofit educational and research orga- for the balance of disciplines appropriate to the project. The opinions and conclusions
nization established by APTA. TDC is responsible for forming the expressed or implied are those of the research agency that performed the research, and
while they have been accepted as appropriate by the technical panel, they are not
independent governing board, designated as the TCRP Oversight and necessarily those of the Transportation Research Board, the National Research Council,
Project Selection (TOPS) Committee. the Transit Development Corporation, or the Federal Transit Administration of the U.S.
Research problem statements for TCRP are solicited periodically but Department of Transportation.
may be submitted to TRB by anyone at any time. It is the responsibility Each report is reviewed and accepted for publication by the technical panel according to
of the TOPS Committee to formulate the research program by identi- procedures established and monitored by the Transportation Research Board Executive
fying the highest priority projects. As part of the evaluation, the TOPS Committee and the Governing Board of the National Research Council.
Committee defines funding levels and expected products. The Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, the National Research
Once selected, each project is assigned to an expert panel, appointed Council, the Transit Development Corporation, and the Federal Transit Administration
(sponsor of the Transit Cooperative Research Program) do not endorse products or
by the Transportation Research Board. The panels prepare project state- manufacturers. Trade or manufacturers' names appear herein solely because they are
ments (requests for proposals), select contractors, and provide techni- considered essential to the clarity and completeness of the project reporting.
cal guidance and counsel throughout the life of the project. The process
for developing research problem statements and selecting research
agencies has been used by TRB in managing cooperative research pro-
grams since 1962. As in other TRB activities, TCRP project panels serve
voluntarily without compensation.
Because research cannot have the desired impact if products fail to
reach the intended audience, special emphasis is placed on dissemi-
Published reports of the
nating TCRP results to the intended end users of the research: tran-
sit agencies, service providers, and suppliers. TRB provides a series TRANSIT COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAM
of research reports, syntheses of transit practice, and other support- are available from:
ing material developed by TCRP research. APTA will arrange for Transportation Research Board
workshops, training aids, field visits, and other activities to ensure Business Office
that results are implemented by urban and rural transit industry 500 Fifth Street, NW
Washington, DC 20001
practitioners.
The TCRP provides a forum where transit agencies can cooperatively and can be ordered through the Internet at
address common operational problems. The TCRP results support and http://www.national-academies.org/trb/bookstore
complement other ongoing transit research and training programs. Printed in the United States of America
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COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAMS
CRP STAFF FOR TCRP REPORT 114
Robert J. Reilly, Director, Cooperative Research Programs
Christopher W. Jenks, TCRP Manager
Eileen P. Delaney, Director of Publications
Hilary Freer, Senior Editor
TCRP PROJECT C-16 PANEL
Field of Engineering of Vehicles and Equipment
Richard J. Leary, Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority, Boston, MA (Chair)
Stelian Canjea, New Jersey Transit Corporation, Bloomfield, NJ
Scott Grogan, Metropolitan Transit Authority of Harris County (TX), Houston, TX
Tedd Hankins, King County (WA) Metro, Seattle, WA
Jay Harper, Valley Metro Rail, Inc., Phoenix, AZ
Kenneth J. Kirse, Tri-County Metropolitan Transportation District, Portland, OR
James Nelson, Wilson, Ihrig & Associates, Inc., Oakland, CA
Carlos Garay, FTA Liaison
Aaron C. James, Sr., FTA Liaison
Peter Shaw, TRB Liaison
AUTHOR ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Trevor Griffin of Interfleet Technology was the Principal Investigator for TCRP Project C-16. He was
assisted by Jim Wiesinger, John Simpson, Paul Heath, Helmut Hanel, and Andy McDonald of Interfleet;
Dr. Allan Zarembski and Donald Holfeld of ZETA-TECH Associates; Raul Bravo, Peter Klauser, and
Robin Hazy of Raul V. Bravo and Associates; Bernhard Huber, Martin Schmidt, and Roman Häfeli of
PROSE AG, Switzerland; Nils Jänig, Peter Forcher, Steffen Plogstert, and Olaf Ritz of Transport Technologie
Consult Karlsruhe, Germany; and Heribert Lehna of the Institut für Bahntechnik, Berlin, Germany.
The following transit systems kindly supplied substantial input to this study about their vehicles, infra-
structure, and experience:
· Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority
· Metropolitan Transit Authority, Houston, Texas
· New Jersey Transit
· San Diego Trolley, California
· Santa Clara Valley Transit Authority, California
· Southeastern Pennsylvania Transportation Authority
· Toronto Transit Commission
· TriMet, Portland, Oregon
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FOREWORD
By Christopher W. Jenks
TCRP Manager
Transportation Research Board
This report should be of interest to engineers, manufacturers, maintainers, and others inter-
ested in low-floor light rail vehicle (LFLRV) center truck performance issues and their poten-
tial solutions for center trucks with unpowered, independently rotating wheels (IRWs). The
report describes performance issues observed in the operation of LFLRV center trucks (focus-
ing on 70-percent low-floor vehicles), such as excessive wheel wear and noise and occasional
derailments, and provides guidance on how to minimize or avoid these issues. The report also
includes guidance on LFLRV specifications, maintenance, and design, as well as on related infra-
structure design and maintenance, to maximize performance of these LFLRV center trucks.
Low-floor light rail vehicles (LFLRVs) are used by many transit systems with increasing
popularity. The typical design includes a three-section articulated vehicle body with the cen-
ter section connected to a center truck with unpowered, independently rotating wheels
(IRWs). The leading and trailing sections of the vehicle are each supported by a motored
truck at one end and by the common non-powered center truck at the other. The low-floor
height prevents the use of wheel sets with solid axle connections between right and left
wheels of the center truck.
In acceleration and braking modes during curving, because there are two articulations
connecting the center section, the center section and truck may rotate excessively, thereby
causing a high angle-of-attack and flanging. Also, the IRWs of the center truck do not pro-
mote self-steering through the curve, increasing the angle-of-attack and flange forces. This
condition leads to increased flange wear, gauge face wear, stick/slip noise, and the potential
for derailment at curves and special trackwork. Wheel life of the low-floor center truck can
be significantly less than that of motored trucks.
Research was needed to better understand the performance of the center trucks of LFLRVs,
compile lessons learned to date, and provide guidance to transit agencies and light-rail vehi-
cle (LRV) manufacturers on how to mitigate performance problems.
Under TCRP Project C-16, Interfleet Technology was asked to develop guidance to transit
agencies and LFLRV manufacturers for mitigating the issues associated with the design and
operation of unpowered center trucks on a three-section, articulated vehicle body with the cen-
ter section fixed to a center truck with IRWs. To accomplish the project objective, the research
team reviewed relevant domestic and international literature; collected design and performance
data from transit systems operating LFLRVs and their vehicle manufacturers; and identified the
factors that can contribute to events such as derailments, excessive noise, excessive wheel and
rail wear, and reduced ride quality (e.g., hunting and excessive curving). Based on these factors,
the research team conducted extensive computer modeling using ADAMS/Rail for various
LFLRV and track infrastructure combinations. As a result of these analyses, the research team
developed guidance related to vehicle and infrastructure design and maintenance.
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CONTENTS
1 Summary
2 Chapter 1 Introduction
2 1.1 Background and Research Objectives
2 1.2 Research Activity
2 1.3 Worldwide LFLRV Developments
3 1.4 Potential Issues
4 1.5 Organization of the Report
4 1.6 Dimensions
6 Chapter 2 LFLRV Technology and Applications
6 2.1 Conceptual Development
9 2.2 Product Development
11 2.3 Application in the United States
20 2.4 Summary of Experience
21 2.5 European Experience with This Type of Vehicle
21 2.6 Trends
23 Chapter 3 Performance Issues and Causes
23 3.1 Overview
23 3.2 Derailment
24 3.3 Excessive Wheel and Rail Wear
25 3.4 Noise
26 3.5 Reduced Ride Quality
26 3.6 Contributing Factors
35 Chapter 4 Guidance
35 4.1 Purpose and Structure
36 4.2 Performance Issues Addressed by the Guidance
36 4.3 Fundamental Guidance
37 4.4 Vehicle Specifications
40 4.5 Vehicle Selection Issues
40 4.6 Vehicle Maintenance Guidelines
42 4.7 Vehicle Modification
42 4.8 Future Vehicle Design
43 4.9 Infrastructure Guidelines
45 4.10 Operation of LFLRVs
45 4.11 Infrastructure Maintenance Standards
47 4.12 Infrastructure Modification
47 4.13 Best Practice for System Design
49 Chapter 5 Recommendations for Further Research
50 Chapter 6 Conclusions
51 References
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52 Appendix A TCRP Research Project C-16 Scope of Work
65 Appendix B Glossary
67 Appendix C Vehicle Data
68 Appendix D Track Data and Standards Applicable to the
Transit Systems Studied
69 Appendix E Track Maintenance Standards
72 Appendix F Bibliography
