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statistical evidence as to whether station proximity was causing lower automobile ownership or
was attracting households with fewer autos to begin with. In any case, it was also noted that station-
area households were smaller (1.7 people on average) than all households (2.4 people) (Boroski
et al., 2002).
These findings highlight the possibility that smaller average household sizes within station-areas
explain some of the observed difference in household automobile ownership levels. Household
size is indeed one of the variables found significant in the research model presented within Table
17-29, as it is in many operational auto ownership models. (See also "Household Characteristics"
under "Related Information and Impacts.")
Note that the influence of land use and site design on vehicle ownership is further examined in the
case study, "Baltimore Region TOD and Smart Growth Analysis." The case study describes inves-
tigations that found that while household size and income are highly important factors in vehicle
ownership decisions, regional and local land use characteristics also play significant roles. The
model elasticities presented in the case study suggest that household size and composition is the
most important factor, with income next in importance, followed by non-trivial contributions by
all three of the regional and local land use characteristics investigated.
Transit Service Characteristics
The traveler response to TOD will obviously be influenced by the service characteristics of the one
or more public transit modes providing access to and from the location. TODs with better transit
service characteristics would be expected to have higher transit ridership levels. In addition, some
limited evidence suggests that such TODs are more likely to attract residents interested in making
use of transit (Lund, Cervero, and Willson, 2004a). Among the important service characteristics are
service coverage, hours of operation, frequency, travel time, fares, and perceptions of safety and
security.
Service coverage and hours of operation dictate which locations have transit access to and from a
TOD and when. Coverage pertains to not only the areas served by the main transit line(s) at a TOD,
but also the areas served by feeder and local bus connections. Enhanced feeder and local bus ser-
vice can increase transit accessibility by providing fast connections to the trunk line transit service
and also by providing direct connections between origins and destinations the main transit line
does not serve. Effects of bus service coverage in general, not TOD-specific, are the subject of
Chapter 10, "Bus Routing and Coverage."
Extended hours of operation at acceptable service frequencies can make a transit service more sup-
portive of TOD resident transit use and vehicle ownership reduction by better serving non-work
travel and odd-hours commuting than a service primarily focused on peak hours. The limited
amount of general-situation experiential data available on benefits of longer hours of operation is
covered in Chapter 9, "Transit Scheduling and Frequency" (see "Service Hours Changes" under
"Response by Type of Strategy").
Chapter 9 discusses the traveler response to transit frequency changes in depth. Transit
service attractiveness is reduced by the long service headways (intervals between trains or
buses) linked with low frequencies, especially if transfers are required. Service headways
dictate how long the wait will be for a bus or train to or from a TOD or transfer point. The
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