• Front Matter R1-R14

• Executive Summary 1-4

• Introduction 5-5

• Using Markers in Combination 6-6

• The Workshop 7-10

• Establishing Cause-and-Effect Relationships 11-14

• Using Markers in Surveys and Experimental Studies 15-16

• A Strategy for Using Biologic Markers of Stress in Forests 17-21

• Conclusions and Recommendations 22-24

• References 25-26

• Part II: The Workshop Papers: Introductory Session 27-28

• Air-Pollutant Distribution and Trends 29-46

• Elevational Gradients/Local Chemistry 47-56

• Large-Scale Monitoring 57-62

• Use of Biomarkers to Monitor Forest Damage in Europe 63-72

• Bioindicators in Air Pollution Research - Applications and Constraints 73-80

• New and Emerging Technologies 81-88

• Forest Applications of Biologic Markers: Regional Session 89-90

• Decline of Red Spruce in the Northern Appalachians: Determining if Air Pollution is an Important Factor 91-104

• Forest Applications of Biomarkers in Southeastern Forests 105-110

• Biomarkers for Defining Air Pollution Effecs in Western Coniferous 111-118

• Symptoms as Bioindicators of Decline in European Forests 119-124

• Tree-Stand/Ecosystem Session 125-126

• Resource Allocation in Trees and Ecosystems 127-132

• Markers of Air Pollution in Forests: Nutrient Cycling 133-142

• Human Perturbation of C, N, and S Biogeochemical Cycles: Historical Studies with Stable Isotopes 143-156

• Tree-Ring Analysis as an Aid to Evaluating the Effects of Air Pollution on Tree Growth 157-168

• Evaluation of Root-Growth and Functioning of Trees Exposed to Air Pollutants 169-182

• The Use of Remote Sensing for the Study of Air Pollution Effects in Forrests 183-194

• Indigenous and Cultivated Plants as Bioindicators 195-204

• Experiments and Observations on Epiphytic Lichens as Early Warning Sentinels of Forest Decline 205-216

• Fungal and Bacteria Symbioses as Potential Biological Markers of Effects of Atmospheric Deposition on Forest Health 217-232

• Microbial and Rhizosphere Markers of Air Pollution Induced Stress 233-244

• Biochemical/Cell-Tissue Session 245-246

• Foliar Nitrate Reductase: a Marker for Assimilation of Atmospheric Nitrogen Oxides 247-250

• Free-Radical Mediated Processes as Markers of Air Pollution Stress in Trees 251-260

• Biochemical Indicators of Air Pollution Effects in Trees: Unambiguous Signals Based on Secondary Metabolites and Nitrogen in Fast-Growing Species 261-274

• Metals in Roots, Stem, and Foliage of Forest Trees 275-280

• The Potential of Trees to Record Aluminum Mobilization and Changes in Alkaline Earth Availability 281-292

• Carbon Allocation Processes as Indicators of Pollutant Impacts on Forests Trees 293-302

• Photosynthesis and Transpiration Measurements as Biomarkers of Air Pollution Effects on Forests 303-316

• Nutrient-Use Efficiency as an Indicator of Stress Effects on Forest Trees 317-332

• Leaf Cuticles as Potential Markers of Air Pollution 333-340

• Air Pollutant-Low Temperature Interactions in Trees 341-346

• Alteration of Chlorophyll in Plants Upon Air Pollutant Exposure 347-356

• Co-occurring Stress: Drought 357-363

" Evaluation of Root-Growth and Functioning of Trees Exposed to Air Pollutants ." Biologic Markers of Air-Pollution Stress and Damage in Forests . Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 1989 .

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